diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/HISTORY.gz b/docs/examples/kernel/HISTORY.gz
deleted file mode 100644
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diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci.txt b/docs/examples/kernel/davinci.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 377d8dc..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,32118 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete
-by Leonardo Da Vinci
-(#3 in our series by Leonardo Da Vinci)
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-Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
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-*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
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-Title: The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete
-
-Author: Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Release Date: Jan, 2004  [EBook #5000]
-[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
-[Most recently updated June 26, 2002]
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-Edition: 10
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-Language: English
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-Character set encoding: ASCII
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-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA
-    VINCI, COMPLETE ***
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-
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-This eBook was produced by Charles Aldarondo and the Distributed
-Proofreaders team.
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-
-The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Volume 1
-
-Translated by Jean Paul Richter
-
-1888
-
-
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE.
-
-
-
-
-
-A singular fatality has ruled the destiny of nearly all the most
-famous of Leonardo da Vinci's works. Two of the three most important
-were never completed, obstacles having arisen during his life-time,
-which obliged him to leave them unfinished; namely the Sforza
-Monument and the Wall-painting of the Battle of Anghiari, while the
-third--the picture of the Last Supper at Milan--has suffered
-irremediable injury from decay and the repeated restorations to
-which it was recklessly subjected during the XVIIth and XVIIIth
-centuries. Nevertheless, no other picture of the Renaissance has
-become so wellknown and popular through copies of every description.
-
-Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured
-much more by his word than in fact or by deed", and the biographer
-evidently had in his mind the numerous works in Manuscript which
-have been preserved to this day. To us, now, it seems almost
-inexplicable that these valuable and interesting original texts
-should have remained so long unpublished, and indeed forgotten. It
-is certain that during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries their
-exceptional value was highly appreciated. This is proved not merely
-by the prices which they commanded, but also by the exceptional
-interest which has been attached to the change of ownership of
-merely a few pages of Manuscript.
-
-That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts,
-their contents remained a mystery, can only be accounted for by the
-many and great difficulties attending the task of deciphering them.
-The handwriting is so peculiar that it requires considerable
-practice to read even a few detached phrases, much more to solve
-with any certainty the numerous difficulties of alternative
-readings, and to master the sense as a connected whole. Vasari
-observes with reference to Leonardos writing: "he wrote backwards,
-in rude characters, and with the left hand, so that any one who is
-not practised in reading them, cannot understand them". The aid of a
-mirror in reading reversed handwriting appears to me available only
-for a first experimental reading. Speaking from my own experience,
-the persistent use of it is too fatiguing and inconvenient to be
-practically advisable, considering the enormous mass of Manuscripts
-to be deciphered. And as, after all, Leonardo's handwriting runs
-backwards just as all Oriental character runs backwards--that is
-to say from right to left--the difficulty of reading direct from the
-writing is not insuperable. This obvious peculiarity in the writing
-is not, however, by any means the only obstacle in the way of
-mastering the text. Leonardo made use of an orthography peculiar to
-himself; he had a fashion of amalgamating several short words into
-one long one, or, again, he would quite arbitrarily divide a long
-word into two separate halves; added to this there is no punctuation
-whatever to regulate the division and construction of the sentences,
-nor are there any accents--and the reader may imagine that such
-difficulties were almost sufficient to make the task seem a
-desperate one to a beginner. It is therefore not surprising that the
-good intentions of some of Leonardo s most reverent admirers should
-have failed.
-
-Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of
-Science were those essentially of an enquirer, hence the analytical
-method is that which he employs in arguing out his investigations
-and dissertations. The vast structure of his scientific theories is
-consequently built up of numerous separate researches, and it is
-much to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged
-them. His love for detailed research--as it seems to me--was the
-reason that in almost all the Manuscripts, the different paragraphs
-appear to us to be in utter confusion; on one and the same page,
-observations on the most dissimilar subjects follow each other
-without any connection. A page, for instance, will begin with some
-principles of astronomy, or the motion of the earth; then come the
-laws of sound, and finally some precepts as to colour. Another page
-will begin with his investigations on the structure of the
-intestines, and end with philosophical remarks as to the relations
-of poetry to painting; and so forth.
-
-Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do
-not think that the publication of the texts in the order in which
-they occur in the originals would at all fulfil his intentions. No
-reader could find his way through such a labyrinth; Leonardo himself
-could not have done it.
-
-Added to this, more than half of the five thousand manuscript pages
-which now remain to us, are written on loose leaves, and at present
-arranged in a manner which has no justification beyond the fancy of
-the collector who first brought them together to make volumes of
-more or less extent. Nay, even in the volumes, the pages of which
-were numbered by Leonardo himself, their order, so far as the
-connection of the texts was concerned, was obviously a matter of
-indifference to him. The only point he seems to have kept in view,
-when first writing down his notes, was that each observation should
-be complete to the end on the page on which it was begun. The
-exceptions to this rule are extremely few, and it is certainly
-noteworthy that we find in such cases, in bound volumes with his
-numbered pages, the written observations: "turn over", "This is the
-continuation of the previous page", and the like. Is not this
-sufficient to prove that it was only in quite exceptional cases that
-the writer intended the consecutive pages to remain connected, when
-he should, at last, carry out the often planned arrangement of his
-writings?
-
-What this final arrangement was to be, Leonardo has in most cases
-indicated with considerable completeness. In other cases this
-authoritative clue is wanting, but the difficulties arising from
-this are not insuperable; for, as the subject of the separate
-paragraphs is always distinct and well defined in itself, it is
-quite possible to construct a well-planned whole, out of the
-scattered materials of his scientific system, and I may venture to
-state that I have devoted especial care and thought to the due
-execution of this responsible task.
-
-The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his
-thirty-seventh year, and he seems to have carried them on without
-any serious interruption till his death. Thus the Manuscripts that
-remain represent a period of about thirty years. Within this space
-of time his handwriting altered so little that it is impossible to
-judge from it of the date of any particular text. The exact dates,
-indeed, can only be assigned to certain note-books in which the year
-is incidentally indicated, and in which the order of the leaves has
-not been altered since Leonardo used them. The assistance these
-afford for a chronological arrangement of the Manuscripts is
-generally self evident. By this clue I have assigned to the original
-Manuscripts now scattered through England, Italy and France, the
-order of their production, as in many matters of detail it is highly
-important to be able to verify the time and place at which certain
-observations were made and registered. For this purpose the
-Bibliography of the Manuscripts given at the end of Vol. II, may be
-regarded as an Index, not far short of complete, of all Leonardo s
-literary works now extant. The consecutive numbers (from 1 to 1566)
-at the head of each passage in this work, indicate their logical
-sequence with reference to the subjects; while the letters and
-figures to the left of each paragraph refer to the original
-Manuscript and number of the page, on which that particular passage
-is to be found. Thus the reader, by referring to the List of
-Manuscripts at the beginning of Volume I, and to the Bibliography at
-the end of Volume II, can, in every instance, easily ascertain, not
-merely the period to which the passage belongs, but also exactly
-where it stood in the original document. Thus, too, by following the
-sequence of the numbers in the Bibliographical index, the reader may
-reconstruct the original order of the Manuscripts and recompose the
-various texts to be found on the original sheets--so much of it,
-that is to say, as by its subject-matter came within the scope of
-this work. It may, however, be here observed that Leonardo s
-Manuscripts contain, besides the passages here printed, a great
-number of notes and dissertations on Mechanics, Physics, and some
-other subjects, many of which could only be satisfactorily dealt
-with by specialists. I have given as complete a review of these
-writings as seemed necessary in the Bibliographical notes.
-
-In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection
-from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so
-popular that it has since been reprinted about two-and-twenty times,
-and in six different languages. But none of these editions were
-derived from the original texts, which were supposed to have been
-lost, but from early copies, in which Leonardo's text had been more
-or less mutilated, and which were all fragmentary. The oldest and on
-the whole the best copy of Leonardo's essays and precepts on
-Painting is in the Vatican Library; this has been twice printed,
-first by Manzi, in 1817, and secondly by Ludwig, in 1882. Still,
-this ancient copy, and the published editions of it, contain much
-for which it would be rash to hold Leonardo responsible, and some
-portions--such as the very important rules for the proportions of
-the human figure--are wholly wanting; on the other hand they contain
-passages which, if they are genuine, cannot now be verified from any
-original Manuscript extant. These copies, at any rate neither give
-us the original order of the texts, as written by Leonardo, nor do
-they afford any substitute, by connecting them on a rational scheme;
-indeed, in their chaotic confusion they are anything rather than
-satisfactory reading. The fault, no doubt, rests with the compiler
-of the Vatican copy, which would seem to be the source whence all
-the published and extensively known texts were derived; for, instead
-of arranging the passages himself, he was satisfied with recording a
-suggestion for a final arrangement of them into eight distinct
-parts, without attempting to carry out his scheme. Under the
-mistaken idea that this plan of distribution might be that, not of
-the compiler, but of Leonardo himself, the various editors, down to
-the present day, have very injudiciously continued to adopt this
-order--or rather disorder.
-
-I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the
-Trattato della Pittura for lost, till, in the beginning of 1880, I
-was enabled, by the liberality of Lord Ashburnham, to inspect his
-Manuscripts, and was so happy as to discover among them the original
-text of the best-known portion of the Trattato in his magnificent
-library at Ashburnham Place. Though this discovery was of a fragment
-only--but a considerable fragment--inciting me to further search,
-it gave the key to the mystery which had so long enveloped the first
-origin of all the known copies of the Trattato. The extensive
-researches I was subsequently enabled to prosecute, and the results
-of which are combined in this work, were only rendered possible by
-the unrestricted permission granted me to investigate all the
-Manuscripts by Leonardo dispersed throughout Europe, and to
-reproduce the highly important original sketches they contain, by
-the process of "photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously
-accorded me special permission to copy for publication the
-Manuscripts at the Royal Library at Windsor. The Commission Centrale
-Administrative de l'Institut de France, Paris, gave me, in the most
-liberal manner, in answer to an application from Sir Frederic
-Leighton, P. R. A., Corresponding member of the Institut, free
-permission to work for several months in their private collection at
-deciphering the Manuscripts preserved there. The same favour which
-Lord Ashburnham had already granted me was extended to me by the
-Earl of Leicester, the Marchese Trivulsi, and the Curators of the
-Ambrosian Library at Milan, by the Conte Manzoni at Rome and by
-other private owners of Manuscripts of Leonardo's; as also by the
-Directors of the Louvre at Paris; the Accademia at Venice; the
-Uffizi at Florence; the Royal Library at Turin; and the British
-Museum, and the South Kensington Museum. I am also greatly indebted
-to the Librarians of these various collections for much assistance
-in my labours; and more particularly to Monsieur Louis Lalanne, of
-the Institut de France, the Abbate Ceriani, of the Ambrosian
-Library, Mr. Maude Thompson, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British
-Museum, Mr. Holmes, the Queens Librarian at Windsor, the Revd Vere
-Bayne, Librarian of Christ Church College at Oxford, and the Revd A.
-Napier, Librarian to the Earl of Leicester at Holkham Hall.
-
-In correcting the Italian text for the press, I have had the
-advantage of valuable advice from the Commendatore Giov. Morelli,
-Senatore del Regno, and from Signor Gustavo Frizzoni, of Milan. The
-translation, under many difficulties, of the Italian text into
-English, is mainly due to Mrs. R. C. Bell; while the rendering of
-several of the most puzzling and important passages, particularly in
-the second half of Vol. I, I owe to the indefatigable interest taken
-in this work by Mr. E. J. Poynter R. A. Finally I must express my
-thanks to Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, who has most kindly
-assisted me throughout in the revision of the proof sheets.
-
-The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II
-I owe to my friend Baron Henri de Geymuller, of Paris.
-
-I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the
-negatives for the production of the "photo-gravures" by Monsieur
-Dujardin of Paris were all taken direct from the originals.
-
-It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here
-reproduced in facsimile have never been published before. As I am
-now, on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a
-position to review the general tenour of Leonardos writings, I may
-perhaps be permitted to add a word as to my own estimate of the
-value of their contents. I have already shown that it is due to
-nothing but a fortuitous succession of unfortunate circumstances,
-that we should not, long since, have known Leonardo, not merely as a
-Painter, but as an Author, a Philosopher, and a Naturalist. There
-can be no doubt that in more than one department his principles and
-discoveries were infinitely more in accord with the teachings of
-modern science, than with the views of his contemporaries. For this
-reason his extraordinary gifts and merits are far more likely to be
-appreciated in our own time than they could have been during the
-preceding centuries. He has been unjustly accused of having
-squandered his powers, by beginning a variety of studies and then,
-having hardly begun, throwing them aside. The truth is that the
-labours of three centuries have hardly sufficed for the elucidation
-of some of the problems which occupied his mighty mind.
-
-Alexander von Humboldt has borne witness that "he was the first to
-start on the road towards the point where all the impressions of our
-senses converge in the idea of the Unity of Nature" Nay, yet more
-may be said. The very words which are inscribed on the monument of
-Alexander von Humboldt himself, at Berlin, are perhaps the most
-appropriate in which we can sum up our estimate of Leonardo's
-genius:
-
-"Majestati naturae par ingenium."
-
-LONDON, April 1883.
-
-F. P. R.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
-
-
-
-
-
-PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING
-
-Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention
-to publish his MSS. (1).--The preparation of the MSS. for
-publication (2).--Admonition to readers (3).--The disorder in the
-MSS. (4).--Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS. treating of
-particular subjects (5--8).--General introductions to the book on
-painting (9--13).--The plan of the book on painting (14--17).--The
-use of the book on painting (18).--Necessity of theoretical
-knowledge (19, 20).--The function of the eye (21--23).--Variability
-of the eye (24).--Focus of sight (25).--Differences of perception by
-one eye and by both eyes (26--29).--The comparative size of the
-image depends on the amount of light (30--39).
-
-II.
-
-LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
-
-General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of
-perspective:--of the point (42--46).--Of the line (47--48).--The
-nature of the outline (49).--Definition of perspective (50).--The
-perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye
-(51).--Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight
-(52--55).--The relations of the distance point to the vanishing
-point (55--56).--How to measure the pyramid of vision (57).--The
-production of the pyramid of vision (58--64).--Proof by experiment
-(65--66).--General conclusions (67).--That the contrary is
-impossible (68).--A parallel case (69).--The function of the eye, as
-explained by the camera obscura (70--71).--The practice of
-perspective (72--73).--Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye
-(74--75).--The inversion of the images (76).--The intersection of
-the rays (77--82).--Demonstration of perspective by means of a
-vertical glass plane (83--85.)--The angle of sight varies with the
-distance (86--88).--Opposite pyramids in juxtaposition (89).--On
-simple and complex perspective (90).--The proper distance of objects
-from the eye (91--92).--The relative size of objects with regard to
-their distance from the eye (93--98).--The apparent size of objects
-denned by calculation (99--106).--On natural perspective (107--109).
-
-III.
-
-SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE
-
-GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on
-light and shade (111).--Different principles and plans of treatment
-(112--116).--Different sorts of light (117--118).--Definition of
-the nature of shadows (119--122).--Of the various kinds of shadows
-(123--125).--Of the various kinds of light (126--127).--General
-remarks (128--129).--FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the nature
-of light (130--131).--The difference between light and lustre
-(132--135).--The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies (136).
---Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
-(137--140).--Light and shadow with regard to the position of the
-eye (141--145).--The law of the incidence of light
-(146--147).--SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Gradations of strength
-in the shadows (148--149).--On the intensity of shadows as dependent
-on the distance from the light (150--152).--On the proportion of
-light and shadow (153--157).--THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND
-SHADE.--Definition of derived shadow (158--159).--Different sorts of
-derived shadows (160--162).--On the relation of derived and primary
-shadow (163--165).--On the shape of derived shadows (166--174).--On
-the relative intensity of derived shadows (175--179).--Shadow as
-produced by two lights of different size (180--181).--The effect of
-light at different distances (182).--Further complications in the
-derived shadows (183--187).--FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the
-shape of cast shadows (188--191).--On the outlines of cast shadows
-(192--195).--On the relative size of cast shadows (196.
-197).--Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground
-(198).--A disputed proposition (199).--On the relative depth of
-cast shadows (200--202).--FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND
-SHADE.--Principles of reflection (203. 204).--On reverberation
-(205).--Reflection on water (206. 207).--Experiments with the mirror
-(208--210).--Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211--212).--SIXTH
-BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--The effect of rays passing through holes
-(213. 214).--On gradation of shadows (215. 216).--On relative
-proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
-
-IV.
-
-PERSPECTIVE OF DISAPPEARANCE
-
-Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A
-guiding rule (225).---An experiment (226).--On indistinctness at
-short distances (227--231).--On indistinctness at great distances
-(232--234).--The importance of light and shade in the Prospettiva
-de' perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds
-on the apparent size of objects (240--250).--Propositions on
-Prospettiva de' perdimenti from MS. C. (250--262).
-
-V.
-
-THEORY OF COLOURS
-
-The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each
-other (263--271).--Combination of different colours in cast shadows
-(272).--The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273. 274).--On
-the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).--On the nature of colours
-(277. 278).--On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).--On
-the reflection of colours (281--283).--On the use of dark and light
-colours in painting (284--286).--On the colours of the rainbow
-(287--288).
-
-VI.
-
-PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE
-
-General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment
-(293).--The practice of the Prospettiva de' colori (294).--The rules
-of aerial perspective (295--297).--On the relative density of the
-atmosphere (298--299).--On the colour of the atmosphere (300--307).
-
-VII.
-
-ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
-
-Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and
-face (310--318).--Proportions of the head seen in front
-(319--321).--Proportions of the foot (322--323).--Relative
-proportions of the hand and foot (324).--Relative proportions of
-the foot and of the face (325--327).--Proportions of the leg
-(328--331).--On the central point of the whole body (332).--The
-relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure
-(333).--The relative proportions of the head and of the torso
-(334).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335.
-336).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot
-(337).--The proportions of the whole figure (338--341).--The torso
-from the front and back (342).--Vitruvius' scheme of proportions
-(343).--The arm and head (344).--Proportions of the arm
-(345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement of
-the torso (355--361).--The proportions vary at different ages
-(362--367).--The movement of the human figure (368--375).--Of
-walking up and down (375--379).--On the human body in action
-(380--388).--On hair falling down in curls (389).--On draperies
-
-(390--392).
-
-VIII.
-
-BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING
-
-Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the
-branches to the trunk (394--396).--The law of proportion in the
-growth of the branches (397--402).--The direction of growth
-(403--407).--The forms of trees (408--411).--The insertion of the
-leaves (412--419).--Light on branches and leaves (420--422).--The
-proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423--426).--Of the
-transparency of leaves (427--429).--The gradations of shade and
-colour in leaves (430--434).--A classification of trees according to
-their colours (435).--The proportions of light and shade in trees
-(436--440).--The distribution of light and shade with reference to
-the position of the spectator (441--443).--The effects of morning
-light (444--448).--The effects of midday light (449).--The
-appearance of trees in the distance (450--451).--The cast shadow of
-trees (452. 453).--Light and shade on groups of trees
-(454--457).--On the treatment of light for landscapes
-(458--464).--On the treatment of light for views of towns
-(465--469).--The effect of wind on trees (470--473).--Light and
-shade on clouds (474--477).--On images reflected in water (478).--Of
-rainbows and rain (479. 480).--Of flower seeds (481).
-
-IX.
-
-THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING
-
-I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the
-dispositions for an artistic career (482).--The course of
-instruction for an artist (483--485).--The study of the antique
-(486. 487).--The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).--How
-to acquire practice (490).--Industry and thoroughness the first
-conditions (491--493.)--The artist's private life and choice of
-company (493. 494).--The distribution of time for studying (495--
-497).--On the productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A
-caution against one-sided study (502).--How to acquire universality
-(503--506).--Useful games and exercises (507. 508).--II. THE
-ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF
-PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.--On the size of the studio
-(509).--On the construction of windows (510--512).--On the best
-light for painting (513--520).--On various helps in preparing a
-picture (521--530).--On the management of works (531. 532).--On the
-limitations of painting (533--535).--On the choice of a position
-(536. 537).--The apparent size of figures in a picture (538.
-539).--The right position of the artist, when painting and of the
-spectator (540--547).--III. THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE
-AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.--Gradations of light and shade (548).--On
-the choice of light for a picture (549--554).--The distribution of
-light and shade (555--559).--The juxtaposition of light and shade
-(560. 561).--On the lighting of the background (562--565).--On the
-lighting of white objects (566).--The methods of aerial perspective
-(567--570).--IV. OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.--Of sketching
-figures and portraits (571. 572).--The position of the head
-(573).--Of the light on the face (574--576).--General suggestions
-for historical pictures (577--581).--How to represent the
-differences of age and sex (582. 583).--Of representing the emotions
-(584).--Of representing imaginary animals (585).--The selection of
-forms (586--591).--How to pose figures (592).--Of appropriate
-gestures (593--600).--V. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.--Of painting
-battle-pieces (601--603).--Of depicting night-scenes (604).--Of
-depicting a tempest (605. 606).--Of representing the deluge
-(607--609).--Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).--VI. THE
-ARTIST'S MATERIALS.--Of chalk and paper (612--617).--On the
-preparation and use of colours (618--627).--Of preparing the panel
-(628).--The preparation of oils (629--634).--On varnishes (635--
-637).--On chemical _materials (638--650).--VII. PHILOSOPHY AND
-HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.--The relation of art and nature
-(651. 652).--Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).--Painting is
-superior to sculpture (655. 656).--Aphorisms (657--659).--On the
-history of painting (660. 661).--The painter's scope (662).
-
-X.
-
-STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS
-
-On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait
-(664).--Notes on the Last Supper (665--668).--On the battle of
-Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke
-of Milan (670--673).--Allegorical representations
-(674--678).--Arrangement of a picture (679).--List of drawings
-(680).--Mottoes and Emblems (681--702).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The author's intention to publish his MSS.
-
-1.
-
-How by a certain machine many may stay some time under water. And
-how and wherefore I do not describe my method of remaining under
-water and how long I can remain without eating. And I do not publish
-nor divulge these, by reason of the evil nature of men, who would
-use them for assassinations at the bottom of the sea by destroying
-ships, and sinking them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless
-I will impart others, which are not dangerous because the mouth of
-the tube through which you breathe is above the water, supported on
-air sacks or cork.
-
-[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with
-the words _Casi_ 39, and most of these cases begin with the word
-'_Come_', like the two here given, which are the 26th and 27th. 7.
-_Sughero_. In the Codex Antlanticus 377a; 1170a there is a sketch,
-drawn with the pen, representing a man with a tube in his mouth, and
-at the farther end of the tube a disk. By the tube the word
-'_Channa_' is written, and by the disk the word '_sughero_'.]
-
-The preparation of the MSS. for publication.
-
-2.
-
-When you put together the science of the motions of water, remember
-to include under each proposition its application and use, in order
-that this science may not be useless.--
-
-[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on
-water-power was published at Bologna in 1828, under the title: "_Del
-moto e misura dell'Acqua, di L. da Vinci_".]
-
-Admonition to readers.
-
-3.
-
-Let no man who is not a Mathematician read the elements of my work.
-
-The disorder in the MSS.
-
-4.
-
-Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the
-22nd day of March 1508. And this is to be a collection without
-order, taken from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to
-arrange them later each in its place, according to the subjects of
-which they may treat. But I believe that before I am at the end of
-this [task] I shall have to repeat the same things several times;
-for which, O reader! do not blame me, for the subjects are many and
-memory cannot retain them [all] and say: 'I will not write this
-because I wrote it before.' And if I wished to avoid falling into
-this fault, it would be necessary in every case when I wanted to
-copy [a passage] that, not to repeat myself, I should read over all
-that had gone before; and all the more since the intervals are long
-between one time of writing and the next.
-
-[Footnote: 1. In the history of Florence in the early part of the
-XVIth century _Piero di Braccio Martelli_ is frequently mentioned as
-_Commissario della Signoria_. He was famous for his learning and at
-his death left four books on Mathematics ready for the press; comp.
-LITTA, _Famiglie celebri Italiane_, _Famiglia Martelli di
-Firenze_.--In the Official Catalogue of MSS. in the Brit. Mus., New
-Series Vol. I., where this passage is printed, _Barto_ has been
-wrongly given for Braccio.
-
-2. _addi 22 di marzo 1508_. The Christian era was computed in
-Florence at that time from the Incarnation (Lady day, March 25th).
-Hence this should be 1509 by our reckoning.
-
-3. _racolto tratto di molte carte le quali io ho qui copiate_. We
-must suppose that Leonardo means that he has copied out his own MSS.
-and not those of others. The first thirteen leaves of the MS. in the
-Brit. Mus. are a fair copy of some notes on physics.]
-
-Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS treating of particular
-subjects.(5-8).
-
-5.
-
-Of digging a canal. Put this in the Book of useful inventions and in
-proving them bring forward the propositions already proved. And this
-is the proper order; since if you wished to show the usefulness of
-any plan you would be obliged again to devise new machines to prove
-its utility and thus would confuse the order of the forty Books and
-also the order of the diagrams; that is to say you would have to mix
-up practice with theory, which would produce a confused and
-incoherent work.
-
-6.
-
-I am not to blame for putting forward, in the course of my work on
-science, any general rule derived from a previous conclusion.
-
-7.
-
-The Book of the science of Mechanics must precede the Book of useful
-inventions.--Have your books on anatomy bound! [Footnote: 4. The
-numerous notes on anatomy written on loose leaves and now in the
-Royal collection at Windsor can best be classified in four Books,
-corresponding to the different character and size of the paper. When
-Leonardo speaks of '_li tua libri di notomia_', he probably means
-the MSS. which still exist; if this hypothesis is correct the
-present condition of these leaves might seem to prove that he only
-carried out his purpose with one of the Books on anatomy. A borrowed
-book on Anatomy is mentioned in F.O.]
-
-8.
-
-The order of your book must proceed on this plan: first simple
-beams, then (those) supported from below, then suspended in part,
-then wholly [suspended]. Then beams as supporting other weights
-[Footnote: 4. Leonardo's notes on Mechanics are extraordinarily
-numerous; but, for the reasons assigned in my introduction, they
-have not been included in the present work.].
-
-General introductions to the book on Painting (9-13).
-
-9.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or
-pleasing--since the men who have come before me have taken for their
-own every useful or necessary theme--I must do like one who, being
-poor, comes last to the fair, and can find no other way of providing
-himself than by taking all the things already seen by other buyers,
-and not taken but refused by reason of their lesser value. I, then,
-will load my humble pack with this despised and rejected
-merchandise, the refuse of so many buyers; and will go about to
-distribute it, not indeed in great cities, but in the poorer towns,
-taking such a price as the wares I offer may be worth. [Footnote: It
-need hardly be pointed out that there is in this 'Proemio' a covert
-irony. In the second and third prefaces, Leonardo characterises his
-rivals and opponents more closely. His protest is directed against
-Neo-latinism as professed by most of the humanists of his time; its
-futility is now no longer questioned.]
-
-10.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-I know that many will call this useless work [Footnote: 3. questa
-essere opera inutile. By opera we must here understand libro di
-pittura and particularly the treatise on Perspective.]; and they
-will be those of whom Demetrius [Footnote: 4. Demetrio. "With regard
-to the passage attributed to Demetrius", Dr. H. MULLER STRUBING
-writes, "I know not what to make of it. It is certainly not
-Demetrius Phalereus that is meant and it can hardly be Demetrius
-Poliorcetes. Who then can it be--for the name is a very common one?
-It may be a clerical error for Demades and the maxim is quite in the
-spirit of his writings I have not however been able to find any
-corresponding passage either in the 'Fragments' (C. MULLER, _Orat.
-Att._, II. 441) nor in the Supplements collected by DIETZ (_Rhein.
-Mus._, vol. 29, p. 108)."
-
-The same passage occurs as a simple Memorandum in the MS. Tr. 57,
-apparently as a note for this '_Proemio_' thus affording some data
-as to the time where these introductions were written.] declared
-that he took no more account of the wind that came out their mouth
-in words, than of that they expelled from their lower parts: men who
-desire nothing but material riches and are absolutely devoid of that
-of wisdom, which is the food and the only true riches of the mind.
-For so much more worthy as the soul is than the body, so much more
-noble are the possessions of the soul than those of the body. And
-often, when I see one of these men take this work in his hand, I
-wonder that he does not put it to his nose, like a monkey, or ask me
-if it is something good to eat.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, the Proemio di prospettiva cioe
-dell'uffitio dell'occhio (see No. 21) stands between this and the
-preceding one, No. 9.]
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-I am fully concious that, not being a literary man, certain
-presumptuous persons will think that they may reasonably blame me;
-alleging that I am not a man of letters. Foolish folks! do they not
-know that I might retort as Marius did to the Roman Patricians
-[Footnote 21: _Come Mario disse ai patriti Romani_. "I am unable to
-find the words here attributed by Leonardo to Marius, either in
-Plutarch's Life of Marius or in the Apophthegmata (_Moralia_,
-p.202). Nor do they occur in the writings of Valerius Maximus (who
-frequently mentions Marius) nor in Velleius Paterculus (II, 11 to
-43), Dio Cassius, Aulus Gellius, or Macrobius. Professor E.
-MENDELSON of Dorpat, the editor of Herodian, assures me that no such
-passage is the found in that author" (communication from Dr. MULLER
-STRUBING). Leonardo evidently meant to allude to some well known
-incident in Roman history and the mention of Marius is the result
-probably of some confusion. We may perhaps read, for Marius,
-Menenius Agrippa, though in that case it is true we must alter
-Patriti to Plebei. The change is a serious one. but it would render
-the passage perfectly clear.] by saying: That they, who deck
-themselves out in the labours of others will not allow me my own.
-They will say that I, having no literary skill, cannot properly
-express that which I desire to treat of [Footnote 26: _le mie cose
-.... che d'altra parola_. This can hardly be reconciled with Mons.
-RAVAISSON'S estimate of L. da Vinci's learning. "_Leonard de Vinci
-etait un admirateur et un disciple des anciens, aussi bien dans
-l'art que dans la science et il tenait a passer pour tel meme aux
-yeux de la posterite._" _Gaz. des Beaux arts. Oct. 1877.]; but they
-do not know that my subjects are to be dealt with by experience
-rather than by words [Footnote 28: See Footnote 26]; and
-[experience] has been the mistress of those who wrote well. And so,
-as mistress, I will cite her in all cases.
-
-11.
-
-Though I may not, like them, be able to quote other authors, I shall
-rely on that which is much greater and more worthy:--on experience,
-the mistress of their Masters. They go about puffed up and pompous,
-dressed and decorated with [the fruits], not of their own labours,
-but of those of others. And they will not allow me my own. They will
-scorn me as an inventor; but how much more might they--who are not
-inventors but vaunters and declaimers of the works of others--be
-blamed.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-And those men who are inventors and interpreters between Nature and
-Man, as compared with boasters and declaimers of the works of
-others, must be regarded and not otherwise esteemed than as the
-object in front of a mirror, when compared with its image seen in
-the mirror. For the first is something in itself, and the other
-nothingness.--Folks little indebted to Nature, since it is only by
-chance that they wear the human form and without it I might class
-them with the herds of beasts.
-
-12.
-
-Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my
-proofs are opposed to the authority of certain men held in the
-highest reverence by their inexperienced judgments; not considering
-that my works are the issue of pure and simple experience, who is
-the one true mistress. These rules are sufficient to enable you to
-know the true from the false--and this aids men to look only for
-things that are possible and with due moderation--and not to wrap
-yourself in ignorance, a thing which can have no good result, so
-that in despair you would give yourself up to melancholy.
-
-13.
-
-Among all the studies of natural causes and reasons Light chiefly
-delights the beholder; and among the great features of Mathematics
-the certainty of its demonstrations is what preeminently (tends to)
-elevate the mind of the investigator. Perspective, therefore, must
-be preferred to all the discourses and systems of human learning. In
-this branch [of science] the beam of light is explained on those
-methods of demonstration which form the glory not so much of
-Mathematics as of Physics and are graced with the flowers of both
-[Footnote: 5. Such of Leonardo's notes on Optics or on Perspective
-as bear exclusively on Mathematics or Physics could not be included
-in the arrangement of the _libro di pittura_ which is here presented
-to the reader. They are however but few.]. But its axioms being laid
-down at great length, I shall abridge them to a conclusive brevity,
-arranging them on the method both of their natural order and of
-mathematical demonstration; sometimes by deduction of the effects
-from the causes, and sometimes arguing the causes from the effects;
-adding also to my own conclusions some which, though not included in
-them, may nevertheless be inferred from them. Thus, if the Lord--who
-is the light of all things--vouchsafe to enlighten me, I will treat
-of Light; wherefore I will divide the present work into 3 Parts
-[Footnote: 10. In the middle ages--for instance, by ROGER BACON, by
-VITELLONE, with whose works Leonardo was certainly familiar, and by
-all the writers of the Renaissance Perspective and Optics were not
-regarded as distinct sciences. Perspective, indeed, is in its widest
-application the science of seeing. Although to Leonardo the two
-sciences were clearly separate, it is not so as to their names; thus
-we find axioms in Optics under the heading Perspective. According to
-this arrangement of the materials for the theoretical portion of the
-_libro di pittura_ propositions in Perspective and in Optics stand
-side by side or occur alternately. Although this particular chapter
-deals only with Optics, it is not improbable that the words _partiro
-la presente opera in 3 parti_ may refer to the same division into
-three sections which is spoken of in chapters 14 to 17.].
-
-The plan of the book on Painting (14--17).
-
-14.
-
-ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the
-reasons of the (apparent) diminution of objects as they recede from
-the eye, and is known as Diminishing Perspective.--The second
-contains the way in which colours vary as they recede from the eye.
-The third and last is concerned with the explanation of how the
-objects [in a picture] ought to be less finished in proportion as
-they are remote (and the names are as follows):
-
-Linear Perspective. The Perspective of Colour. The Perspective of
-Disappearance.
-
-[Footnote: 13. From the character of the handwriting I infer that
-this passage was written before the year 1490.].
-
-15.
-
-ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The divisions of Perspective are 3, as used in drawing; of these,
-the first includes the diminution in size of opaque objects; the
-second treats of the diminution and loss of outline in such opaque
-objects; the third, of the diminution and loss of colour at long
-distances.
-
-[Footnote: The division is here the same as in the previous chapter
-No. 14, and this is worthy of note when we connect it with the fact
-that a space of about 20 years must have intervened between the
-writing of the two passages.]
-
-16.
-
-THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING.
-
-Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three principal
-sections; of which the first treats of the diminution in the size of
-bodies at different distances. The second part is that which treats
-of the diminution in colour in these objects. The third [deals with]
-the diminished distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by
-the objects at various distances.
-
-17.
-
-ON THE SECTIONS OF [THE BOOK ON] PAINTING.
-
-The first thing in painting is that the objects it represents should
-appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding them at different
-distances shall appear within the vertical plane of the foreground
-of the picture by means of the 3 branches of Perspective, which are:
-the diminution in the distinctness of the forms of the objects, the
-diminution in their magnitude; and the diminution in their colour.
-And of these 3 classes of Perspective the first results from [the
-structure of] the eye, while the other two are caused by the
-atmosphere which intervenes between the eye and the objects seen by
-it. The second essential in painting is appropriate action and a due
-variety in the figures, so that the men may not all look like
-brothers, &c.
-
-[Footnote: This and the two foregoing chapters must have been
-written in 1513 to 1516. They undoubtedly indicate the scheme which
-Leonardo wished to carry out in arranging his researches on
-Perspective as applied to Painting. This is important because it is
-an evidence against the supposition of H. LUDWIG and others, that
-Leonardo had collected his principles of Perspective in one book so
-early as before 1500; a Book which, according to the hypothesis,
-must have been lost at a very early period, or destroyed possibly,
-by the French (!) in 1500 (see H. LUDWIG. L. da Vinci: _Das Buch van
-der Malerei_. Vienna 1882 III, 7 and 8).]
-
-The use of the book on Painting.
-
-18.
-
-These rules are of use only in correcting the figures; since every
-man makes some mistakes in his first compositions and he who knows
-them not, cannot amend them. But you, knowing your errors, will
-correct your works and where you find mistakes amend them, and
-remember never to fall into them again. But if you try to apply
-these rules in composition you will never make an end, and will
-produce confusion in your works.
-
-These rules will enable you to have a free and sound judgment; since
-good judgment is born of clear understanding, and a clear
-understanding comes of reasons derived from sound rules, and sound
-rules are the issue of sound experience--the common mother of all
-the sciences and arts. Hence, bearing in mind the precepts of my
-rules, you will be able, merely by your amended judgment, to
-criticise and recognise every thing that is out of proportion in a
-work, whether in the perspective or in the figures or any thing
-else.
-
-Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19. 20).
-
-19.
-
-OF THE MISTAKES MADE BY THOSE WHO PRACTISE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE.
-
-Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the
-sailor who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never
-can be certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded
-on sound theory, and to this Perspective is the guide and the
-gateway; and without this nothing can be done well in the matter of
-drawing.
-
-20.
-
-The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye, without any
-reason, is like a mirror which copies every thing placed in front of
-it without being conscious of their existence.
-
-The function of the eye (21-23).
-
-21.
-
-INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:--THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE.
-
-Behold here O reader! a thing concerning which we cannot trust our
-forefathers, the ancients, who tried to define what the Soul and
-Life are--which are beyond proof, whereas those things, which can at
-any time be clearly known and proved by experience, remained for
-many ages unknown or falsely understood. The eye, whose function we
-so certainly know by experience, has, down to my own time, been
-defined by an infinite number of authors as one thing; but I find,
-by experience, that it is quite another. [Footnote 13: Compare the
-note to No. 70.]
-
-[Footnote: In section 13 we already find it indicated that the study
-of Perspective and of Optics is to be based on that of the functions
-of the eye. Leonardo also refers to the science of the eye, in his
-astronomical researches, for instance in MS. F 25b '_Ordine del
-provare la terra essere una stella: Imprima difinisce l'occhio'_,
-&c. Compare also MS. E 15b and F 60b. The principles of astronomical
-perspective.]
-
-22.
-
-Here [in the eye] forms, here colours, here the character of every
-part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is
-so marvellous a thing ... Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity--by
-thy laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of
-its cause, by the shortest path. These [indeed] are miracles;...
-
-In so small a space it can be reproduced and rearranged in its whole
-expanse. Describe in your anatomy what proportion there is between
-the diameters of all the images in the eye and the distance from
-them of the crystalline lens.
-
-23.
-
-OF THE 10 ATTRIBUTES OF THE EYE, ALL CONCERNED IN PAINTING.
-
-Painting is concerned with all the 10 attributes of sight; which
-are:--Darkness, Light, Solidity and Colour, Form and Position,
-Distance and Propinquity, Motion and Rest. This little work of mine
-will be a tissue [of the studies] of these attributes, reminding the
-painter of the rules and methods by which he should use his art to
-imitate all the works of Nature which adorn the world.
-
-24.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Variability of the eye.
-
-1st. The pupil of the eye contracts, in proportion to the increase
-of light which is reflected in it. 2nd. The pupil of the eye expands
-in proportion to the diminution in the day light, or any other
-light, that is reflected in it. 3rd. [Footnote: 8. The subject of
-this third proposition we find fully discussed in MS. G. 44a.]. The
-eye perceives and recognises the objects of its vision with greater
-intensity in proportion as the pupil is more widely dilated; and
-this can be proved by the case of nocturnal animals, such as cats,
-and certain birds--as the owl and others--in which the pupil varies
-in a high degree from large to small, &c., when in the dark or in
-the light. 4th. The eye [out of doors] in an illuminated atmosphere
-sees darkness behind the windows of houses which [nevertheless] are
-light. 5th. All colours when placed in the shade appear of an equal
-degree of darkness, among themselves. 6th. But all colours when
-placed in a full light, never vary from their true and essential
-hue.
-
-25.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-Focus of sight.
-
-If the eye is required to look at an object placed too near to it,
-it cannot judge of it well--as happens to a man who tries to see the
-tip of his nose. Hence, as a general rule, Nature teaches us that an
-object can never be seen perfectly unless the space between it and
-the eye is equal, at least, to the length of the face.
-
-Differences of perception by one eye and by both eyes (26-29).
-
-26.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-When both eyes direct the pyramid of sight to an object, that object
-becomes clearly seen and comprehended by the eyes.
-
-27.
-
-Objects seen by one and the same eye appear sometimes large, and
-sometimes small.
-
-28.
-
-The motion of a spectator who sees an object at rest often makes it
-seem as though the object at rest had acquired the motion of the
-moving body, while the moving person appears to be at rest.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Objects in relief, when seen from a short distance with one eye,
-look like a perfect picture. If you look with the eye _a_, _b_ at
-the spot _c_, this point _c_ will appear to be at _d_, _f_, and if
-you look at it with the eye _g_, _h_ will appear to be at _m_. A
-picture can never contain in itself both aspects.
-
-29.
-
-Let the object in relief _t_ be seen by both eyes; if you will look
-at the object with the right eye _m_, keeping the left eye _n_ shut,
-the object will appear, or fill up the space, at _a_; and if you
-shut the right eye and open the left, the object (will occupy the)
-space _b_; and if you open both eyes, the object will no longer
-appear at _a_ or _b_, but at _e_, _r_, _f_. Why will not a picture
-seen by both eyes produce the effect of relief, as [real] relief
-does when seen by both eyes; and why should a picture seen with one
-eye give the same effect of relief as real relief would under the
-same conditions of light and shade?
-
-[Footnote: In the sketch, _m_ is the left eye and _n_ the right,
-while the text reverses this lettering. We must therefore suppose
-that the face in which the eyes _m_ and _n_ are placed is opposite
-to the spectator.]
-
-30.
-
-The comparative size of the image depends on the amount of light
-(30-39).
-
-The eye will hold and retain in itself the image of a luminous body
-better than that of a shaded object. The reason is that the eye is
-in itself perfectly dark and since two things that are alike cannot
-be distinguished, therefore the night, and other dark objects cannot
-be seen or recognised by the eye. Light is totally contrary and
-gives more distinctness, and counteracts and differs from the usual
-darkness of the eye, hence it leaves the impression of its image.
-
-31.
-
-Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,
-and larger in the morning than at midday.
-
-This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
-than at any other time.
-
-32.
-
-The pupil which is largest will see objects the largest. This is
-evident when we look at luminous bodies, and particularly at those
-in the sky. When the eye comes out of darkness and suddenly looks up
-at these bodies, they at first appear larger and then diminish; and
-if you were to look at those bodies through a small opening, you
-would see them smaller still, because a smaller part of the pupil
-would exercise its function.
-
-[Footnote: 9. _buso_ in the Lomb. dialect is the same as _buco_.]
-
-33.
-
-When the eye, coming out of darkness suddenly sees a luminous body,
-it will appear much larger at first sight than after long looking at
-it. The illuminated object will look larger and more brilliant, when
-seen with two eyes than with only one. A luminous object will appear
-smaller in size, when the eye sees it through a smaller opening. A
-luminous body of an oval form will appear rounder in proportion as
-it is farther from the eye.
-
-34.
-
-Why when the eye has just seen the light, does the half light look
-dark to it, and in the same way if it turns from the darkness the
-half light look very bright?
-
-35.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-If the eye, when [out of doors] in the luminous atmosphere, sees a
-place in shadow, this will look very much darker than it really is.
-This happens only because the eye when out in the air contracts the
-pupil in proportion as the atmosphere reflected in it is more
-luminous. And the more the pupil contracts, the less luminous do the
-objects appear that it sees. But as soon as the eye enters into a
-shady place the darkness of the shadow suddenly seems to diminish.
-This occurs because the greater the darkness into which the pupil
-goes the more its size increases, and this increase makes the
-darkness seem less.
-
-[Footnote 14: _La luce entrera_. _Luce_ occurs here in the sense of
-pupil of the eye as in no 51: C. A. 84b; 245a; I--5; and in many
-other places.]
-
-36.
-
-ON PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The eye which turns from a white object in the light of the sun and
-goes into a less fully lighted place will see everything as dark.
-And this happens either because the pupils of the eyes which have
-rested on this brilliantly lighted white object have contracted so
-much that, given at first a certain extent of surface, they will
-have lost more than 3/4 of their size; and, lacking in size, they
-are also deficient in [seeing] power. Though you might say to me: A
-little bird (then) coming down would see comparatively little, and
-from the smallness of his pupils the white might seem black! To this
-I should reply that here we must have regard to the proportion of
-the mass of that portion of the brain which is given up to the sense
-of sight and to nothing else. Or--to return--this pupil in Man
-dilates and contracts according to the brightness or darkness of
-(surrounding) objects; and since it takes some time to dilate and
-contract, it cannot see immediately on going out of the light and
-into the shade, nor, in the same way, out of the shade into the
-light, and this very thing has already deceived me in painting an
-eye, and from that I learnt it.
-
-37.
-
-Experiment [showing] the dilatation and contraction of the pupil,
-from the motion of the sun and other luminaries. In proportion as
-the sky is darker the stars appear of larger size, and if you were
-to light up the medium these stars would look smaller; and this
-difference arises solely from the pupil which dilates and contracts
-with the amount of light in the medium which is interposed between
-the eye and the luminous body. Let the experiment be made, by
-placing a candle above your head at the same time that you look at a
-star; then gradually lower the candle till it is on a level with the
-ray that comes from the star to the eye, and then you will see the
-star diminish so much that you will almost lose sight of it.
-
-[Footnote: No reference is made in the text to the letters on the
-accompanying diagram.]
-
-38.
-
-The pupil of the eye, in the open air, changes in size with every
-degree of motion from the sun; and at every degree of its changes
-one and the same object seen by it will appear of a different size;
-although most frequently the relative scale of surrounding objects
-does not allow us to detect these variations in any single object we
-may look at.
-
-39.
-
-The eye--which sees all objects reversed--retains the images for
-some time. This conclusion is proved by the results; because, the
-eye having gazed at light retains some impression of it. After
-looking (at it) there remain in the eye images of intense
-brightness, that make any less brilliant spot seem dark until the
-eye has lost the last trace of the impression of the stronger light.
-
-_II.
-
-Linear Perspective.
-
-We see clearly from the concluding sentence of section 49, where the
-author directly addresses the painter, that he must certainly have
-intended to include the elements of mathematics in his Book on the
-art of Painting. They are therefore here placed at the beginning. In
-section 50 the theory of the "Pyramid of Sight" is distinctly and
-expressly put forward as the fundamental principle of linear
-perspective, and sections 52 to 57 treat of it fully. This theory of
-sight can scarcely be traced to any author of antiquity. Such
-passages as occur in Euclid for instance, may, it is true, have
-proved suggestive to the painters of the Renaissance, but it would
-be rash to say any thing decisive on this point.
-
-Leon Battista Alberti treats of the "Pyramid of Sight" at some
-length in his first Book of Painting; but his explanation differs
-widely from Leonardo's in the details. Leonardo, like Alberti, may
-have borrowed the broad lines of his theory from some views commonly
-accepted among painters at the time; but he certainly worked out its
-application in a perfectly original manner.
-
-The axioms as to the perception of the pyramid of rays are followed
-by explanations of its origin, and proofs of its universal
-application (58--69). The author recurs to the subject with endless
-variations; it is evidently of fundamental importance in his
-artistic theory and practice. It is unnecessary to discuss how far
-this theory has any scientific value at the present day; so much as
-this, at any rate, seems certain: that from the artist's point of
-view it may still claim to be of immense practical utility.
-
-According to Leonardo, on one hand, the laws of perspective are an
-inalienable condition of the existence of objects in space; on the
-other hand, by a natural law, the eye, whatever it sees and wherever
-it turns, is subjected to the perception of the pyramid of rays in
-the form of a minute target. Thus it sees objects in perspective
-independently of the will of the spectator, since the eye receives
-the images by means of the pyramid of rays "just as a magnet
-attracts iron".
-
-In connection with this we have the function of the eye explained by
-the Camera obscura, and this is all the more interesting and
-important because no writer previous to Leonardo had treated of this
-subject_ (70--73). _Subsequent passages, of no less special interest,
-betray his knowledge of refraction and of the inversion of the image
-in the camera and in the eye_ (74--82).
-
-_From the principle of the transmission of the image to the eye and
-to the camera obscura he deduces the means of producing an
-artificial construction of the pyramid of rays or--which is the same
-thing--of the image. The fundamental axioms as to the angle of sight
-and the vanishing point are thus presented in a manner which is as
-complete as it is simple and intelligible_ (86--89).
-
-_Leonardo distinguishes between simple and complex perspective_ (90,
-91). _The last sections treat of the apparent size of objects at
-various distances and of the way to estimate it_ (92--109).
-
-General remarks on perspective (40-41).
-
-40.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Perspective is the best guide to the art of Painting.
-
-[Footnote: 40. Compare 53, 2.]
-
-41.
-
-The art of perspective is of such a nature as to make what is flat
-appear in relief and what is in relief flat.
-
-The elements of perspective--Of the Point (42-46).
-
-42.
-
-All the problems of perspective are made clear by the five terms of
-mathematicians, which are:--the point, the line, the angle, the
-superficies and the solid. The point is unique of its kind. And the
-point has neither height, breadth, length, nor depth, whence it is
-to be regarded as indivisible and as having no dimensions in space.
-The line is of three kinds, straight, curved and sinuous and it has
-neither breadth, height, nor depth. Hence it is indivisible,
-excepting in its length, and its ends are two points. The angle is
-the junction of two lines in a point.
-
-43.
-
-A point is not part of a line.
-
-44.
-
-OF THE NATURAL POINT.
-
-The smallest natural point is larger than all mathematical points,
-and this is proved because the natural point has continuity, and any
-thing that is continuous is infinitely divisible; but the
-mathematical point is indivisible because it has no size.
-
-[Footnote: This definition was inserted by Leonardo on a MS. copy on
-parchment of the well-known _"Trattato d'Architettura civile e
-militare"_ &c. by FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO; opposite a passage where the
-author says: _'In prima he da sapere che punto e quella parie della
-quale he nulla--Linia he luncheza senza apieza; &c.]
-
-45.
-
-1, The superficies is a limitation of the body. 2, and the
-limitation of a body is no part of that body. 4, and the limitation
-of one body is that which begins another. 3, that which is not part
-of any body is nothing. Nothing is that which fills no space.
-
-If one single point placed in a circle may be the starting point of
-an infinite number of lines, and the termination of an infinite
-number of lines, there must be an infinite number of points
-separable from this point, and these when reunited become one again;
-whence it follows that the part may be equal to the whole.
-
-46.
-
-The point, being indivisible, occupies no space. That which occupies
-no space is nothing. The limiting surface of one thing is the
-beginning of another. 2. That which is no part of any body is called
-nothing. 1. That which has no limitations, has no form. The
-limitations of two conterminous bodies are interchangeably the
-surface of each. All the surfaces of a body are not parts of that
-body.
-
-Of the line (47-48).
-
-47.
-
-DEFINITION OF THE NATURE OF THE LINE.
-
-The line has in itself neither matter nor substance and may rather
-be called an imaginary idea than a real object; and this being its
-nature it occupies no space. Therefore an infinite number of lines
-may be conceived of as intersecting each other at a point, which has
-no dimensions and is only of the thickness (if thickness it may be
-called) of one single line.
-
-HOW WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT A SUPERFICIES TERMINATES IN A POINT?
-
-An angular surface is reduced to a point where it terminates in an
-angle. Or, if the sides of that angle are produced in a straight
-line, then--beyond that angle--another surface is generated,
-smaller, or equal to, or larger than the first.
-
-48.
-
-OF DRAWING OUTLINE.
-
-Consider with the greatest care the form of the outlines of every
-object, and the character of their undulations. And these
-undulations must be separately studied, as to whether the curves are
-composed of arched convexities or angular concavities.
-
-49.
-
-The nature of the outline.
-
-The boundaries of bodies are the least of all things. The
-proposition is proved to be true, because the boundary of a thing is
-a surface, which is not part of the body contained within that
-surface; nor is it part of the air surrounding that body, but is the
-medium interposted between the air and the body, as is proved in its
-place. But the lateral boundaries of these bodies is the line
-forming the boundary of the surface, which line is of invisible
-thickness. Wherefore O painter! do not surround your bodies with
-lines, and above all when representing objects smaller than nature;
-for not only will their external outlines become indistinct, but
-their parts will be invisible from distance.
-
-50.
-
-Definition of Perspective.
-
-[Drawing is based upon perspective, which is nothing else than a
-thorough knowledge of the function of the eye. And this function
-simply consists in receiving in a pyramid the forms and colours of
-all the objects placed before it. I say in a pyramid, because there
-is no object so small that it will not be larger than the spot where
-these pyramids are received into the eye. Therefore, if you extend
-the lines from the edges of each body as they converge you will
-bring them to a single point, and necessarily the said lines must
-form a pyramid.]
-
-[Perspective is nothing more than a rational demonstration applied
-to the consideration of how objects in front of the eye transmit
-their image to it, by means of a pyramid of lines. The _Pyramid_ is
-the name I apply to the lines which, starting from the surface and
-edges of each object, converge from a distance and meet in a single
-point.]
-
-[Perspective is a rational demonstration, by which we may
-practically and clearly understand how objects transmit their own
-image, by lines forming a Pyramid (centred) in the eye.]
-
-Perspective is a rational demonstration by which experience confirms
-that every object sends its image to the eye by a pyramid of lines;
-and bodies of equal size will result in a pyramid of larger or
-smaller size, according to the difference in their distance, one
-from the other. By a pyramid of lines I mean those which start from
-the surface and edges of bodies, and, converging from a distance
-meet in a single point. A point is said to be that which [having no
-dimensions] cannot be divided, and this point placed in the eye
-receives all the points of the cone.
-
-[Footnote: 50. 1-5. Compare with this the Proem. No. 21. The
-paragraphs placed in brackets: lines 1-9, 10-14, and 17--20, are
-evidently mere sketches and, as such, were cancelled by the writer;
-but they serve as a commentary on the final paragraph, lines 22-29.]
-
-51.
-
-IN WHAT WAY THE EYE SEES OBJECTS PLACED IN FRONT OF IT.
-
-The perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye.
-
-Supposing that the ball figured above is the ball of the eye and let
-the small portion of the ball which is cut off by the line _s t_ be
-the pupil and all the objects mirrored on the centre of the face of
-the eye, by means of the pupil, pass on at once and enter the pupil,
-passing through the crystalline humour, which does not interfere in
-the pupil with the things seen by means of the light. And the pupil
-having received the objects, by means of the light, immediately
-refers them and transmits them to the intellect by the line _a b_.
-And you must know that the pupil transmits nothing perfectly to the
-intellect or common sense excepting when the objects presented to it
-by means of light, reach it by the line _a b;_ as, for instance, by
-the line _b c_. For although the lines _m n_ and _f g_ may be seen
-by the pupil they are not perfectly taken in, because they do not
-coincide with the line _a b_. And the proof is this: If the eye,
-shown above, wants to count the letters placed in front, the eye
-will be obliged to turn from letter to letter, because it cannot
-discern them unless they lie in the line _a b;_ as, for instance, in
-the line _a c_. All visible objects reach the eye by the lines of a
-pyramid, and the point of the pyramid is the apex and centre of it,
-in the centre of the pupil, as figured above.
-
-[Footnote: 51. In this problem the eye is conceived of as fixed and
-immovable; this is plain from line 11.]
-
-Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight (52-55).
-
-52.
-
-Perspective is a rational demonstration, confirmed by experience,
-that all objects transmit their image to the eye by a pyramid of
-lines.
-
-By a pyramid of lines I understand those lines which start from the
-edges of the surface of bodies, and converging from a distance, meet
-in a single point; and this point, in the present instance, I will
-show to be situated in the eye which is the universal judge of all
-objects. By a point I mean that which cannot be divided into parts;
-therefore this point, which is situated in the eye, being
-indivisible, no body is seen by the eye, that is not larger than
-this point. This being the case it is inevitable that the lines
-which come from the object to the point must form a pyramid. And if
-any man seeks to prove that the sense of sight does not reside in
-this point, but rather in the black spot which is visible in the
-middle of the pupil, I might reply to him that a small object could
-never diminish at any distance, as it might be a grain of millet or
-of oats or of some similar thing, and that object, if it were larger
-than the said [black] spot would never be seen as a whole; as may be
-seen in the diagram below. Let _a_. be the seat of sight, _b e_ the
-lines which reach the eye. Let _e d_ be the grains of millet within
-these lines. You plainly see that these will never diminish by
-distance, and that the body _m n_ could not be entirely covered by
-it. Therefore you must confess that the eye contains within itself
-one single indivisible point _a_, to which all the points converge
-of the pyramid of lines starting from an object, as is shown below.
-Let _a_. _b_. be the eye; in the centre of it is the point above
-mentioned. If the line _e f_ is to enter as an image into so small
-an opening in the eye, you must confess that the smaller object
-cannot enter into what is smaller than itself unless it is
-diminished, and by diminishing it must take the form of a pyramid.
-
-53.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Perspective comes in where judgment fails [as to the distance] in
-objects which diminish. The eye can never be a true judge for
-determining with exactitude how near one object is to another which
-is equal to it [in size], if the top of that other is on the level
-of the eye which sees them on that side, excepting by means of the
-vertical plane which is the standard and guide of perspective. Let
-_n_ be the eye, _e f_ the vertical plane above mentioned. Let _a b c
-d_ be the three divisions, one below the other; if the lines _a n_
-and _c n_ are of a given length and the eye _n_ is in the centre,
-then _a b_ will look as large as _b c. c d_ is lower and farther off
-from _n_, therefore it will look smaller. And the same effect will
-appear in the three divisions of a face when the eye of the painter
-who is drawing it is on a level with the eye of the person he is
-painting.
-
-54.
-
-TO PROVE HOW OBJECTS REACH THE EYE.
-
-If you look at the sun or some other luminous body and then shut
-your eyes you will see it again inside your eye for a long time.
-This is evidence that images enter into the eye.
-
-The relations of the distance points to the vanishing point (55-56).
-
-55.
-
-ELEMENTS OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-All objects transmit their image to the eye in pyramids, and the
-nearer to the eye these pyramids are intersected the smaller will
-the image appear of the objects which cause them. Therefore, you may
-intersect the pyramid with a vertical plane [Footnote 4: _Pariete_.
-Compare the definitions in 85, 2-5, 6-27. These lines refer
-exclusively to the third diagram. For the better understanding of
-this it should be observed that _c s_ must be regarded as
-representing the section or profile of a square plane, placed
-horizontally (comp. lines 11, 14, 17) for which the word _pianura_
-is subsequently employed (20, 22). Lines 6-13 contain certain
-preliminary observations to guide the reader in understanding the
-diagram; the last three seem to have been added as a supplement.
-Leonardo's mistake in writing _t denota_ (line 6) for _f denota_ has
-been rectified.] which reaches the base of the pyramid as is shown
-in the plane _a n_.
-
-The eye _f_ and the eye _t_ are one and the same thing; but the eye
-_f_ marks the distance, that is to say how far you are standing from
-the object; and the eye _t_ shows you the direction of it; that is
-whether you are opposite, or on one side, or at an angle to the
-object you are looking at. And remember that the eye _f_ and the eye
-_t_ must always be kept on the same level. For example if you raise
-or lower the eye from the distance point _f_ you must do the same
-with the direction point _t_. And if the point _f_ shows how far the
-eye is distant from the square plane but does not show on which side
-it is placed--and, if in the same way, the point _t_ show _s_ the
-direction and not the distance, in order to ascertain both you must
-use both points and they will be one and the same thing. If the eye
-_f_ could see a perfect square of which all the sides were equal to
-the distance between _s_ and _c_, and if at the nearest end of the
-side towards the eye a pole were placed, or some other straight
-object, set up by a perpendicular line as shown at _r s_--then, I
-say, that if you were to look at the side of the square that is
-nearest to you it will appear at the bottom of the vertical plane _r
-s_, and then look at the farther side and it would appear to you at
-the height of the point _n_ on the vertical plane. Thus, by this
-example, you can understand that if the eye is above a number of
-objects all placed on the same level, one beyond another, the more
-remote they are the higher they will seem, up to the level of the
-eye, but no higher; because objects placed upon the level on which
-your feet stand, so long as it is flat--even if it be extended into
-infinity--would never be seen above the eye; since the eye has in
-itself the point towards which all the cones tend and converge which
-convey the images of the objects to the eye. And this point always
-coincides with the point of diminution which is the extreme of all
-we can see. And from the base line of the first pyramid as far as
-the diminishing point
-
-[Footnote: The two diagrams above the chapter are explained by the
-first five lines. They have, however, more letters than are referred
-to in the text, a circumstance we frequently find occasion to
-remark.]
-
-56.
-
-there are only bases without pyramids which constantly diminish up
-to this point. And from the first base where the vertical plane is
-placed towards the point in the eye there will be only pyramids
-without bases; as shown in the example given above. Now, let _a b_
-be the said vertical plane and _r_ the point of the pyramid
-terminating in the eye, and _n_ the point of diminution which is
-always in a straight line opposite the eye and always moves as the
-eye moves--just as when a rod is moved its shadow moves, and moves
-with it, precisely as the shadow moves with a body. And each point
-is the apex of a pyramid, all having a common base with the
-intervening vertical plane. But although their bases are equal their
-angles are not equal, because the diminishing point is the
-termination of a smaller angle than that of the eye. If you ask me:
-"By what practical experience can you show me these points?" I
-reply--so far as concerns the diminishing point which moves with you
---when you walk by a ploughed field look at the straight furrows
-which come down with their ends to the path where you are walking,
-and you will see that each pair of furrows will look as though they
-tried to get nearer and meet at the [farther] end.
-
-[Footnote: For the easier understanding of the diagram and of its
-connection with the preceding I may here remark that the square
-plane shown above in profile by the line _c s_ is here indicated by
-_e d o p_. According to lines 1, 3 _a b_ must be imagined as a plane
-of glass placed perpendicularly at _o p_.]
-
-57.
-
-How to measure the pyramid of vision.
-
-As regards the point in the eye; it is made more intelligible by
-this: If you look into the eye of another person you will see your
-own image. Now imagine 2 lines starting from your ears and going to
-the ears of that image which you see in the other man's eye; you
-will understand that these lines converge in such a way that they
-would meet in a point a little way beyond your own image mirrored in
-the eye. And if you want to measure the diminution of the pyramid in
-the air which occupies the space between the object seen and the
-eye, you must do it according to the diagram figured below. Let _m
-n_ be a tower, and _e f_ a, rod, which you must move backwards and
-forwards till its ends correspond with those of the tower [Footnote
-9: _I sua stremi .. della storre_ (its ends ... of the tower) this
-is the case at _e f_.]; then bring it nearer to the eye, at _c d_
-and you will see that the image of the tower seems smaller, as at _r
-o_. Then [again] bring it closer to the eye and you will see the rod
-project far beyond the image of the tower from _a_ to _b_ and from
-_t_ to _b_, and so you will discern that, a little farther within,
-the lines must converge in a point.
-
-The Production of pyramid of Vision (58-60).
-
-58.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The instant the atmosphere is illuminated it will be filled with an
-infinite number of images which are produced by the various bodies
-and colours assembled in it. And the eye is the target, a loadstone,
-of these images.
-
-59.
-
-The whole surface of opaque bodies displays its whole image in all
-the illuminated atmosphere which surrounds them on all sides.
-
-60.
-
-That the atmosphere attracts to itself, like a loadstone, all the
-images of the objects that exist in it, and not their forms merely
-but their nature may be clearly seen by the sun, which is a hot and
-luminous body. All the atmosphere, which is the all-pervading
-matter, absorbs light and heat, and reflects in itself the image of
-the source of that heat and splendour and, in each minutest portion,
-does the same. The Northpole does the same as the loadstone shows;
-and the moon and the other planets, without suffering any
-diminution, do the same. Among terrestrial things musk does the same
-and other perfumes.
-
-61.
-
-All bodies together, and each by itself, give off to the surrounding
-air an infinite number of images which are all-pervading and each
-complete, each conveying the nature, colour and form of the body
-which produces it.
-
-It can clearly be shown that all bodies are, by their images,
-all-pervading in the surrounding atmosphere, and each complete in
-itself as to substance form and colour; this is seen by the images
-of the various bodies which are reproduced in one single perforation
-through which they transmit the objects by lines which intersect and
-cause reversed pyramids, from the objects, so that they are upside
-down on the dark plane where they are first reflected. The reason of
-this is--
-
-[Footnote: The diagram intended to illustrate the statement (Pl. II
-No. i) occurs in the original between lines 3 and 4. The three
-circles must be understood to represent three luminous bodies which
-transmit their images through perforations in a wall into a dark
-chamber, according to a law which is more fully explained in 75?81.
-So far as concerns the present passage the diagram is only intended
-to explain that the images of the three bodies may be made to
-coalesce at any given spot. In the circles are written,
-giallo--yellow, biacho--white, rosso--red.
-
-The text breaks off at line 8. The paragraph No.40 follows here in
-the original MS.]
-
-62.
-
-Every point is the termination of an infinite number of lines, which
-diverge to form a base, and immediately, from the base the same
-lines converge to a pyramid [imaging] both the colour and form. No
-sooner is a form created or compounded than suddenly infinite lines
-and angles are produced from it; and these lines, distributing
-themselves and intersecting each other in the air, give rise to an
-infinite number of angles opposite to each other. Given a base, each
-opposite angle, will form a triangle having a form and proportion
-equal to the larger angle; and if the base goes twice into each of
-the 2 lines of the pyramid the smaller triangle will do the same.
-
-63.
-
-Every body in light and shade fills the surrounding air with
-infinite images of itself; and these, by infinite pyramids diffused
-in the air, represent this body throughout space and on every side.
-Each pyramid that is composed of a long assemblage of rays includes
-within itself an infinite number of pyramids and each has the same
-power as all, and all as each. A circle of equidistant pyramids of
-vision will give to their object angles of equal size; and an eye at
-each point will see the object of the same size. The body of the
-atmosphere is full of infinite pyramids composed of radiating
-straight lines, which are produced from the surface of the bodies in
-light and shade, existing in the air; and the farther they are from
-the object which produces them the more acute they become and
-although in their distribution they intersect and cross they never
-mingle together, but pass through all the surrounding air,
-independently converging, spreading, and diffused. And they are all
-of equal power [and value]; all equal to each, and each equal to
-all. By these the images of objects are transmitted through all
-space and in every direction, and each pyramid, in itself, includes,
-in each minutest part, the whole form of the body causing it.
-
-64.
-
-The body of the atmosphere is full of infinite radiating pyramids
-produced by the objects existing in it. These intersect and cross
-each other with independent convergence without interfering with
-each other and pass through all the surrounding atmosphere; and are
-of equal force and value--all being equal to each, each to all. And
-by means of these, images of the body are transmitted everywhere and
-on all sides, and each receives in itself every minutest portion of
-the object that produces it.
-
-Proof by experiment (65-66).
-
-65.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The air is filled with endless images of the objects distributed in
-it; and all are represented in all, and all in one, and all in each,
-whence it happens that if two mirrors are placed in such a manner as
-to face each other exactly, the first will be reflected in the
-second and the second in the first. The first being reflected in the
-second takes to it the image of itself with all the images
-represented in it, among which is the image of the second mirror,
-and so, image within image, they go on to infinity in such a manner
-as that each mirror has within it a mirror, each smaller than the
-last and one inside the other. Thus, by this example, it is clearly
-proved that every object sends its image to every spot whence the
-object itself can be seen; and the converse: That the same object
-may receive in itself all the images of the objects that are in
-front of it. Hence the eye transmits through the atmosphere its own
-image to all the objects that are in front of it and receives them
-into itself, that is to say on its surface, whence they are taken in
-by the common sense, which considers them and if they are pleasing
-commits them to the memory. Whence I am of opinion: That the
-invisible images in the eyes are produced towards the object, as the
-image of the object to the eye. That the images of the objects must
-be disseminated through the air. An instance may be seen in several
-mirrors placed in a circle, which will reflect each other endlessly.
-When one has reached the other it is returned to the object that
-produced it, and thence--being diminished--it is returned again to
-the object and then comes back once more, and this happens
-endlessly. If you put a light between two flat mirrors with a
-distance of 1 braccio between them you will see in each of them an
-infinite number of lights, one smaller than another, to the last. If
-at night you put a light between the walls of a room, all the parts
-of that wall will be tinted with the image of that light. And they
-will receive the light and the light will fall on them, mutually,
-that is to say, when there is no obstacle to interrupt the
-transmission of the images. This same example is seen in a greater
-degree in the distribution of the solar rays which all together, and
-each by itself, convey to the object the image of the body which
-causes it. That each body by itself alone fills with its images the
-atmosphere around it, and that the same air is able, at the same
-time, to receive the images of the endless other objects which are
-in it, this is clearly proved by these examples. And every object is
-everywhere visible in the whole of the atmosphere, and the whole in
-every smallest part of it; and all the objects in the whole, and all
-in each smallest part; each in all and all in every part.
-
-66.
-
-The images of objects are all diffused through the atmosphere which
-receives them; and all on every side in it. To prove this, let _a c
-e_ be objects of which the images are admitted to a dark chamber by
-the small holes _n p_ and thrown upon the plane _f i_ opposite to
-these holes. As many images will be produced in the chamber on the
-plane as the number of the said holes.
-
-67.
-
-General conclusions.
-
-All objects project their whole image and likeness, diffused and
-mingled in the whole of the atmosphere, opposite to themselves. The
-image of every point of the bodily surface, exists in every part of
-the atmosphere. All the images of the objects are in every part of
-the atmosphere. The whole, and each part of the image of the
-atmosphere is [reflected] in each point of the surface of the bodies
-presented to it. Therefore both the part and the whole of the images
-of the objects exist, both in the whole and in the parts of the
-surface of these visible bodies. Whence we may evidently say that
-the image of each object exists, as a whole and in every part, in
-each part and in the whole interchangeably in every existing body.
-As is seen in two mirrors placed opposite to each other.
-
-68.
-
-That the contrary is impossible.
-
-It is impossible that the eye should project from itself, by visual
-rays, the visual virtue, since, as soon as it opens, that front
-portion [of the eye] which would give rise to this emanation would
-have to go forth to the object and this it could not do without
-time. And this being so, it could not travel so high as the sun in a
-month's time when the eye wanted to see it. And if it could reach
-the sun it would necessarily follow that it should perpetually
-remain in a continuous line from the eye to the sun and should
-always diverge in such a way as to form between the sun and the eye
-the base and the apex of a pyramid. This being the case, if the eye
-consisted of a million worlds, it would not prevent its being
-consumed in the projection of its virtue; and if this virtue would
-have to travel through the air as perfumes do, the winds would bent
-it and carry it into another place. But we do [in fact] see the mass
-of the sun with the same rapidity as [an object] at the distance of
-a braccio, and the power of sight is not disturbed by the blowing of
-the winds nor by any other accident.
-
-[Footnote: The view here refuted by Leonardo was maintained among
-others by Bramantino, Leonardo's Milanese contemporary. LOMAZZO
-writes as follows in his Trattato dell' Arte della pittura &c.
-(Milano 1584. Libr. V cp. XXI): Sovviemmi di aver gia letto in certi
-scritti alcune cose di Bramantino milanese, celebratissimo pittore,
-attenente alla prospettiva, le quali ho voluto riferire, e quasi
-intessere in questo luogo, affinche sappiamo qual fosse l'opinione
-di cosi chiaro e famoso pittore intorno alla prospettiva . . Scrive
-Bramantino che la prospettiva e una cosa che contrafa il naturale, e
-che cio si fa in tre modi
-
-Circa il primo modo che si fa con ragione, per essere la cosa in
-poche parole conclusa da Bramantino in maniera che giudico non
-potersi dir meglio, contenendovi si tutta Parte del principio al
-fine, io riferiro per appunto le proprie parole sue (cp. XXII, Prima
-prospettiva di Bramantino). La prima prospettiva fa le cose di
-punto, e l'altra non mai, e la terza piu appresso. Adunque la prima
-si dimanda prospettiva, cioe ragione, la quale fa l'effetto dell'
-occhio, facendo crescere e calare secondo gli effetti degli occhi.
-Questo crescere e calare non procede della cosa propria, che in se
-per esser lontana, ovvero vicina, per quello effetto non puo
-crescere e sminuire, ma procede dagli effetti degli occhi, i quali
-sono piccioli, e percio volendo vedere tanto gran cosa_, bisogna che
-mandino fuora la virtu visiva, _la quale si dilata in tanta
-larghezza, che piglia tutto quello che vuoi vedere, ed_ arrivando a
-quella cosa la vede dove e: _e da lei agli occhi per quello circuito
-fino all' occhio, e tutto quello termine e pieno di quella cosa_.
-
-It is worthy of note that Leonardo had made his memorandum refuting
-this view, at Milan in 1492]
-
-69.
-
-A parallel case.
-
-Just as a stone flung into the water becomes the centre and cause of
-many circles, and as sound diffuses itself in circles in the air: so
-any object, placed in the luminous atmosphere, diffuses itself in
-circles, and fills the surrounding air with infinite images of
-itself. And is repeated, the whole every-where, and the whole in
-every smallest part. This can be proved by experiment, since if you
-shut a window that faces west and make a hole [Footnote: 6. Here the
-text breaks off.] . .
-
-[Footnote: Compare LIBRI, _Histoire des sciences mathematiques en
-Italie_. Tome III, p. 43.]
-
-The function of the eye as explained by the camera obscura (70. 71).
-
-70.
-
-If the object in front of the eye sends its image to the eye, the
-eye, on the other hand, sends its image to the object, and no
-portion whatever of the object is lost in the images it throws off,
-for any reason either in the eye or the object. Therefore we may
-rather believe it to be the nature and potency of our luminous
-atmosphere which absorbs the images of the objects existing in it,
-than the nature of the objects, to send their images through the
-air. If the object opposite to the eye were to send its image to the
-eye, the eye would have to do the same to the object, whence it
-might seem that these images were an emanation. But, if so, it would
-be necessary [to admit] that every object became rapidly smaller;
-because each object appears by its images in the surrounding
-atmosphere. That is: the whole object in the whole atmosphere, and
-in each part; and all the objects in the whole atmosphere and all of
-them in each part; speaking of that atmosphere which is able to
-contain in itself the straight and radiating lines of the images
-projected by the objects. From this it seems necessary to admit that
-it is in the nature of the atmosphere, which subsists between the
-objects, and which attracts the images of things to itself like a
-loadstone, being placed between them.
-
-PROVE HOW ALL OBJECTS, PLACED IN ONE POSITION, ARE ALL EVERYWHERE
-AND ALL IN EACH PART.
-
-I say that if the front of a building--or any open piazza or
-field--which is illuminated by the sun has a dwelling opposite to
-it, and if, in the front which does not face the sun, you make a
-small round hole, all the illuminated objects will project their
-images through that hole and be visible inside the dwelling on the
-opposite wall which may be made white; and there, in fact, they will
-be upside down, and if you make similar openings in several places
-in the same wall you will have the same result from each. Hence the
-images of the illuminated objects are all everywhere on this wall
-and all in each minutest part of it. The reason, as we clearly know,
-is that this hole must admit some light to the said dwelling, and
-the light admitted by it is derived from one or many luminous
-bodies. If these bodies are of various colours and shapes the rays
-forming the images are of various colours and shapes, and so will
-the representations be on the wall.
-
-[Footnote: 70. 15--23. This section has already been published in the
-"_Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo da Vinci_" Milan 1872, pp. 13, 14.
-G. Govi observes upon it, that Leonardo is not to be regarded as the
-inventor of the Camera obscura, but that he was the first to explain
-by it the structure of the eye. An account of the Camera obscura
-first occurs in CESARE CESARINI's Italian version of Vitruvius, pub.
-1523, four years after Leonardo's death. Cesarini expressly names
-Benedettino Don Papnutio as the inventor of the Camera obscura. In
-his explanation of the function of the eye by a comparison with the
-Camera obscura Leonardo was the precursor of G. CARDANO, Professor
-of Medicine at Bologna (died 1576) and it appears highly probable
-that this is, in fact, the very discovery which Leonardo ascribes to
-himself in section 21 without giving any further details.]
-
-71.
-
-HOW THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS RECEIVED BY THE EYE INTERSECT WITHIN THE
-CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR OF THE EYE.
-
-An experiment, showing how objects transmit their images or
-pictures, intersecting within the eye in the crystalline humour, is
-seen when by some small round hole penetrate the images of
-illuminated objects into a very dark chamber. Then, receive these
-images on a white paper placed within this dark room and rather near
-to the hole and you will see all the objects on the paper in their
-proper forms and colours, but much smaller; and they will be upside
-down by reason of that very intersection. These images being
-transmitted from a place illuminated by the sun will seem actually
-painted on this paper which must be extremely thin and looked at
-from behind. And let the little perforation be made in a very thin
-plate of iron. Let _a b e d e_ be the object illuminated by the sun
-and _o r_ the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at
-_n m_. Let _s t_ be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the
-images of these objects upside down, because the rays being
-straight, _a_ on the right hand becomes _k_ on the left, and _e_ on
-the left becomes _f_ on the right; and the same takes place inside
-the pupil.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is already known through a translation into
-French by VENTURI. Compare his '_Essai sur les ouvrages
-physico-mathematiques de L. da Vinci avec des fragments tires de ses
-Manuscrits, apportes de l'Italie. Lu a la premiere classe de
-l'Institut national des Sciences et Arts.' Paris, An V_ (1797).]
-
-The practice of perspective (72. 73).
-
-72.
-
-In the practice of perspective the same rules apply to light and to
-the eye.
-
-73.
-
-The object which is opposite to the pupil of the eye is seen by that
-pupil and that which is opposite to the eye is seen by the pupil.
-
-Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye (74. 75)
-
-74.
-
-The lines sent forth by the image of an object to the eye do not
-reach the point within the eye in straight lines.
-
-75.
-
-If the judgment of the eye is situated within it, the straight lines
-of the images are refracted on its surface because they pass through
-the rarer to the denser medium. If, when you are under water, you
-look at objects in the air you will see them out of their true
-place; and the same with objects under water seen from the air.
-
-The intersection of the rays (76-82).
-
-76.
-
-The inversion of the images.
-
-All the images of objects which pass through a window [glass pane]
-from the free outer air to the air confined within walls, are seen
-on the opposite side; and an object which moves in the outer air
-from east to west will seem in its shadow, on the wall which is
-lighted by this confined air, to have an opposite motion.
-
-77.
-
-THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH THE IMAGES OF BODIES PASS IN BETWEEN THE
-MARGINS OF THE OPENINGS BY WHICH THEY ENTER.
-
-What difference is there in the way in which images pass through
-narrow openings and through large openings, or in those which pass
-by the sides of shaded bodies? By moving the edges of the opening
-through which the images are admitted, the images of immovable
-objects are made to move. And this happens, as is shown in the 9th
-which demonstrates: [Footnote 11: _per la 9a che dicie_. When
-Leonardo refers thus to a number it serves to indicate marginal
-diagrams; this can in some instances be distinctly proved. The ninth
-sketch on the page W. L. 145 b corresponds to the middle sketch of
-the three reproduced.] the images of any object are all everywhere,
-and all in each part of the surrounding air. It follows that if one
-of the edges of the hole by which the images are admitted to a dark
-chamber is moved it cuts off those rays of the image that were in
-contact with it and gets nearer to other rays which previously were
-remote from it &c.
-
-OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE EDGE AT THE RIGHT OR LEFT, OR THE UPPER, OR
-LOWER EDGE.
-
-If you move the right side of the opening the image on the left will
-move [being that] of the object which entered on the right side of
-the opening; and the same result will happen with all the other
-sides of the opening. This can be proved by the 2nd of this which
-shows: all the rays which convey the images of objects through the
-air are straight lines. Hence, if the images of very large bodies
-have to pass through very small holes, and beyond these holes
-recover their large size, the lines must necessarily intersect.
-
-[Footnote: 77. 2. In the first of the three diagrams Leonardo had
-drawn only one of the two margins, et _m_.]
-
-78.
-
-Necessity has provided that all the images of objects in front of
-the eye shall intersect in two places. One of these intersections is
-in the pupil, the other in the crystalline lens; and if this were
-not the case the eye could not see so great a number of objects as
-it does. This can be proved, since all the lines which intersect do
-so in a point. Because nothing is seen of objects excepting their
-surface; and their edges are lines, in contradistinction to the
-definition of a surface. And each minute part of a line is equal to
-a point; for _smallest_ is said of that than which nothing can be
-smaller, and this definition is equivalent to the definition of the
-point. Hence it is possible for the whole circumference of a circle
-to transmit its image to the point of intersection, as is shown in
-the 4th of this which shows: all the smallest parts of the images
-cross each other without interfering with each other. These
-demonstrations are to illustrate the eye. No image, even of the
-smallest object, enters the eye without being turned upside down;
-but as it penetrates into the crystalline lens it is once more
-reversed and thus the image is restored to the same position within
-the eye as that of the object outside the eye.
-
-79.
-
-OF THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE EYE.
-
-Only one line of the image, of all those that reach the visual
-virtue, has no intersection; and this has no sensible dimensions
-because it is a mathematical line which originates from a
-mathematical point, which has no dimensions.
-
-According to my adversary, necessity requires that the central line
-of every image that enters by small and narrow openings into a dark
-chamber shall be turned upside down, together with the images of the
-bodies that surround it.
-
-80.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE IMAGE CAN BE INTERSECTED, OR
-NOT, WITHIN THE OPENING.
-
-It is impossible that the line should intersect itself; that is,
-that its right should cross over to its left side, and so, its left
-side become its right side. Because such an intersection demands two
-lines, one from each side; for there can be no motion from right to
-left or from left to right in itself without such extension and
-thickness as admit of such motion. And if there is extension it is
-no longer a line but a surface, and we are investigating the
-properties of a line, and not of a surface. And as the line, having
-no centre of thickness cannot be divided, we must conclude that the
-line can have no sides to intersect each other. This is proved by
-the movement of the line _a f_ to _a b_ and of the line _e b_ to _e
-f_, which are the sides of the surface _a f e b_. But if you move
-the line _a b_ and the line _e f_, with the frontends _a e_, to the
-spot _c_, you will have moved the opposite ends _f b_ towards each
-other at the point _d_. And from the two lines you will have drawn
-the straight line _c d_ which cuts the middle of the intersection of
-these two lines at the point _n_ without any intersection. For, you
-imagine these two lines as having breadth, it is evident that by
-this motion the first will entirely cover the other--being equal
-with it--without any intersection, in the position _c d_. And this
-is sufficient to prove our proposition.
-
-81.
-
-HOW THE INNUMERABLE RAYS FROM INNUMERABLE IMAGES CAN CONVERGE TO A
-POINT.
-
-Just as all lines can meet at a point without interfering with each
-other--being without breadth or thickness--in the same way all the
-images of surfaces can meet there; and as each given point faces the
-object opposite to it and each object faces an opposite point, the
-converging rays of the image can pass through the point and diverge
-again beyond it to reproduce and re-magnify the real size of that
-image. But their impressions will appear reversed--as is shown in
-the first, above; where it is said that every image intersects as it
-enters the narrow openings made in a very thin substance.
-
-Read the marginal text on the other side.
-
-In proportion as the opening is smaller than the shaded body, so
-much less will the images transmitted through this opening intersect
-each other. The sides of images which pass through openings into a
-dark room intersect at a point which is nearer to the opening in
-proportion as the opening is narrower. To prove this let _a b_ be an
-object in light and shade which sends not its shadow but the image
-of its darkened form through the opening _d e_ which is as wide as
-this shaded body; and its sides _a b_, being straight lines (as has
-been proved) must intersect between the shaded object and the
-opening; but nearer to the opening in proportion as it is smaller
-than the object in shade. As is shown, on your right hand and your
-left hand, in the two diagrams _a_ _b_ _c_ _n_ _m_ _o_ where, the
-right opening _d_ _e_, being equal in width to the shaded object _a_
-_b_, the intersection of the sides of the said shaded object occurs
-half way between the opening and the shaded object at the point _c_.
-But this cannot happen in the left hand figure, the opening _o_
-being much smaller than the shaded object _n_ _m_.
-
-It is impossible that the images of objects should be seen between
-the objects and the openings through which the images of these
-bodies are admitted; and this is plain, because where the atmosphere
-is illuminated these images are not formed visibly.
-
-When the images are made double by mutually crossing each other they
-are invariably doubly as dark in tone. To prove this let _d_ _e_ _h_
-be such a doubling which although it is only seen within the space
-between the bodies in _b_ and _i_ this will not hinder its being
-seen from _f_ _g_ or from _f_ _m_; being composed of the images _a_
-_b_ _i_ _k_ which run together in _d_ _e_ _h_.
-
-[Footnote: 81. On the original diagram at the beginning of this
-chapter Leonardo has written "_azurro_" (blue) where in the
-facsimile I have marked _A_, and "_giallo_" (yellow) where _B_
-stands.]
-
-[Footnote: 15--23. These lines stand between the diagrams I and III.]
-
-[Footnote: 24--53. These lines stand between the diagrams I and II.]
-
-[Footnote: 54--97 are written along the left side of diagram I.]
-
-82.
-
-An experiment showing that though the pupil may not be moved from
-its position the objects seen by it may appear to move from their
-places.
-
-If you look at an object at some distance from you and which is
-below the eye, and fix both your eyes upon it and with one hand
-firmly hold the upper lid open while with the other you push up the
-under lid--still keeping your eyes fixed on the object gazed at--you
-will see that object double; one [image] remaining steady, and the
-other moving in a contrary direction to the pressure of your finger
-on the lower eyelid. How false the opinion is of those who say that
-this happens because the pupil of the eye is displaced from its
-position.
-
-How the above mentioned facts prove that the pupil acts upside down
-in seeing.
-
-[Footnote: 82. 14--17. The subject indicated by these two headings is
-fully discussed in the two chapters that follow them in the
-original; but it did not seem to me appropriate to include them
-here.]
-
-Demostration of perspective by means of a vertical glass plane
-(83-85).
-
-83.
-
-OF THE PLANE OF GLASS.
-
-Perspective is nothing else than seeing place [or objects] behind a
-plane of glass, quite transparent, on the surface of which the
-objects behind that glass are to be drawn. These can be traced in
-pyramids to the point in the eye, and these pyramids are intersected
-on the glass plane.
-
-84.
-
-Pictorial perspective can never make an object at the same distance,
-look of the same size as it appears to the eye. You see that the
-apex of the pyramid _f c d_ is as far from the object _c_ _d_ as the
-same point _f_ is from the object _a_ _b_; and yet _c_ _d_, which is
-the base made by the painter's point, is smaller than _a_ _b_ which
-is the base of the lines from the objects converging in the eye and
-refracted at _s_ _t_, the surface of the eye. This may be proved by
-experiment, by the lines of vision and then by the lines of the
-painter's plumbline by cutting the real lines of vision on one and
-the same plane and measuring on it one and the same object.
-
-85.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The vertical plane is a perpendicular line, imagined as in front of
-the central point where the apex of the pyramids converge. And this
-plane bears the same relation to this point as a plane of glass
-would, through which you might see the various objects and draw them
-on it. And the objects thus drawn would be smaller than the
-originals, in proportion as the distance between the glass and the
-eye was smaller than that between the glass and the objects.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The different converging pyramids produced by the objects, will
-show, on the plane, the various sizes and remoteness of the objects
-causing them.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-All those horizontal planes of which the extremes are met by
-perpendicular lines forming right angles, if they are of equal width
-the more they rise to the level of eye the less this is seen, and
-the more the eye is above them the more will their real width be
-seen.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The farther a spherical body is from the eye the more you will see
-of it.
-
-The angle of sight varies with the distance (86-88)
-
-86.
-
-A simple and natural method; showing how objects appear to the eye
-without any other medium.
-
-The object that is nearest to the eye always seems larger than
-another of the same size at greater distance. The eye _m_, seeing
-the spaces _o v x_, hardly detects the difference between them, and
-the. reason of this is that it is close to them [Footnote 6: It is
-quite inconceivable to me why M. RAVAISSON, in a note to his French
-translation of this simple passage should have remarked: _Il est
-clair que c'est par erreur que Leonard a ecrit_ per esser visino _au
-lieu de_ per non esser visino. (See his printed ed. of MS. A. p.
-38.)]; but if these spaces are marked on the vertical plane _n o_
-the space _o v_ will be seen at _o r_, and in the same way the space
-_v x_ will appear at _r q_. And if you carry this out in any place
-where you can walk round, it will look out of proportion by reason
-of the great difference in the spaces _o r_ and _r q_. And this
-proceeds from the eye being so much below [near] the plane that the
-plane is foreshortened. Hence, if you wanted to carry it out, you
-would have [to arrange] to see the perspective through a single hole
-which must be at the point _m_, or else you must go to a distance of
-at least 3 times the height of the object you see. The plane _o p_
-being always equally remote from the eye will reproduce the objects
-in a satisfactory way, so that they may be seen from place to place.
-
-87.
-
-How every large mass sends forth its images, which may diminish
-through infinity.
-
-The images of any large mass being infinitely divisible may be
-infinitely diminished.
-
-88.
-
-Objects of equal size, situated in various places, will be seen by
-different pyramids which will each be smaller in proportion as the
-object is farther off.
-
-89.
-
-Perspective, in dealing with distances, makes use of two opposite
-pyramids, one of which has its apex in the eye and the base as
-distant as the horizon. The other has the base towards the eye and
-the apex on the horizon. Now, the first includes the [visible]
-universe, embracing all the mass of the objects that lie in front of
-the eye; as it might be a vast landscape seen through a very small
-opening; for the more remote the objects are from the eye, the
-greater number can be seen through the opening, and thus the pyramid
-is constructed with the base on the horizon and the apex in the eye,
-as has been said. The second pyramid is extended to a spot which is
-smaller in proportion as it is farther from the eye; and this second
-perspective [= pyramid] results from the first.
-
-90.
-
-SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Simple perspective is that which is constructed by art on a vertical
-plane which is equally distant from the eye in every part. Complex
-perspective is that which is constructed on a ground-plan in which
-none of the parts are equally distant from the eye.
-
-91.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No surface can be seen exactly as it is, if the eye that sees it is
-not equally remote from all its edges.
-
-92.
-
-WHY WHEN AN OBJECT IS PLACED CLOSE TO THE EYE ITS EDGES ARE
-INDISTINCT.
-
-When an object opposite the eye is brought too close to it, its
-edges must become too confused to be distinguished; as it happens
-with objects close to a light, which cast a large and indistinct
-shadow, so is it with an eye which estimates objects opposite to it;
-in all cases of linear perspective, the eye acts in the same way as
-the light. And the reason is that the eye has one leading line (of
-vision) which dilates with distance and embraces with true
-discernment large objects at a distance as well as small ones that
-are close. But since the eye sends out a multitude of lines which
-surround this chief central one and since these which are farthest
-from the centre in this cone of lines are less able to discern with
-accuracy, it follows that an object brought close to the eye is not
-at a due distance, but is too near for the central line to be able
-to discern the outlines of the object. So the edges fall within the
-lines of weaker discerning power, and these are to the function of
-the eye like dogs in the chase which can put up the game but cannot
-take it. Thus these cannot take in the objects, but induce the
-central line of sight to turn upon them, when they have put them up.
-Hence the objects which are seen with these lines of sight have
-confused outlines.
-
-The relative size of objects with regard to their distance from the
-eye (93-98).
-
-93.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Small objects close at hand and large ones at a distance, being seen
-within equal angles, will appear of the same size.
-
-94.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There is no object so large but that at a great distance from the
-eye it does not appear smaller than a smaller object near.
-
-95.
-
-Among objects of equal size that which is most remote from the eye
-will look the smallest. [Footnote: This axiom, sufficiently clear in
-itself, is in the original illustrated by a very large diagram,
-constructed like that here reproduced under No. 108.
-
-The same idea is repeated in C. A. I a; I a, stated as follows:
-_Infra le cose d'equal grandeza quella si dimostra di minor figura
-che sara piu distante dall' ochio_.--]
-
-96.
-
-Why an object is less distinct when brought near to the eye, and why
-with spectacles, or without the naked eye sees badly either close or
-far off [as the case may be].
-
-97.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Among objects of equal size, that which is most remote from the eye
-will look the smallest.
-
-98.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No second object can be so much lower than the first as that the eye
-will not see it higher than the first, if the eye is above the
-second.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-And this second object will never be so much higher than the first
-as that the eye, being below them, will not see the second as lower
-than the first.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If the eye sees a second square through the centre of a smaller one,
-that is nearer, the second, larger square will appear to be
-surrounded by the smaller one.
-
-PERSPECTIVE--PROPOSITION.
-
-Objects that are farther off can never be so large but that those in
-front, though smaller, will conceal or surround them.
-
-DEFINITION.
-
-This proposition can be proved by experiment. For if you look
-through a small hole there is nothing so large that it cannot be
-seen through it and the object so seen appears surrounded and
-enclosed by the outline of the sides of the hole. And if you stop it
-up, this small stopping will conceal the view of the largest object.
-
-The apparent size of objects defined by calculation (99-105)
-
-99.
-
-OF LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Linear Perspective deals with the action of the lines of sight, in
-proving by measurement how much smaller is a second object than the
-first, and how much the third is smaller than the second; and so on
-by degrees to the end of things visible. I find by experience that
-if a second object is as far beyond the first as the first is from
-the eye, although they are of the same size, the second will seem
-half the size of the first and if the third object is of the same
-size as the 2nd, and the 3rd is as far beyond the second as the 2nd
-from the first, it will appear of half the size of the second; and
-so on by degrees, at equal distances, the next farthest will be half
-the size of the former object. So long as the space does not exceed
-the length of 20 braccia. But, beyond 20 braccia figures of equal
-size will lose 2/4 and at 40 braccia they will lose 9/10, and 19/20
-at 60 braccia, and so on diminishing by degrees. This is if the
-picture plane is distant from you twice your own height. If it is
-only as far off as your own height, there will be a great difference
-between the first braccia and the second.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is included in DUFRESNE'S and MANZI'S
-editions of the Treatise on Painting. H. LUDWIG, in his commentary,
-calls this chapter "_eines der wichtigsten im ganzen Tractat_", but
-at the same time he asserts that its substance has been so
-completely disfigured in the best MS. copies that we ought not to
-regard Leonardo as responsible for it. However, in the case of this
-chapter, the old MS. copies agree with the original as it is
-reproduced above. From the chapters given later in this edition,
-which were written at a subsequent date, it would appear that
-Leonardo corrected himself on these points.]
-
-100.
-
-OF THE DIMINUTION OF OBJECTS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES.
-
-A second object as far distant from the first as the first is from
-the eye will appear half the size of the first, though they be of
-the same size really.
-
-OF THE DEGREES OF DIMINUTION.
-
-If you place the vertical plane at one braccio from the eye, the
-first object, being at a distance of 4 braccia from your eye will
-diminish to 3/4 of its height at that plane; and if it is 8 braccia
-from the eye, to 7/8; and if it is 16 braccia off, it will diminish
-to 15/16 of its height and so on by degrees, as the space doubles
-the diminution will double.
-
-101.
-
-Begin from the line _m f_ with the eye below; then go up and do the
-same with the line _n f_, then with the eye above and close to the 2
-gauges on the ground look at _m n_; then as _c m_ is to _m n_ so
-will _n m_ be to _n s_.
-
-If _a n_ goes 3 times into _f b, m p_ will do the same into _p g_.
-Then go backwards so far as that _c d_ goes twice into _a n_ and _p
-g_ will be equal to _g h_. And _m p_ will go into _h p_ as often as
-_d c_ into _o p_.
-
-[Footnote: The first three lines are unfortunately very obscure.]
-
-102.
-
-I GIVE THE DEGREES OF THE OBJECTS SEEN BY THE EYE AS THE MUSICIAN
-DOES THE NOTES HEARD BY THE EAR.
-
-Although the objects seen by the eye do, in fact, touch each other
-as they recede, I will nevertheless found my rule on spaces of 20
-braccia each; as a musician does with notes, which, though they can
-be carried on one into the next, he divides into degrees from note
-to note calling them 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th; and has affixed a name
-to each degree in raising or lowering the voice.
-
-103.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Let _f_ be the level and distance of the eye; and _a_ the vertical
-plane, as high as a man; let _e_ be a man, then I say that on the
-plane this will be the distance from the plane to the 2nd man.
-
-104.
-
-The differences in the diminution of objects of equal size in
-consequence of their various remoteness from the eye will bear among
-themselves the same proportions as those of the spaces between the
-eye and the different objects.
-
-Find out how much a man diminishes at a certain distance and what
-its length is; and then at twice that distance and at 3 times, and
-so make your general rule.
-
-105.
-
-The eye cannot judge where an object high up ought to descend.
-
-106.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If two similar and equal objects are placed one beyond the other at
-a given distance the difference in their size will appear greater in
-proportion as they are nearer to the eye that sees them. And
-conversely there will seem to be less difference in their size in
-proportion as they are remote from the eve.
-
-This is proved by the proportions of their distances among
-themselves; for, if the first of these two objects were as far from
-the eye, as the 2nd from the first this would be called the second
-proportion: since, if the first is at 1 braccia from the eye and the
-2nd at two braccia, two being twice as much as one, the first object
-will look twice as large as the second. But if you place the first
-at a hundred braccia from you and the second at a hundred and one,
-you will find that the first is only so much larger than the second
-as 100 is less than 101; and the converse is equally true. And
-again, the same thing is proved by the 4th of this book which shows
-that among objects that are equal, there is the same proportion in
-the diminution of the size as in the increase in the distance from
-the eye of the spectator.
-
-On natural perspective (107--109).
-
-107.
-
-OF EQUAL OBJECTS THE MOST REMOTE LOOK THE SMALLEST.
-
-The practice of perspective may be divided into ... parts [Footnote
-4: _in_ ... _parte_. The space for the number is left blank in the
-original.], of which the first treats of objects seen by the eye at
-any distance; and it shows all these objects just as the eye sees
-them diminished, without obliging a man to stand in one place rather
-than another so long as the plane does not produce a second
-foreshortening.
-
-But the second practice is a combination of perspective derived
-partly from art and partly from nature and the work done by its
-rules is in every portion of it, influenced by natural perspective
-and artificial perspective. By natural perspective I mean that the
-plane on which this perspective is represented is a flat surface,
-and this plane, although it is parallel both in length and height,
-is forced to diminish in its remoter parts more than in its nearer
-ones. And this is proved by the first of what has been said above,
-and its diminution is natural. But artificial perspective, that is
-that which is devised by art, does the contrary; for objects equal
-in size increase on the plane where it is foreshortened in
-proportion as the eye is more natural and nearer to the plane, and
-as the part of the plane on which it is figured is farther from the
-eye.
-
-And let this plane be _d e_ on which are seen 3 equal circles which
-are beyond this plane _d e_, that is the circles _a b c_. Now you
-see that the eye _h_ sees on the vertical plane the sections of the
-images, largest of those that are farthest and smallest of the
-nearest.
-
-108.
-
-Here follows what is wanting in the margin at the foot on the other
-side of this page.
-
-Natural perspective acts in a contrary way; for, at greater
-distances the object seen appears smaller, and at a smaller distance
-the object appears larger. But this said invention requires the
-spectator to stand with his eye at a small hole and then, at that
-small hole, it will be very plain. But since many (men's) eyes
-endeavour at the same time to see one and the same picture produced
-by this artifice only one can see clearly the effect of this
-perspective and all the others will see confusion. It is well
-therefore to avoid such complex perspective and hold to simple
-perspective which does not regard planes as foreshortened, but as
-much as possible in their proper form. This simple perspective, in
-which the plane intersects the pyramids by which the images are
-conveyed to the eye at an equal distance from the eye is our
-constant experience, from the curved form of the pupil of the eye on
-which the pyramids are intersected at an equal distance from the
-visual virtue.
-
-[Footnote 24: _la prima di sopra_ i. e. the first of the three
-diagrams which, in the original MS., are placed in the margin at the
-beginning of this chapter.]
-
-109.
-
-OF A MIXTURE OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-This diagram distinguishes natural from artificial perspective. But
-before proceeding any farther I will define what is natural and what
-is artificial perspective. Natural perspective says that the more
-remote of a series of objects of equal size will look the smaller,
-and conversely, the nearer will look the larger and the apparent
-size will diminish in proportion to the distance. But in artificial
-perspective when objects of unequal size are placed at various
-distances, the smallest is nearer to the eye than the largest and
-the greatest distance looks as though it were the least of all; and
-the cause of this is the plane on which the objects are represented;
-and which is at unequal distances from the eye throughout its
-length. And this diminution of the plane is natural, but the
-perspective shown upon it is artificial since it nowhere agrees with
-the true diminution of the said plane. Whence it follows, that when
-the eye is somewhat removed from the [station point of the]
-perspective that it has been gazing at, all the objects represented
-look monstrous, and this does not occur in natural perspective,
-which has been defined above. Let us say then, that the square _a b
-c d_ figured above is foreshortened being seen by the eye situated
-in the centre of the side which is in front. But a mixture of
-artificial and natural perspective will be seen in this tetragon
-called _el main_ [Footnote 20: _el main_ is quite legibly written in
-the original; the meaning and derivation of the word are equally
-doubtful.], that is to say _e f g h_ which must appear to the eye of
-the spectator to be equal to _a b c d_ so long as the eye remains in
-its first position between _c_ and _d_. And this will be seen to
-have a good effect, because the natural perspective of the plane
-will conceal the defects which would [otherwise] seem monstrous.
-
-_III._
-
-_Six books on Light and Shade._
-
-_Linear Perspective cannot be immediately followed by either the_
-"prospettiva de' perdimenti" _or the_ "prospettiva de' colori" _or
-the aerial perspective; since these branches of the subject
-presuppose a knowledge of the principles of Light and Shade. No
-apology, therefore, is here needed for placing these immediately
-after Linear Perspective._
-
-_We have various plans suggested by Leonardo for the arrangement of
-the mass of materials treating of this subject. Among these I have
-given the preference to a scheme propounded in No._ III, _because,
-in all probability, we have here a final and definite purpose
-expressed. Several authors have expressed it as their opinion that
-the Paris Manuscript_ C _is a complete and finished treatise on
-Light and Shade. Certainly, the Principles of Light and Shade form
-by far the larger portion of this MS. which consists of two separate
-parts; still, the materials are far from being finally arranged. It
-is also evident that he here investigates the subject from the point
-of view of the Physicist rather than from that of the Painter._
-
-_The plan of a scheme of arrangement suggested in No._ III _and
-adopted by me has been strictly adhered to for the first four Books.
-For the three last, however, few materials have come down to us; and
-it must be admitted that these three Books would find a far more
-appropriate place in a work on Physics than in a treatise on
-Painting. For this reason I have collected in Book V all the
-chapters on Reflections, and in Book VI I have put together and
-arranged all the sections of MS._ C _that belong to the book on
-Painting, so far as they relate to Light and Shade, while the
-sections of the same MS. which treat of the_ "Prospettiva de'
-perdimenti" _have, of course, been excluded from the series on Light
-and Shade._
-
-[Footnote III: This text has already been published with some slight
-variations in Dozio's pamphlet _Degli scritti e disegni di Leonardo
-da Vinci_, Milan 1871, pp. 30--31. Dozio did not transcribe it from
-the original MS. which seems to have remained unknown to him, but
-from an old copy (MS. H. 227 in the Ambrosian Library).]
-
-GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
-
-Prolegomena.
-
-110.
-
-You must first explain the theory and then the practice. First you
-must describe the shadows and lights on opaque objects, and then on
-transparent bodies.
-
-Scheme of the books on Light and shade.
-
-111.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-[Having already treated of the nature of shadows and the way in
-which they are cast [Footnote 2: _Avendo io tractato._--We may
-suppose that he here refers to some particular MS., possibly Paris
-C.], I will now consider the places on which they fall; and their
-curvature, obliquity, flatness or, in short, any character I may be
-able to detect in them.]
-
-Shadow is the obstruction of light. Shadows appear to me to be of
-supreme importance in perspective, because, without them opaque and
-solid bodies will be ill defined; that which is contained within
-their outlines and their boundaries themselves will be
-ill-understood unless they are shown against a background of a
-different tone from themselves. And therefore in my first
-proposition concerning shadow I state that every opaque body is
-surrounded and its whole surface enveloped in shadow and light. And
-on this proposition I build up the first Book. Besides this, shadows
-have in themselves various degrees of darkness, because they are
-caused by the absence of a variable amount of the luminous rays; and
-these I call Primary shadows because they are the first, and
-inseparable from the object to which they belong. And on this I will
-found my second Book. From these primary shadows there result
-certain shaded rays which are diffused through the atmosphere and
-these vary in character according to that of the primary shadows
-whence they are derived. I shall therefore call these shadows
-Derived shadows because they are produced by other shadows; and the
-third Book will treat of these. Again these derived shadows, where
-they are intercepted by various objects, produce effects as various
-as the places where they are cast and of this I will treat in the
-fourth Book. And since all round the derived shadows, where the
-derived shadows are intercepted, there is always a space where the
-light falls and by reflected dispersion is thrown back towards its
-cause, it meets the original shadow and mingles with it and modifies
-it somewhat in its nature; and on this I will compose my fifth Book.
-Besides this, in the sixth Book I will investigate the many and
-various diversities of reflections resulting from these rays which
-will modify the original [shadow] by [imparting] some of the various
-colours from the different objects whence these reflected rays are
-derived. Again, the seventh Book will treat of the various distances
-that may exist between the spot where the reflected rays fall and
-that where they originate, and the various shades of colour which
-they will acquire in falling on opaque bodies.
-
-Different principles and plans of treatment (112--116).
-
-112.
-
-First I will treat of light falling through windows which I will
-call Restricted [Light] and then I will treat of light in the open
-country, to which I will give the name of diffused Light. Then I
-will treat of the light of luminous bodies.
-
-113.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The conditions of shadow and light [as seen] by the eye are 3. Of
-these the first is when the eye and the light are on the same side
-of the object seen; the 2nd is when the eye is in front of the
-object and the light is behind it. The 3rd is when the eye is in
-front of the object and the light is on one side, in such a way as
-that a line drawn from the object to the eye and one from the object
-to the light should form a right angle where they meet.
-
-114.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-This is another section: that is, of the nature of a reflection
-(from) an object placed between the eye and the light under various
-aspects.
-
-115.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-As regards all visible objects 3 things must be considered. These
-are the position of the eye which sees: that of the object seen
-[with regard] to the light, and the position of the light which
-illuminates the object, _b_ is the eye, _a_ the object seen, _c_ the
-light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the illuminating body, _c_ is the
-illuminated object.
-
-116.
-
-Let _a_ be the light, _b_ the eye, _c_ the object seen by the eye
-and in the light. These show, first, the eye between the light and
-the body; the 2nd, the light between the eye and the body; the 3rd
-the body between the eye and the light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the
-illuminated object, _c_ the light.
-
-117.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-OF THE THREE KINDS OF LIGHT THAT ILLUMINATE OPAQUE BODIES.
-
-The first kind of Light which may illuminate opaque bodies is called
-Direct light--as that of the sun or any other light from a window or
-flame. The second is Diffused [universal] light, such as we see in
-cloudy weather or in mist and the like. The 3rd is Subdued light,
-that is when the sun is entirely below the horizon, either in the
-evening or morning.
-
-118.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-The lights which may illuminate opaque bodies are of 4 kinds. These
-are: diffused light as that of the atmosphere, within our horizon.
-And Direct, as that of the sun, or of a window or door or other
-opening. The third is Reflected light; and there is a 4th which is
-that which passes through [semi] transparent bodies, as linen or
-paper or the like, but not transparent like glass, or crystal, or
-other diaphanous bodies, which produce the same effect as though
-nothing intervened between the shaded object and the light that
-falls upon it; and this we will discuss fully in our discourse.
-
-Definition of the nature of shadows (119--122).
-
-119.
-
-WHAT LIGHT AND SHADOW ARE.
-
-Shadow is the absence of light, merely the obstruction of the
-luminous rays by an opaque body. Shadow is of the nature of
-darkness. Light [on an object] is of the nature of a luminous body;
-one conceals and the other reveals. They are always associated and
-inseparable from all objects. But shadow is a more powerful agent
-than light, for it can impede and entirely deprive bodies of their
-light, while light can never entirely expel shadow from a body, that
-is from an opaque body.
-
-120.
-
-Shadow is the diminution of light by the intervention of an opaque
-body. Shadow is the counterpart of the luminous rays which are cut
-off by an opaque body.
-
-This is proved because the shadow cast is the same in shape and size
-as the luminous rays were which are transformed into a shadow.
-
-121.
-
-Shadow is the diminution alike of light and of darkness, and stands
-between darkness and light.
-
-A shadow may be infinitely dark, and also of infinite degrees of
-absence of darkness.
-
-The beginnings and ends of shadow lie between the light and darkness
-and may be infinitely diminished and infinitely increased. Shadow is
-the means by which bodies display their form.
-
-The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail but for
-shadow.
-
-122.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF SHADOW.
-
-Shadow partakes of the nature of universal matter. All such matters
-are more powerful in their beginning and grow weaker towards the
-end, I say at the beginning, whatever their form or condition may be
-and whether visible or invisible. And it is not from small
-beginnings that they grow to a great size in time; as it might be a
-great oak which has a feeble beginning from a small acorn. Yet I may
-say that the oak is most powerful at its beginning, that is where it
-springs from the earth, which is where it is largest (To return:)
-Darkness, then, is the strongest degree of shadow and light is its
-least. Therefore, O Painter, make your shadow darkest close to the
-object that casts it, and make the end of it fading into light,
-seeming to have no end.
-
-Of the various kinds of shadows. (123-125).
-
-123.
-
-Darkness is absence of light. Shadow is diminution of light.
-Primitive shadow is that which is inseparable from a body not in the
-light. Derived shadow is that which is disengaged from a body in
-shadow and pervades the air. A cast transparent shadow is that which
-is surrounded by an illuminated surface. A simple shadow is one
-which receives no light from the luminous body which causes it. A
-simple shadow begins within the line which starts from the edge of
-the luminous body _a b_.
-
-124.
-
-A simple shadow is one where no light at all interferes with it.
-
-A compound shadow is one which is somewhat illuminated by one or
-more lights.
-
-125.
-
-WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SHADOW THAT IS INSEPARABLE FROM A
-BODY AND A CAST SHADOW?
-
-An inseparable shadow is that which is never absent from the
-illuminated body. As, for instance a ball, which so long as it is in
-the light always has one side in shadow which never leaves it for
-any movement or change of position in the ball. A separate shadow
-may be and may not be produced by the body itself. Suppose the ball
-to be one braccia distant from a wall with a light on the opposite
-side of it; this light will throw upon the wall exactly as broad a
-shadow as is to be seen on the side of the ball that is turned
-towards the wall. That portion of the cast shadow will not be
-visible when the light is below the ball and the shadow is thrown up
-towards the sky and finding no obstruction on its way is lost.
-
-126.
-
-HOW THERE ARE 2 KINDS OF LIGHT, ONE SEPARABLE FROM, AND THE OTHER
-INSEPARABLE FROM BODIES.
-
-Of the various kinds of light (126, 127).
-
-Separate light is that which falls upon the body. Inseparable light
-is the side of the body that is illuminated by that light. One is
-called primary, the other derived. And, in the same way there are
-two kinds of shadow:--One primary and the other derived. The primary
-is that which is inseparable from the body, the derived is that
-which proceeds from the body conveying to the surface of the wall
-the form of the body causing it.
-
-127.
-
-How there are 2 different kinds of light; one being called diffused,
-the other restricted. The diffused is that which freely illuminates
-objects. The restricted is that which being admitted through an
-opening or window illuminates them on that side only.
-
-[Footnote: At the spot marked _A_ in the first diagram Leonardo
-wrote _lume costretto_ (restricted light). At the spot _B_ on the
-second diagram he wrote _lume libero_ (diffused light).]
-
-General remarks (128. 129).
-
-128.
-
-Light is the chaser away of darkness. Shade is the obstruction of
-light. Primary light is that which falls on objects and causes light
-and shade. And derived lights are those portions of a body which are
-illuminated by the primary light. A primary shadow is that side of a
-body on which the light cannot fall.
-
-The general distribution of shadow and light is that sum total of
-the rays thrown off by a shaded or illuminated body passing through
-the air without any interference and the spot which intercepts and
-cuts off the distribution of the dark and light rays.
-
-And the eye can best distinguish the forms of objects when it is
-placed between the shaded and the illuminated parts.
-
-129.
-
-MEMORANDUM OF THINGS I REQUIRE TO HAVE GRANTED [AS AXIOMS] IN MY
-EXPLANATION OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-I ask to have this much granted me--to assert that every ray
-passing through air of equal density throughout, travels in a
-straight line from its cause to the object or place it falls upon.
-
-FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-On the nature of light (130. 131).
-
-130.
-
-The reason by which we know that a light radiates from a single
-centre is this: We plainly see that a large light is often much
-broader than some small object which nevertheless--and although the
-rays [of the large light] are much more than twice the extent [of
-the small body]--always has its shadow cast on the nearest surface
-very visibly. Let _c f_ be a broad light and _n_ be the object in
-front of it, casting a shadow on the plane, and let _a b_ be the
-plane. It is clear that it is not the broad light that will cast the
-shadow _n_ on the plane, but that the light has within it a centre
-is shown by this experiment. The shadow falls on the plane as is
-shown at _m o t r_.
-
-[Footnote 13: In the original MS. no explanatory text is placed
-after this title-line; but a space is left for it and the text
-beginning at line 15 comes next.] Why, to two [eyes] or in front of
-two eyes do 3 objects appear as two?
-
-Why, when you estimate the direction of an object with two sights
-the nearer appears confused. I say that the eye projects an infinite
-number of lines which mingle or join those reaching it which come to
-it from the object looked at. And it is only the central and
-sensible line that can discern and discriminate colours and objects;
-all the others are false and illusory. And if you place 2 objects at
-half an arm's length apart if the nearer of the two is close to the
-eye its form will remain far more confused than that of the second;
-the reason is that the first is overcome by a greater number of
-false lines than the second and so is rendered vague.
-
-Light acts in the same manner, for in the effects of its lines
-(=rays), and particularly in perspective, it much resembles the eye;
-and its central rays are what cast the true shadow. When the object
-in front of it is too quickly overcome with dim rays it will cast a
-broad and disproportionate shadow, ill defined; but when the object
-which is to cast the shadow and cuts off the rays near to the place
-where the shadow falls, then the shadow is distinct; and the more so
-in proportion as the light is far off, because at a long distance
-the central ray is less overcome by false rays; because the lines
-from the eye and the solar and other luminous rays passing through
-the atmosphere are obliged to travel in straight lines. Unless they
-are deflected by a denser or rarer air, when they will be bent at
-some point, but so long as the air is free from grossness or
-moisture they will preserve their direct course, always carrying the
-image of the object that intercepts them back to their point of
-origin. And if this is the eye, the intercepting object will be seen
-by its colour, as well as by form and size. But if the intercepting
-plane has in it some small perforation opening into a darker
-chamber--not darker in colour, but by absence of light--you will see
-the rays enter through this hole and transmitting to the plane
-beyond all the details of the object they proceed from both as to
-colour and form; only every thing will be upside down. But the size
-[of the image] where the lines are reconstructed will be in
-proportion to the relative distance of the aperture from the plane
-on which the lines fall [on one hand] and from their origin [on the
-other]. There they intersect and form 2 pyramids with their point
-meeting [a common apex] and their bases opposite. Let _a b_ be the
-point of origin of the lines, _d e_ the first plane, and _c_ the
-aperture with the intersection of the lines; _f g_ is the inner
-plane. You will find that _a_ falls upon the inner plane below at
-_g_, and _b_ which is below will go up to the spot _f_; it will be
-quite evident to experimenters that every luminous body has in
-itself a core or centre, from which and to which all the lines
-radiate which are sent forth by the surface of the luminous body and
-reflected back to it; or which, having been thrown out and not
-intercepted, are dispersed in the air.
-
-131.
-
-THE RAYS WHETHER SHADED OR LUMINOUS HAVE GREATER STRENGTH AND EFFECT
-AT THEIR POINTS THAN AT THEIR SIDES.
-
-Although the points of luminous pyramids may extend into shaded
-places and those of pyramids of shadow into illuminated places, and
-though among the luminous pyramids one may start from a broader base
-than another; nevertheless, if by reason of their various length
-these luminous pyramids acquire angles of equal size their light
-will be equal; and the case will be the same with the pyramids of
-shadow; as may be seen in the intersected pyramids _a b c_ and _d e
-f_, which though their bases differ in size are equal as to breadth
-and light.
-
-[Footnote: 51--55: This supplementary paragraph is indicated as being
-a continuation of line 45, by two small crosses.]
-
-The difference between light and lustre (132--135).
-
-132.
-
-Of the difference between light and lustre; and that lustre is not
-included among colours, but is saturation of whiteness, and derived
-from the surface of wet bodies; light partakes of the colour of the
-object which reflects it (to the eye) as gold or silver or the like.
-
-133.
-
-OF THE HIGHEST LIGHTS WHICH TURN AND MOVE AS THE EYE MOVES WHICH
-SEES THE OBJECT.
-
-Suppose the body to be the round object figured here and let the
-light be at the point _a_, and let the illuminated side of the
-object be _b c_ and the eye at the point _d_: I say that, as lustre
-is every where and complete in each part, if you stand at the point
-_d_ the lustre will appear at _c_, and in proportion as the eye
-moves from _d_ to _a_, the lustre will move from _c_ to _n_.
-
-134.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Heigh light or lustre on any object is not situated [necessarily] in
-the middle of an illuminated object, but moves as and where the eye
-moves in looking at it.
-
-135.
-
-OF LIGHT AND LUSTRE.
-
-What is the difference between light and the lustre which is seen on
-the polished surface of opaque bodies?
-
-The lights which are produced from the polished surface of opaque
-bodies will be stationary on stationary objects even if the eye on
-which they strike moves. But reflected lights will, on those same
-objects, appear in as many different places on the surface as
-different positions are taken by the eye.
-
-WHAT BODIES HAVE LIGHT UPON THEM WITHOUT LUSTRE?
-
-Opaque bodies which have a hard and rough surface never display any
-lustre in any portion of the side on which the light falls.
-
-WHAT BODIES WILL DISPLAY LUSTRE BUT NOT LOOK ILLUMINATED?
-
-Those bodies which are opaque and hard with a hard surface reflect
-light [lustre] from every spot on the illuminated side which is in a
-position to receive light at the same angle of incidence as they
-occupy with regard to the eye; but, as the surface mirrors all the
-surrounding objects, the illuminated [body] is not recognisable in
-these portions of the illuminated body.
-
-136.
-
-The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies.
-
-The middle of the light and shade on an object in light and shade is
-opposite to the middle of the primary light. All light and shadow
-expresses itself in pyramidal lines. The middle of the shadow on any
-object must necessarily be opposite the middle of its light, with a
-direct line passing through the centre of the body. The middle of
-the light will be at _a_, that of the shadow at _b_. [Again, in
-bodies shown in light and shade the middle of each must coincide
-with the centre of the body, and a straight line will pass through
-both and through that centre.]
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS., at the spot marked _a_ of the first
-diagram Leonardo wrote _primitiuo_, and at the spot marked
-_c_--_primitiva_ (primary); at the spot marked _b_ he wrote
-_dirivatiuo_ and at _d deriuatiua_ (derived).]
-
-Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
-(137--140).
-
-137.
-
-SHOWS HOW LIGHT FROM ANY SIDE CONVERGES TO ONE POINT.
-
-Although the balls _a b c_ are lighted from one window,
-nevertheless, if you follow the lines of their shadows you will see
-they intersect at a point forming the angle _n_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is slightly
-sketched on Pl. XXXII; a square with three balls below it. The first
-three lines of the text belonging to it are written above the sketch
-and the six others below it.]
-
-138.
-
-Every shadow cast by a body has a central line directed to a single
-point produced by the intersection of luminous lines in the middle
-of the opening and thickness of the window. The proposition stated
-above, is plainly seen by experiment. Thus if you draw a place with
-a window looking northwards, and let this be _s f_, you will see a
-line starting from the horizon to the east, which, touching the 2
-angles of the window _o f_, reaches _d_; and from the horizon on the
-west another line, touching the other 2 angles _r s_, and ending at
-_c_; and their intersection falls exactly in the middle of the
-opening and thickness of the window. Again, you can still better
-confirm this proof by placing two sticks, as shown at _g h_; and you
-will see the line drawn from the centre of the shadow directed to
-the centre _m_ and prolonged to the horizon _n f_.
-
-[Footnote: _B_ here stands for _cerchio del' orizonte tramontano_ on
-the original diagram (the circle of the horizon towards the North);
-_A_ for _levante_ (East) and _C_ for _ponete_ (West).]
-
-139.
-
-Every shadow with all its variations, which becomes larger as its
-distance from the object is greater, has its external lines
-intersecting in the middle, between the light and the object. This
-proposition is very evident and is confirmed by experience. For, if
-_a b_ is a window without any object interposed, the luminous
-atmosphere to the right hand at _a_ is seen to the left at _d_. And
-the atmosphere at the left illuminates on the right at _c_, and the
-lines intersect at the point _m_.
-
-[Footnote: _A_ here stands for _levante_ (East), _B_ for _ponente_
-(West).]
-
-140.
-
-Every body in light and shade is situated between 2 pyramids one
-dark and the other luminous, one is visible the other is not. But
-this only happens when the light enters by a window. Supposing _a b_
-to be the window and _r_ the body in light and shade, the light to
-the right hand _z_ will pass the object to the left and go on to
-_p_; the light to the left at _k_ will pass to the right of the
-object at _i_ and go on to _m_ and the two lines will intersect at
-_c_ and form a pyramid. Then again _a_ _b_ falls on the shaded body
-at _i_ _g_ and forms a pyramid _f_ _i_ _g_. _f_ will be dark because
-the light _a_ _b_ can never fall there; _i_ _g_ _c_ will be
-illuminated because the light falls upon it.
-
-Light and shadow with regard to the position of the eye (141--145).
-
-141.
-
-Every shaded body that is larger than the pupil and that interposes
-between the luminous body and the eye will be seen dark.
-
-When the eye is placed between the luminous body and the objects
-illuminated by it, these objects will be seen without any shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which in the original stands above line 1 is
-given on Plate II, No 2. Then, after a blank space of about eight
-lines, the diagram Plate II No 3 is placed in the original. There is
-no explanation of it beyond the one line written under it.]
-
-142.
-
-Why the 2 lights one on each side of a body having two pyramidal
-sides of an obtuse apex leave it devoid of shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch illustrating this is on Plate XLI No 1.]
-
-143.
-
-A body in shadow situated between the light and the eye can never
-display its illuminated portion unless the eye can see the whole of
-the primary light.
-
-[Footnote: _A_ stands for _corpo_ (body), _B_ for _lume_ (light).]
-
-144.
-
-The eye which looks (at a spot) half way between the shadow and the
-light which surrounds the body in shadow will see that the deepest
-shadows on that body will meet the eye at equal angles, that is at
-the same angle as that of sight.
-
-[Footnote: In both these diagrams _A_ stands for _lume_ (light) _B_
-for _ombra_ (shadow).]
-
-145.
-
-OF THE DIFFERENT LIGHT AND SHADE IN VARIOUS ASPECTS AND OF OBJECTS
-PLACED IN THEM.
-
-If the sun is in the East and you look towards the West you will see
-every thing in full light and totally without shadow because you see
-them from the same side as the sun: and if you look towards the
-South or North you will see all objects in light and shade, because
-you see both the side towards the sun and the side away from it; and
-if you look towards the coming of the sun all objects will show you
-their shaded side, because on that side the sun cannot fall upon
-them.
-
-The law of the incidence of light.
-
-146.
-
-The edges of a window which are illuminated by 2 lights of equal
-degrees of brightness will not reflect light of equal brightness
-into the chamber within.
-
-If _b_ is a candle and _a c_ our hemisphere both will illuminate the
-edges of the window _m_ _n_, but light _b_ will only illuminate _f
-g_ and the hemisphere _a_ will light all of _d e_.
-
-147.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-That part of a body which receives the luminous rays at equal angles
-will be in a higher light than any other part of it.
-
-And the part which the luminous rays strike between less equal
-angles will be less strongly illuminated.
-
-SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Gradations of strength in the shadows (148. 149).
-
-148.
-
-THAT PORTION OF A BODY IN LIGHT AND SHADE WILL BE LEAST LUMINOUS
-WHICH IS SEEN UNDER THE LEAST AMOUNT OF LIGHT.
-
-That part of the object which is marked _m_ is in the highest light
-because it faces the window _a d_ by the line _a f_; _n_ is in the
-second grade because the light _b d_ strikes it by the line _b e_;
-_o_ is in the third grade, as the light falls on it from _c d_ by
-the line _c h_; _p_ is the lowest light but one as _c d_ falls on it
-by the line _d v_; _q_ is the deepest shadow for no light falls on
-it from any part of the window.
-
-In proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_ so will _n r s_ be darker
-than _m_, and all the rest is space without shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 1 on Plate
-III. The letters _a b e d_ and _r_ are not reproduced in facsimile
-of the original, but have been replaced by ordinary type in the
-margin. 5-12. The original text of these lines is reproduced within
-the diagram.--Compare No 275.]
-
-149.
-
-The light which falls on a shaded body at the acutest angle receives
-the highest light, and the darkest portion is that which receives it
-at an obtuse angle and both the light and the shadow form pyramids.
-The angle _c_ receives the highest grade of light because it is
-directly in front of the window _a b_ and the whole horizon of the
-sky _m x_. The angle _a_ differs but little from _c_ because the
-angles which divide it are not so unequal as those below, and only
-that portion of the horizon is intercepted which lies between _y_
-and _x_. Although it gains as much on the other side its line is
-nevertheless not very strong because one angle is smaller than its
-fellow. The angles _e i_ will have less light because they do not
-see much of the light _m s_ and the light _v x_ and their angles are
-very unequal. Yhe angle _k_ and the angle _f_ are each placed
-between very unequal angles and therefore have but little light,
-because at _k_ it has only the light _p t_, and at _f_ only _t q_;
-_o g_ is the lowest grade of light because this part has no light at
-all from the sky; and thence come the lines which will reconstruct a
-pyramid that is the counterpart of the pyramid _c_; and this pyramid
-_l_ is in the first grade of shadow; for this too is placed between
-equal angles directly opposite to each other on either side of a
-straight line which passes through the centre of the body and goes
-to the centre of the light. The several luminous images cast within
-the frame of the window at the points _a_ and _b_ make a light which
-surrounds the derived shadow cast by the solid body at the points 4
-and 6. The shaded images increase from _o g_ and end at 7 and 8.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 2 on Plate
-III. In the original it is placed between lines 3 and 4, and in the
-reproduction these are shown in part. The semi circle above is
-marked _orizonte_ (horizon). The number 6 at the left hand side,
-outside the facsimile, is in the place of a figure which has become
-indistinct in the original.]
-
-On the intensity of shadows as dependent on the distance from the
-light (150-152).
-
-150.
-
-The smaller the light that falls upon an object the more shadow it
-will display. And the light will illuminate a smaller portion of the
-object in proportion as it is nearer to it; and conversely, a larger
-extent of it in proportion as it is farther off.
-
-A light which is smaller than the object on which it falls will
-light up a smaller extent of it in proportion as it is nearer to it,
-and the converse, as it is farther from it. But when the light is
-larger than the object illuminated it will light a larger extent of
-the object in proportion as it is nearer and the converse when they
-are farther apart.
-
-151.
-
-That portion of an illuminated object which is nearest to the source
-of light will be the most strongly illuminated.
-
-152.
-
-That portion of the primary shadow will be least dark which is
-farthest from the edges.
-
-The derived shadow will be darker than the primary shadow where it
-is contiguous with it.
-
-On the proportion of light and shade (153-157).
-
-153.
-
-That portion of an opaque body will be more in shade or more in
-light, which is nearer to the dark body, by which it is shaded, or
-to the light that illuminates it.
-
-Objects seen in light and shade show in greater relief than those
-which are wholly in light or in shadow.
-
-154.
-
-OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The shaded and illuminated sides of opaque objects will display the
-same proportion of light and darkness as their objects [Footnote 6:
-The meaning of _obbietti_ (objects) is explained in no 153, lines
-1-4.--Between the title-line and the next there is, in the
-original, a small diagram representing a circle described round a
-square.].
-
-155.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The outlines and form of any part of a body in light and shade are
-indistinct in the shadows and in the high lights; but in the
-portions between the light and the shadows they are highly
-conspicuous.
-
-156.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Among objects in various degrees of shade, when the light proceeds
-from a single source, there will be the same proportion in their
-shadows as in the natural diminution of the light and the same must
-be understood of the degrees of light.
-
-157.
-
-A single and distinct luminous body causes stronger relief in the
-object than a diffused light; as may be seen by comparing one side
-of a landscape illuminated by the sun, and one overshadowed by
-clouds, and so illuminated only by the diffused light of the
-atmosphere.
-
-THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Definition of derived shadow (158. 159).
-
-158.
-
-Derived shadow cannot exist without primary shadow. This is proved
-by the first of this which says: Darkness is the total absence of
-light, and shadow is an alleviation of darkness and of light, and it
-is more or less dark or light in proportion as the darkness is
-modified by the light.
-
-159.
-
-Shadow is diminution of light.
-
-Darkness is absence of light.
-
-Shadow is divided into two kinds, of which the first is called
-primary shadow, the second is derived shadow. The primary shadow is
-always the basis of the derived shadow.
-
-The edges of the derived shadow are straight lines.
-
-[Footnote: The theory of the _ombra_ dirivativa_--a technical
-expression for which there is no precise English equivalent is
-elaborately treated by Leonardo. But both text and diagrams (as Pl.
-IV, 1-3 and Pl. V) must at once convince the student that the
-distinction he makes between _ombra primitiva_ and _ombra
-dirivativa_ is not merely justifiable but scientific. _Ombra
-dirivativa_ is by no means a mere abstract idea. This is easily
-proved by repeating the experiment made by Leonardo, and by filling
-with smoke the room in which the existence of the _ombra dirivativa_
-is investigated, when the shadow becomes visible. Nor is it
-difficult to perceive how much of Leonardo's teaching depended on
-this theory. The recognised, but extremely complicated science of
-cast shadows--_percussione dell' ombre dirivative_ as Leonardo
-calls them--is thus rendered more intelligible if not actually
-simpler, and we must assume this theory as our chief guide through
-the investigations which follow.]
-
-The darkness of the derived shadow diminishes in proportion as it is
-remote from the primary shadow.
-
-Different sorts of derived shadows (160-162).
-
-160.
-
-SHADOW AND LIGHT.
-
-The forms of shadows are three: inasmuch as if the solid body which
-casts the shadow is equal (in size) to the light, the shadow
-resembles a column without any termination (in length). If the body
-is larger than the light the shadow resembles a truncated and
-inverted pyramid, and its length has also no defined termination.
-But if the body is smaller than the light, the shadow will resemble
-a pyramid and come to an end, as is seen in eclipses of the moon.
-
-161.
-
-OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-The simple derived shadow is of two kinds: one kind which has its
-length defined, and two kinds which are undefined; and the defined
-shadow is pyramidal. Of the two undefined, one is a column and the
-other spreads out; and all three have rectilinear outlines. But the
-converging, that is the pyramidal, shadow proceeds from a body that
-is smaller than the light, and the columnar from a body equal in
-size to the light, and the spreading shadow from a body larger than
-the light; &c.
-
-OF COMPOUND DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-Compound derived shadows are of two kinds; that is columnar and
-spreading.
-
-162.
-
-OF SHADOW.
-
-Derived shadows are of three kinds of which one is spreading, the
-second columnar, the third converging to the point where the two
-sides meet and intersect, and beyond this intersection the sides are
-infinitely prolonged or straight lines. And if you say, this shadow
-must terminate at the angle where the sides meet and extend no
-farther, I deny this, because above in the first on shadow I have
-proved: that a thing is completely terminated when no portion of it
-goes beyond its terminating lines. Now here, in this shadow, we see
-the converse of this, in as much as where this derived shadow
-originates we obviously have the figures of two pyramids of shadow
-which meet at their angles. Hence, if, as [my] opponent says, the
-first pyramid of shadow terminates the derivative shadow at the
-angle whence it starts, then the second pyramid of shadow--so says
-the adversary--must be caused by the angle and not from the body in
-shadow; and this is disproved with the help of the 2nd of this which
-says: Shadow is a condition produced by a body casting a shadow, and
-interposed between this shadow and the luminous body. By this it is
-made clear that the shadow is not produced by the angle of the
-derived shadow but only by the body casting the shadow; &c. If a
-spherical solid body is illuminated by a light of elongated form the
-shadow produced by the longest portion of this light will have less
-defined outlines than that which is produced by the breadth of the
-same light. And this is proved by what was said before, which is:
-That a shadow will have less defined outlines in proportion as the
-light which causes it is larger, and conversely, the outlines are
-clearer in proportion as it is smaller.
-
-[Footnote: The two diagrams to this chapter are on Plate IV, No. 1.]
-
-On the relation of derived and primary shadow (163-165).
-
-163.
-
-The derived shadow can never resemble the body from which it
-proceeds unless the light is of the same form and size as the body
-causing the shadow.
-
-The derived shadow cannot be of the same form as the primary shadow
-unless it is intercepted by a plane parallel to it.
-
-164.
-
-HOW A CAST SHADOW CAN NEVER BE OF THE SAME SIZE AS THE BODY THAT
-CASTS IT.
-
-If the rays of light proceed, as experience shows, from a single
-point and are diffused in a sphere round this point, radiating and
-dispersed through the air, the farther they spread the wider they
-must spread; and an object placed between the light and a wall is
-always imaged larger in its shadow, because the rays that strike it
-[Footnote: 7. The following lines are wanting to complete the
-logical connection.] would, by the time they have reached the wall,
-have become larger.
-
-165.
-
-Any shadow cast by a body in light and shade is of the same nature
-and character as that which is inseparable from the body. The centre
-of the length of a shadow always corresponds to that of the luminous
-body [Footnote 6: This second statement of the same idea as in the
-former sentence, but in different words, does not, in the original,
-come next to the foregoing; sections 172 and 127 are placed between
-them.]. It is inevitable that every shadow must have its centre in a
-line with the centre of the light.
-
-On the shape of derived shadows (166-174).
-
-166.
-
-OF THE PYRAMIDAL SHADOW.
-
-The pyramidal shadow produced by a columnar body will be narrower
-than the body itself in proportion as the simple derived shadow is
-intersected farther from the body which casts it.
-
-[Footnote 166: Compare the first diagram to No. 161. If we here
-conceive of the outlines of the pyramid of shadow on the ground as
-prolonged beyond its apex this gives rise to a second pyramid; this
-is what is spoken of at the beginning of No. 166.]
-
-167.
-
-The cast shadow will be longest when the light is lowest.
-
-The cast shadow will be shortest when the light is highest.
-
-168.
-
-Both the primary and derived shadow will be larger when caused by
-the light of a candle than by diffused light. The difference between
-the larger and smaller shadows will be in inverse proportion to the
-larger and smaller lights causing them.
-
-[Footnote: In the diagrams _A_ stands for _celo_ (sky), _B_ for
-_cadela_ (candle).]
-
-169.
-
-ALL BODIES, IN PROPORTION AS THEY ARE NEARER TO, OR FARTHER FROM THE
-SOURCE OF LIGHT, WILL PRODUCE LONGER OR SHORTER DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-Among bodies of equal size, that one which is illuminated by the
-largest light will have the shortest shadow. Experiment confirms
-this proposition. Thus the body _m_ _n_ is surrounded by a larger
-amount of light than the body _p q_, as is shown above. Let us say
-that _v c a b d x_ is the sky, the source of light, and that _s t_
-is a window by which the luminous rays enter, and so _m n_ and _p q_
-are bodies in light and shade as exposed to this light; _m n_ will
-have a small derived shadow, because its original shadow will be
-small; and the derivative light will be large, again, because the
-original light _c d_ will be large and _p q_ will have more derived
-shadow because its original shadow will be larger, and its derived
-light will be smaller than that of the body _m n_ because that
-portion of the hemisphere _a b_ which illuminates it is smaller than
-the hemisphere _c d_ which illuminates the body _m n_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram, given on Pl. IV, No. 2, stands in the
-original between lines 2 and 7, while the text of lines 3 to 6 is
-written on its left side. In the reproduction of this diagram the
-letter _v_ at the outer right-hand end has been omitted.]
-
-170.
-
-The shadow _m_ bears the same proportion to the shadow _n_ as the
-line _b c_ to the line _f c_.
-
-171.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Of different shadows of equal strength that which is nearest the eye
-will seem the least strong.
-
-Why is the shadow _e a b_ in the first grade of strength, _b c_ in
-the second; _c d_ in the third? The reason is that as from _e a b_
-the sky is nowhere visible, it gets no light whatever from the sky,
-and so has no direct [primary] light. _b c_ faces the portion of the
-sky _f g_ and is illuminated by it. _c d_ faces the sky at _h k_. _c
-d_, being exposed to a larger extent of sky than _b c_, it is
-reasonable that it should be more lighted. And thus, up to a certain
-distance, the wall _a d_ will grow lighter for the reasons here
-given, until the darkness of the room overpowers the light from the
-window.
-
-172.
-
-When the light of the atmosphere is restricted [by an opening] and
-illuminates bodies which cast shadows, these bodies being equally
-distant from the centre of the window, that which is most obliquely
-placed will cast the largest shadow beyond it.
-
-173.
-
-These bodies standing apart in a room lighted by a single window
-will have derivative shadows more or less short according as they
-are more or less opposite to the window. Among the shadows cast by
-bodies of equal mass but at unequal distances from the opening by
-which they are illuminated, that shadow will be the longest of the
-body which is least in the light. And in proportion as one body is
-better illuminated than another its shadow will be shorter than
-another. The proportion _n m_ and _e v k_ bear to _r t_ and _v x_
-corresponds with that of the shadow _x_ to 4 and _y_.
-
-The reason why those bodies which are placed most in front of the
-middle of the window throw shorter shadows than those obliquely
-situated is:--That the window appears in its proper form and to the
-obliquely placed ones it appears foreshortened; to those in the
-middle, the window shows its full size, to the oblique ones it
-appears smaller; the one in the middle faces the whole hemisphere
-that is _e f_ and those on the side have only a strip; that is _q r_
-faces _a b_; and _m n_ faces _c d_; the body in the middle having a
-larger quantity of light than those at the sides is lighted from a
-point much below its centre, and thus the shadow is shorter. And the
-pyramid _g_ 4 goes into _l y_ exactly as often as _a b_ goes into _e
-f_. The axis of every derivative shadow passes through 6 1/2
-[Footnote 31: _passa per_ 6 1/2 (passes through 6 1/2). The meaning
-of these words is probably this: Each of the three axes of the
-derived shadow intersects the centre (_mezzo_) of the primary shadow
-(_ombra originale_) and, by prolongation upwards crosses six lines.
-
-This is self evident only in the middle diagram; but it is equally
-true of the side figures if we conceive of the lines 4 _f_, _x n v
-m_, _y l k v_, and 4 _e_, as prolonged beyond the semicircle of the
-horizon.] and is in a straight line with the centre of the primary
-shadow, with the centre of the body casting it and of the derivative
-light and with the centre of the window and, finally, with the
-centre of that portion of the source of light which is the celestial
-hemisphere, _y h_ is the centre of the derived shade, _l h_ of the
-primary shadow, _l_ of the body throwing it, _l k_ of the derived
-light, _v_ is the centre of the window, _e_ is the final centre of
-the original light afforded by that portion of the hemisphere of the
-sky which illuminates the solid body.
-
-[Footnote: Compare the diagram on Pl. IV, No. 3. In the original
-this drawing is placed between lines 3 and 22; the rest, from line 4
-to line 21, is written on the left hand margin.]
-
-174.
-
-THE FARTHER THE DERIVED SHADOW IS PROLONGED THE LIGHTER IT BECOMES.
-
-You will find that the proportion of the diameter of the derived
-shadow to that of the primary shadow will be the same as that
-between the darkness of the primary shadow and that of the derived
-shadow.
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare No. 177.] Let _a b_ be the diameter of the
-primary shadow and _c d_ that of the derived shadow, I say that _a
-b_ going, as you see, three times into _d c_, the shadow _d c_ will
-be three times as light as the shadow _a b_. [Footnote 8: Compare
-No. 177.]
-
-If the size of the illuminating body is larger than that of the
-illuminated body an intersection of shadow will occur, beyond which
-the shadows will run off in two opposite directions as if they were
-caused by two separate lights.
-
-On the relative intensity of derived shadows (175-179).
-
-175.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-The derived shadow is stronger in proportion as it is nearer to its
-place of origin.
-
-176.
-
-HOW SHADOWS FADE AWAY AT LONG DISTANCES.
-
-Shadows fade and are lost at long distances because the larger
-quantity of illuminated air which lies between the eye and the
-object seen tints the shadow with its own colour.
-
-177.
-
-_a b_ will be darker than _c d_ in proportion as _c d_ is broader
-than _a b_.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. the word _lume_ (light) is written at
-the apex of the pyramid.]
-
-178.
-
-It can be proved why the shadow _o p c h_ is darker in proportion as
-it is nearer to the line _p h_ and is lighter in proportion as it is
-nearer to the line _o c_. Let the light _a b_, be a window, and let
-the dark wall in which this window is, be _b s_, that is, one of the
-sides of the wall.
-
-Then we may say that the line _p h_ is darker than any other part of
-the space _o p c h_, because this line faces the whole surface in
-shadow of [Footnote: In the original the diagram is placed between
-lines 27 and 28.] the wall _b s_. The line _o c_ is lighter than the
-other part of this space _o p c h_, because this line faces the
-luminous space _a b_.
-
-Where the shadow is larger, or smaller, or equal the body which
-casts it.
-
-[First of the character of divided lights. [Footnote 14: _lumi
-divisi_. The text here breaks off abruptly.]
-
-OF THE COMPOUND SHADOW _F, R, C, H_ CAUSED BY A SINGLE LIGHT.
-
-The shadow _f r c h_ is under such conditions as that where it is
-farthest from its inner side it loses depth in proportion. To prove
-this:
-
-Let _d a_, be the light and _f n_ the solid body, and let _a e_ be
-one of the side walls of the window that is _d a_. Then I
-say--according to the 2nd [proposition]: that the surface of any
-body is affected by the tone of the objects surrounding it,--that
-the side _r c_, which faces the dark wall _a e_ must participate of
-its darkness and, in the same way that the outer surface which faces
-the light _d a_ participates of the light; thus we get the outlines
-of the extremes on each side of the centre included between them.]
-
-This is divided into four parts. The first the extremes, which
-include the compound shadow, secondly the compound shadow between
-these extremes.
-
-179.
-
-THE ACTION OF THE LIGHT AS FROM ITS CENTRE.
-
-If it were the whole of the light that caused the shadows beyond the
-bodies placed in front of it, it would follow that any body much
-smaller than the light would cast a pyramidal shadow; but experience
-not showing this, it must be the centre of the light that produces
-this effect.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is between lines 4
-and 5 in the original. Comp. the reproduction Pl. IV, No. 4. The
-text and drawing of this chapter have already been published with
-tolerable accuracy. See M. JORDAN: "_Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da
-Vinci_". Leipzig 1873, P. 90.]
-
-PROOF.
-
-Let _a b_ be the width of the light from a window, which falls on a
-stick set up at one foot from _a c_ [Footnote 6: _bastone_ (stick).
-The diagram has a sphere in place of a stick.]. And let _a d_ be the
-space where all the light from the window is visible. At _c e_ that
-part of the window which is between _l b_ cannot be seen. In the
-same way _a m_ cannot be seen from _d f_ and therefore in these two
-portions the light begins to fail.
-
-Shadow as produced by two lights of different size (180. 181).
-
-180.
-
-A body in light and shade placed between two equal lights side by
-side will cast shadows in proportion to the [amount of] light. And
-the shadows will be one darker than the other in proportion as one
-light is nearer to the said body than the other on the opposite
-side.
-
-A body placed at an equal distance between two lights will cast two
-shadows, one deeper than the other in proportion, as the light which
-causes it is brighter than the other.
-
-[Footnote: In the MS. the larger diagram is placed above the first
-line; the smaller one between l. 4 & 5.]
-
-181.
-
-A light which is smaller than the body it illuminates produces
-shadows of which the outlines end within [the surface of] the body,
-and not much compound shadow; and falls on less than half of it. A
-light which is larger than the body it illuminates, falls on more
-than half of it, and produces much compound shadow.
-
-The effect of light at different distances.
-
-182.
-
-OF THE SHADOW CAST BY A BODY PLACED BETWEEN 2 EQUAL LIGHTS.
-
-A body placed between 2 equal lights will cast 2 shadows of itself
-in the direction of the lines of the 2 lights; and if you move this
-body placing it nearer to one of the lights the shadow cast towards
-the nearer light will be less deep than that which falls towards the
-more distant one.
-
-Further complications in the derived shadows (183-187).
-
-183.
-
-The greatest depth of shadow is in the simple derived shadow because
-it is not lighted by either of the two lights _a b, c d_.
-
-The next less deep shadow is the derived shadow _e f n_; and in this
-the shadow is less by half, because it is illuminated by a single
-light, that is _c d_.
-
-This is uniform in natural tone because it is lighted throughout by
-one only of the two luminous bodies [10]. But it varies with the
-conditions of shadow, inasmuch as the farther it is away from the
-light the less it is illuminated by it [13].
-
-The third degree of depth is the middle shadow [Footnote 15: We
-gather from what follows that _q g r_ here means _ombra media_ (the
-middle shadow).]. But this is not uniform in natural tone; because
-the nearer it gets to the simple derived shadow the deeper it is
-[Footnote 18: Compare lines 10-13], and it is the uniformly gradual
-diminution by increase of distance which is what modifies it
-[Footnote 20: See Footnote 18]: that is to say the depth of a shadow
-increases in proportion to the distance from the two lights.
-
-The fourth is the shadow _k r s_ and this is all the darker in
-natural tone in proportion as it is nearer to _k s_, because it gets
-less of the light _a o_, but by the accident [of distance] it is
-rendered less deep, because it is nearer to the light _c d_, and
-thus is always exposed to both lights.
-
-The fifth is less deep in shadow than either of the others because
-it is always entirely exposed to one of the lights and to the whole
-or part of the other; and it is less deep in proportion as it is
-nearer to the two lights, and in proportion as it is turned towards
-the outer side _x t_; because it is more exposed to the second light
-_a b_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram to this section is given on Pl. V. To the
-left is the facsimile of the beginning of the text belonging to it.]
-
-184.
-
-OF SIMPLE SHADOWS.
-
-Why, at the intersections _a_, _b_ of the two compound shadows _e f_
-and _m e_, is a simple shadow pfoduced as at _e h_ and _m g_, while
-no such simple shadow is produced at the other two intersections _c
-d_ made by the very same compound shadows?
-
-ANSWER.
-
-Compound shadow are a mixture of light and shade and simple shadows
-are simply darkness. Hence, of the two lights _n_ and _o_, one falls
-on the compound shadow from one side, and the other on the compound
-shadow from the other side, but where they intersect no light falls,
-as at _a b_; therefore it is a simple shadow. Where there is a
-compound shadow one light or the other falls; and here a difficulty
-arises for my adversary since he says that, where the compound
-shadows intersect, both the lights which produce the shadows must of
-necessity fall and therefore these shadows ought to be neutralised;
-inasmuch as the two lights do not fall there, we say that the shadow
-is a simple one and where only one of the two lights falls, we say
-the shadow is compound, and where both the lights fall the shadow is
-neutralised; for where both lights fall, no shadow of any kind is
-produced, but only a light background limiting the shadow. Here I
-shall say that what my adversary said was true: but he only mentions
-such truths as are in his favour; and if we go on to the rest he
-must conclude that my proposition is true. And that is: That if both
-lights fell on the point of intersection, the shadows would be
-neutralised. This I confess to be true if [neither of] the two
-shadows fell in the same spot; because, where a shadow and a light
-fall, a compound shadow is produced, and wherever two shadows or two
-equal lights fall, the shadow cannot vary in any part of it, the
-shadows and the lights both being equal. And this is proved in the
-eighth [proposition] on proportion where it is said that if a given
-quantity has a single unit of force and resistance, a double
-quantity will have double force and double resistance.
-
-DEFINITION.
-
-The intersection _n_ is produced by the shadows caused by the light
-_b_, because this light _b_ produces the shadow _x b_, and the
-shadow _s b_, but the intersection _m_ is produced by the light _a_
-which causes the shadow _s a_, and the shadow _x a_.
-
-But if you uncover both the lights _a b_, then you get the two
-shadows _n m_ both at once, and besides these, two other, simple
-shadows are produced at _r o_ where neither of the two lights falls
-at all. The grades of depth in compound shadows are fewer in
-proportion as the lights falling on, and crossing them are less
-numerous.
-
-186.
-
-Why the intersections at _n_ being composed of two compound derived
-shadows, forms a compound shadow and not a simple one, as happens
-with other intersections of compound shadows. This occurs, according
-to the 2nd [diagram] of this [prop.] which says:--The intersection
-of derived shadows when produced by the intersection of columnar
-shadows caused by a single light does not produce a simple shadow.
-And this is the corollary of the 1st [prop.] which says:--The
-intersection of simple derived shadows never results in a deeper
-shadow, because the deepest shadows all added together cannot be
-darker than one by itself. Since, if many deepest shadows increased
-in depth by their duplication, they could not be called the
-_deepest_ shadows, but only part-shadows. But if such intersections
-are illuminated by a second light placed between the eye and the
-intersecting bodies, then those shadows would become compound
-shadows and be uniformly dark just as much at the intersection as
-throughout the rest. In the 1st and 2nd above, the intersections _i
-k_ will not be doubled in depth as it is doubled in quantity. But in
-this 3rd, at the intersections _g n_ they will be double in depth
-and in quantity.
-
-187.
-
-HOW AND WHEN THE SURROUNDINGS IN SHADOW MINGLE THEIR DERIVED SHADOW
-WITH THE LIGHT DERIVED FROM THE LUMINOUS BODY.
-
-The derived shadow of the dark walls on each side of the bright
-light of the window are what mingle their various degrees of shade
-with the light derived from the window; and these various depths of
-shade modify every portion of the light, except where it is
-strongest, at _c_. To prove this let _d a_ be the primary shadow
-which is turned towards the point _e_, and darkens it by its derived
-shadow; as may be seen by the triangle _a e d_, in which the
-angle _e_ faces the darkened base _d a e_; the point _v_ faces the
-dark shadow _a s_ which is part of _a d_, and as the whole is
-greater than a part, _e_ which faces the whole base [of the
-triangle], will be in deeper shadow than _v_ which only faces part
-of it. In consequence of the conclusion [shown] in the above
-diagram, _t_ will be less darkened than _v_, because the base of the
-_t_ is part of the base of the _v_; and in the same way it follows
-that _p_ is less in shadow than _t_, because the base of the _p_ is
-part of the base of the _t_. And _c_ is the terminal point of the
-derived shadow and the chief beginning of the highest light.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram on Pl. IV, No. 5 belongs to this passage; but
-it must be noted that the text explains only the figure on the
-right-hand side.]
-
-FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-On the shape of the cast shadows (188-191).
-
-188.
-
-The form of the shadow cast by any body of uniform density can never
-be the same as that of the body producing it. [Footnote: Comp. the
-drawing on PI. XXVIII, No. 5.]
-
-189.
-
-No cast shadow can produce the true image of the body which casts it
-on a vertical plane unless the centre of the light is equally
-distant from all the edges of that body.
-
-190.
-
-If a window _a b_ admits the sunlight into a room, the sunlight will
-magnify the size of the window and diminish the shadow of a man in
-such a way as that when the man makes that dim shadow of himself,
-approach to that which defines the real size of the window, he will
-see the shadows where they come into contact, dim and confused from
-the strength of the light, shutting off and not allowing the solar
-rays to pass; the effect of the shadow of the man cast by this
-contact will be exactly that figured above.
-
-[Footnote: It is scarcely possible to render the meaning of this
-sentence with strict accuracy; mainly because the grammatical
-construction is defective in the most important part--line 4. In the
-very slight original sketch the shadow touches the upper arch of the
-window and the correction, here given is perhaps not justified.]
-
-191.
-
-A shadow is never seen as of uniform depth on the surface which
-intercepts it unless every portion of that surface is equidistant
-from the luminous body. This is proved by the 7th which says:--The
-shadow will appear lighter or stronger as it is surrounded by a
-darker or a lighter background. And by the 8th of this:--The
-background will be in parts darker or lighter, in proportion as it
-is farther from or nearer to the luminous body. And:--Of various
-spots equally distant from the luminous body those will always be in
-the highest light on which the rays fall at the smallest angles: The
-outline of the shadow as it falls on inequalities in the surface
-will be seen with all the contours similar to those of the body that
-casts it, if the eye is placed just where the centre of the light
-was.
-
-The shadow will look darkest where it is farthest from the body that
-casts it. The shadow _c d_, cast by the body in shadow _a b_ which
-is equally distant in all parts, is not of equal depth because it is
-seen on a back ground of varying brightness. [Footnote: Compare the
-three diagrams on Pl. VI, no 1 which, in the original accompany this
-section.]
-
-On the outlines of cast shadows (192-195).
-
-192.
-
-The edges of a derived shadow will be most distinct where it is cast
-nearest to the primary shadow.
-
-193.
-
-As the derived shadow gets more distant from the primary shadow, the
-more the cast shadow differs from the primary shadow.
-
-194.
-
-OF SHADOWS WHICH NEVER COME TO AN END.
-
-The greater the difference between a light and the body lighted by
-it, the light being the larger, the more vague will be the outlines
-of the shadow of that object.
-
-The derived shadow will be most confused towards the edges of its
-interception by a plane, where it is remotest from the body casting
-it.
-
-195.
-
-What is the cause which makes the outlines of the shadow vague and
-confused?
-
-Whether it is possible to give clear and definite outlines to the
-edges of shadows.
-
-On the relative size of shadows (196. 197).
-
-196.
-
-THE BODY WHICH IS NEAREST TO THE LIGHT CASTS THE LARGEST SHADOW, AND
-WHY?
-
-If an object placed in front of a single light is very close to it
-you will see that it casts a very large shadow on the opposite wall,
-and the farther you remove the object from the light the smaller
-will the image of the shadow become.
-
-WHY A SHADOW LARGER THAN THE BODY THAT PRODUCES IT BECOMES OUT OF
-PROPORTION.
-
-The disproportion of a shadow which is larger than the body
-producing it, results from the light being smaller than the body, so
-that it cannot be at an equal distance from the edges of the body
-[Footnote 11: H. LUDWIG in his edition of the old copies, in the
-Vatican library--in which this chapter is included under Nos. 612,
-613 and 614 alters this passage as follows: _quella parte ch'e piu
-propinqua piu cresce che le distanti_, although the Vatican copy
-agrees with the original MS. in having _distante_ in the former and
-_propinque_ in the latter place. This supposed amendment seems to me
-to invert the facts. Supposing for instance, that on Pl. XXXI No. 3.
-_f_ is the spot where the light is that illuminates the figure there
-represented, and that the line behind the figure represents a wall
-on which the shadow of the figure is thrown. It is evident, that in
-that case the nearest portion, in this case the under part of the
-thigh, is very little magnified in the shadow, and the remoter
-parts, for instance the head, are more magnified.]; and the portions
-which are most remote are made larger than the nearer portions for
-this reason [Footnote 12: See Footnote 11].
-
-WHY A SHADOW WHICH IS LARGER THAN THE BODY CAUSING IT HAS
-ILL-DEFINED OUTLINES.
-
-The atmosphere which surrounds a light is almost like light itself
-for brightness and colour; but the farther off it is the more it
-loses this resemblance. An object which casts a large shadow and is
-near to the light, is illuminated both by that light by the luminous
-atmosphere; hence this diffused light gives the shadow ill-defined
-edges.
-
-197.
-
-A luminous body which is long and narrow in shape gives more
-confused outlines to the derived shadow than a spherical light, and
-this contradicts the proposition next following: A shadow will have
-its outlines more clearly defined in proportion as it is nearer to
-the primary shadow or, I should say, the body casting the shadow;
-[Footnote 14: The lettering refers to the lower diagram, Pl. XLI,
-No. 5.] the cause of this is the elongated form of the luminous body
-_a c_, &c. [Footnote 16: See Footnote 14].
-
-Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground.
-
-198.
-
-OF MODIFIED SHADOWS.
-
-Modified shadows are those which are cast on light walls or other
-illuminated objects.
-
-A shadow looks darkest against a light background. The outlines of a
-derived shadow will be clearer as they are nearer to the primary
-shadow. A derived shadow will be most defined in shape where it is
-intercepted, where the plane intercepts it at the most equal angle.
-
-Those parts of a shadow will appear darkest which have darker
-objects opposite to them. And they will appear less dark when they
-face lighter objects. And the larger the light object opposite, the
-more the shadow will be lightened.
-
-And the larger the surface of the dark object the more it will
-darken the derived shadow where it is intercepted.
-
-A disputed proposition.
-
-199.
-
-OF THE OPINION OF SOME THAT A TRIANGLE CASTS NO SHADOW ON A PLANE
-SURFACE.
-
-Certain mathematicians have maintained that a triangle, of which the
-base is turned to the light, casts no shadow on a plane; and this
-they prove by saying [5] that no spherical body smaller than the
-light can reach the middle with the shadow. The lines of radiant
-light are straight lines [6]; therefore, suppose the light to be _g
-h_ and the triangle _l m n_, and let the plane be _i k_; they say
-the light _g_ falls on the side of the triangle _l n_, and the
-portion of the plane _i q_. Thus again _h_ like _g_ falls on the
-side _l m_, and then on _m n_ and the plane _p k_; and if the whole
-plane thus faces the lights _g h_, it is evident that the triangle
-has no shadow; and that which has no shadow can cast none. This, in
-this case appears credible. But if the triangle _n p g_ were not
-illuminated by the two lights _g_ and _h_, but by _i p_ and _g_ and
-_k_ neither side is lighted by more than one single light: that is
-_i p_ is invisible to _h g_ and _k_ will never be lighted by _g_;
-hence _p q_ will be twice as light as the two visible portions that
-are in shadow.
-
-[Footnote: 5--6. This passage is so obscure that it would be rash to
-offer an explanation. Several words seem to have been omitted.]
-
-On the relative depth of cast shadows (200-202).
-
-200.
-
-A spot is most in the shade when a large number of darkened rays
-fall upon it. The spot which receives the rays at the widest angle
-and by darkened rays will be most in the dark; a will be twice as
-dark as b, because it originates from twice as large a base at an
-equal distance. A spot is most illuminated when a large number of
-luminous rays fall upon it. d is the beginning of the shadow _d f_,
-and tinges _c_ but _a_ little; _d e_ is half of the shadow _d f_ and
-gives a deeper tone where it is cast at _b_ than at _f_. And the
-whole shaded space _e_ gives its tone to the spot _a_. [Footnote:
-The diagram here referred to is on Pl. XLI, No. 2.]
-
-201.
-
-_A n_ will be darker than _c r_ in proportion to the number of times
-that _a b_ goes into _c d_.
-
-202.
-
-The shadow cast by an object on a plane will be smaller in
-proportion as that object is lighted by feebler rays. Let _d e_ be
-the object and _d c_ the plane surface; the number of times that _d
-e_ will go into _f g_ gives the proportion of light at _f h_ to _d
-c_. The ray of light will be weaker in proportion to its distance
-from the hole through which it falls.
-
-FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Principles of reflection (203. 204).
-
-203.
-
-OF THE WAY IN WHICH THE SHADOWS CAST BY OBJECTS OUGHT TO BE DEFINED.
-
-If the object is the mountain here figured, and the light is at the
-point _a_, I say that from _b d_ and also from _c f_ there will be
-no light but from reflected rays. And this results from the fact
-that rays of light can only act in straight lines; and the same is
-the case with the secondary or reflected rays.
-
-204.
-
-The edges of the derived shadow are defined by the hues of the
-illuminated objects surrounding the luminous body which produces the
-shadow.
-
-On reverberation.
-
-205.
-
-OF REVERBERATION.
-
-Reverberation is caused by bodies of a bright nature with a flat and
-semi opaque surface which, when the light strikes upon them, throw
-it back again, like the rebound of a ball, to the former object.
-
-WHERE THERE CAN BE NO REFLECTED LIGHTS.
-
-All dense bodies have their surfaces occupied by various degrees of
-light and shade. The lights are of two kinds, one called original,
-the other borrowed. Original light is that which is inherent in the
-flame of fire or the light of the sun or of the atmosphere. Borrowed
-light will be reflected light; but to return to the promised
-definition: I say that this luminous reverberation is not produced
-by those portions of a body which are turned towards darkened
-objects, such as shaded spots, fields with grass of various height,
-woods whether green or bare; in which, though that side of each
-branch which is turned towards the original light has a share of
-that light, nevertheless the shadows cast by each branch separately
-are so numerous, as well as those cast by one branch on the others,
-that finally so much shadow is the result that the light counts for
-nothing. Hence objects of this kind cannot throw any reflected light
-on opposite objects.
-
-Reflection on water (206. 207).
-
-206.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The shadow or object mirrored in water in motion, that is to say in
-small wavelets, will always be larger than the external object
-producing it.
-
-207.
-
-It is impossible that an object mirrored on water should correspond
-in form to the object mirrored, since the centre of the eye is above
-the surface of the water.
-
-This is made plain in the figure here given, which demonstrates that
-the eye sees the surface _a b_, and cannot see it at _l f_, and at
-_r t_; it sees the surface of the image at _r t_, and does not see
-it in the real object _c d_. Hence it is impossible to see it, as
-has been said above unless the eye itself is situated on the surface
-of the water as is shown below [13].
-
-[Footnote: _A_ stands for _ochio_ [eye], _B_ for _aria_ [air], _C_
-for _acqua_ [water], _D_ for _cateto_ [cathetus].--In the original
-MS. the second diagram is placed below line 13.]
-
-Experiments with the mirror (208-210).
-
-208.
-
-THE MIRROR.
-
-If the illuminated object is of the same size as the luminous body
-and as that in which the light is reflected, the amount of the
-reflected light will bear the same proportion to the intermediate
-light as this second light will bear to the first, if both bodies
-are smooth and white.
-
-209.
-
-Describe how it is that no object has its limitation in the mirror
-but in the eye which sees it in the mirror. For if you look at your
-face in the mirror, the part resembles the whole in as much as the
-part is everywhere in the mirror, and the whole is in every part of
-the same mirror; and the same is true of the whole image of any
-object placed opposite to this mirror, &c.
-
-210.
-
-No man can see the image of another man in a mirror in its proper
-place with regard to the objects; because every object falls on [the
-surface of] the mirror at equal angles. And if the one man, who sees
-the other in the mirror, is not in a direct line with the image he
-will not see it in the place where it really falls; and if he gets
-into the line, he covers the other man and puts himself in the place
-occupied by his image. Let _n o_ be the mirror, _b_ the eye of your
-friend and _d_ your own eye. Your friend's eye will appear to you at
-_a_, and to him it will seem that yours is at _c_, and the
-intersection of the visual rays will occur at _m_, so that either of
-you touching _m_ will touch the eye of the other man which shall be
-open. And if you touch the eye of the other man in the mirror it
-will seem to him that you are touching your own.
-
-Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211. 212).
-
-211.
-
-OF THE SHADOW AND ITS MOTION.
-
-When two bodies casting shadows, and one in front of the other, are
-between a window and the wall with some space between them, the
-shadow of the body which is nearest to the plane of the wall will
-move if the body nearest to the window is put in transverse motion
-across the window. To prove this let _a_ and _b_ be two bodies
-placed between the window _n m_ and the plane surface _o p_ with
-sufficient space between them as shown by the space _a b_. I say
-that if the body _a_ is moved towards _s_ the shadow of the body _b_
-which is at _c_ will move towards _d_.
-
-212.
-
-OF THE MOTION OF SHADOWS.
-
-The motion of a shadow is always more rapid than that of the body
-which produces it if the light is stationary. To prove this let _a_
-be the luminous body, and _b_ the body casting the shadow, and _d_
-the shadow. Then I say that in the time while the solid body moves
-from _b_ to _c_, the shadow _d_ will move to _e_; and this
-proportion in the rapidity of the movements made in the same space
-of time, is equal to that in the length of the space moved over.
-Thus, given the proportion of the space moved over by the body _b_
-to _c_, to that moved over by the shadow _d_ to _e_, the proportion
-in the rapidity of their movements will be the same.
-
-But if the luminous body is also in movement with a velocity equal
-to that of the solid body, then the shadow and the body that casts
-it will move with equal speed. And if the luminous body moves more
-rapidly than the solid body, the motion of the shadow will be slower
-than that of the body casting it.
-
-But if the luminous body moves more slowly than the solid body, then
-the shadow will move more rapidly than that body.
-
-SIXTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-The effect of rays passing through holes (213. 214).
-
-213.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If you transmit the rays of the sun through a hole in the shape of a
-star you will see a beautiful effect of perspective in the spot
-where the sun's rays fall.
-
-[Footnote: In this and the following chapters of MS. C the order of
-the original paging has been adhered to, and is shown in
-parenthesis. Leonardo himself has but rarely worked out the subject
-of these propositions. The space left for the purpose has
-occasionally been made use of for quite different matter. Even the
-numerous diagrams, most of them very delicately sketched, lettered
-and numbered, which occur on these pages, are hardly ever explained,
-with the exception of those few which are here given.]
-
-214.
-
-No small hole can so modify the convergence of rays of light as to
-prevent, at a long distance, the transmission of the true form of
-the luminous body causing them. It is impossible that rays of light
-passing through a parallel [slit], should not display the form of
-the body causing them, since all the effects produced by a luminous
-body are [in fact] the reflection of that body: The moon, shaped
-like a boat, if transmitted through a hole is figured in the surface
-[it falls on] as a boatshaped object. [Footnote 8: In the MS. a
-blank space is left after this question.] Why the eye sees bodies at
-a distance, larger than they measure on the vertical plane?.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter, taken from another MS. may, as an
-exception, be placed here, as it refers to the same subject as the
-preceding section.]
-
-On gradation of shadows (215. 216).
-
-215.
-
-Although the breadth and length of lights and shadow will be
-narrower and shorter in foreshortening, the quality and quantity of
-the light and shade is not increased nor diminished.
-
-[3]The function of shade and light when diminished by
-foreshortening, will be to give shadow and to illuminate an object
-opposite, according to the quality and quantity in which they fall
-on the body.
-
-[5]In proportion as a derived shadow is nearer to its penultimate
-extremities the deeper it will appear, _g z_ beyond the intersection
-faces only the part of the shadow [marked] _y z_; this by
-intersection takes the shadow from _m n_ but by direct line it takes
-the shadow _a m_ hence it is twice as deep as _g z_. _Y x_, by
-intersection takes the shadow _n o_, but by direct line the shadow
-_n m a_, therefore _x y_ is three times as dark as _z g_; _x f_, by
-intersection faces _o b_ and by direct line _o n m a_, therefore we
-must say that the shadow between _f x_ will be four times as dark as
-the shadow _z g_, because it faces four times as much shadow.
-
-Let _a b_ be the side where the primary shadow is, and _b c_ the
-primary light, _d_ will be the spot where it is intercepted,_f g_
-the derived shadow and _f e_ the derived light.
-
-And this must be at the beginning of the explanation.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. the text of No. 252 precedes the one
-given here. In the text of No. 215 there is a blank space of about
-four lines between the lines 2 and 3. The diagram given on Pl. VI,
-No. 2 is placed between lines 4 and 5. Between lines 5 and 6 there
-is another space of about three lines and one line left blank
-between lines 8 and 9. The reader will find the meaning of the whole
-passage much clearer if he first reads the final lines 11--13.
-Compare also line 4 of No. 270.]
-
-On relative proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
-
-216.
-
-That part of the surface of a body on which the images [reflection]
-from other bodies placed opposite fall at the largest angle will
-assume their hue most strongly. In the diagram below, 8 is a larger
-angle than 4, since its base _a n_ is larger than _e n_ the base of
-4. This diagram below should end at _a n_ 4 8. [4]That portion of
-the illuminated surface on which a shadow is cast will be brightest
-which lies contiguous to the cast shadow. Just as an object which is
-lighted up by a greater quantity of luminous rays becomes brighter,
-so one on which a greater quantity of shadow falls, will be darker.
-
-Let 4 be the side of an illuminated surface 4 8, surrounding the
-cast shadow _g e_ 4. And this spot 4 will be lighter than 8, because
-less shadow falls on it than on 8. Since 4 faces only the shadow _i
-n_; and 8 faces and receives the shadow _a e_ as well as _i n_ which
-makes it twice as dark. And the same thing happens when you put the
-atmosphere and the sun in the place of shade and light.
-
-[12] The distribution of shadow, originating in, and limited by,
-plane surfaces placed near to each other, equal in tone and directly
-opposite, will be darker at the ends than at the beginning, which
-will be determined by the incidence of the luminous rays. You will
-find the same proportion in the depth of the derived shadows _a n_
-as in the nearness of the luminous bodies _m b_, which cause them;
-and if the luminous bodies were of equal size you would still
-farther find the same proportion in the light cast by the luminous
-circles and their shadows as in the distance of the said luminous
-bodies.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram originally placed between lines 3 and 4 is on
-Pl. VI, No. 3. In the diagram given above line 14 of the original,
-and here printed in the text, the words _corpo luminoso_ [luminous
-body] are written in the circle _m_, _luminoso_ in the circle _b_
-and _ombroso_ [body in shadow] in the circle _o_.]
-
-217.
-
-THAT PART OF THE REFLECTION WILL BE BRIGHTEST WHERE THE REFLECTED
-RAYS ARE SHORTEST.
-
-[2] The darkness occasioned by the casting of combined shadows will
-be in conformity with its cause, which will originate and terminate
-between two plane surfaces near together, alike in tone and directly
-opposite each other.
-
-[4] In proportion as the source of light is larger, the luminous and
-shadow rays will be more mixed together. This result is produced
-because wherever there is a larger quantity of luminous rays, there
-is most light, but where there are fewer there is least light,
-consequently the shadow rays come in and mingle with them.
-
-[Footnote: Diagrams are inserted before lines 2 and 4.]
-
-218.
-
-In all the proportions I lay down it must be understood that the
-medium between the bodies is always the same. [2] The smaller the
-luminous body the more distinct will the transmission of the shadows
-be.
-
-[3] When of two opposite shadows, produced by the same body, one is
-twice as dark as the other though similar in form, one of the two
-lights causing them must have twice the diameter that the other has
-and be at twice the distance from the opaque body. If the object is
-lowly moved across the luminous body, and the shadow is intercepted
-at some distance from the object, there will be the same relative
-proportion between the motion of the derived shadow and the motion
-of the primary shadow, as between the distance from the object to
-the light, and that from the object to the spot where the shadow is
-intercepted; so that though the object is moved slowly the shadow
-moves fast.
-
-[Footnote: There are diagrams inserted before lines 2 and 3 but they
-are not reproduced here. The diagram above line 6 is written upon as
-follows: at _A lume_ (light), at _B obbietto_ (body), at _C ombra
-d'obbietto_ (shadow of the object).]
-
-219.
-
-A luminous body will appear less brilliant when surrounded by a
-bright background.
-
-[2] I have found that the stars which are nearest to the horizon
-look larger than the others because light falls upon them from a
-larger proportion of the solar body than when they are above us; and
-having more light from the sun they give more light, and the bodies
-which are most luminous appear the largest. As may be seen by the
-sun through a mist, and overhead; it appears larger where there is
-no mist and diminished through mist. No portion of the luminous body
-is ever visible from any spot within the pyramid of pure derived
-shadow.
-
-[Footnote: Between lines 1 and 2 there is in the original a large
-diagram which does not refer to this text. ]
-
-220.
-
-A body on which the solar rays fall between the thin branches of
-trees far apart will cast but a single shadow.
-
-[2] If an opaque body and a luminous one are (both) spherical the
-base of the pyramid of rays will bear the same proportion to the
-luminous body as the base of the pyramid of shade to the opaque
-body.
-
-[4] When the transmitted shadow is intercepted by a plane surface
-placed opposite to it and farther away from the luminous body than
-from the object [which casts it] it will appear proportionately
-darker and the edges more distinct.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which, in the original, is placed above line
-2, is similar to the one, here given on page 73 (section 120).--The
-diagram here given in the margin stands, in the original, between
-lines 3 and 4.]
-
-221.
-
-A body illuminated by the solar rays passing between the thick
-branches of trees will produce as many shadows as there are branches
-between the sun and itself.
-
-Where the shadow-rays from an opaque pyramidal body are intercepted
-they will cast a shadow of bifurcate outline and various depth at
-the points. A light which is broader than the apex but narrower than
-the base of an opaque pyramidal body placed in front of it, will
-cause that pyramid to cast a shadow of bifurcate form and various
-degrees of depth.
-
-If an opaque body, smaller than the light, casts two shadows and if
-it is the same size or larger, casts but one, it follows that a
-pyramidal body, of which part is smaller, part equal to, and part
-larger than, the luminous body, will cast a bifurcate shadow.
-
-[Footnote: Between lines 2 and 3 there are in the original two large
-diagrams.]
-
-_IV._
-
-_Perspective of Disappearance._
-
-_The theory of the_ "Prospettiva de' perdimenti" _would, in many
-important details, be quite unintelligible if it had not been led up
-by the principles of light and shade on which it is based. The word_
-"Prospettiva" _in the language of the time included the principles
-of optics; what Leonardo understood by_ "Perdimenti" _will be
-clearly seen in the early chapters, Nos._ 222--224. _It is in the
-very nature of the case that the farther explanations given in the
-subsequent chapters must be limited to general rules. The sections
-given as_ 227--231 _"On indistinctness at short distances" have, it
-is true, only an indirect bearing on the subject; but on the other
-hand, the following chapters,_ 232--234, _"On indistinctness at
-great distances," go fully into the matter, and in chapters_
-235--239, _which treat "Of the importance of light and shade in the
-Perspective of Disappearance", the practical issues are distinctly
-insisted on in their relation to the theory. This is naturally
-followed by the statements as to "the effect of light or dark
-backgrounds on the apparent size of bodies"_ (_Nos._ 240--250). _At
-the end I have placed, in the order of the original, those sections
-from the MS._ C _which treat of the "Perspective of Disappearance"
-and serve to some extent to complete the treatment of the subject_
-(251--262).
-
-Definition (222. 223).
-
-222.
-
-OF THE DIMINISHED DISTINCTNESS OF THE OUTLINES OF OPAQUE BODIES.
-
-If the real outlines of opaque bodies are indistinguishable at even
-a very short distance, they will be more so at long distances; and,
-since it is by its outlines that we are able to know the real form
-of any opaque body, when by its remoteness we fail to discern it as
-a whole, much more must we fail to discern its parts and outlines.
-
-223.
-
-OF THE DIMINUTION IN PERSPECTIVE OF OPAQUE OBJECTS.
-
-Among opaque objects of equal size the apparent diminution of size
-will be in proportion to their distance from the eye of the
-spectator; but it is an inverse proportion, since, where the
-distance is greater, the opaque body will appear smaller, and the
-less the distance the larger will the object appear. And this is the
-fundamental principle of linear perspective and it
-follows:--[11]every object as it becomes more remote loses first
-those parts which are smallest. Thus of a horse, we should lose the
-legs before the head, because the legs are thinner than the head;
-and the neck before the body for the same reason. Hence it follows
-that the last part of the horse which would be discernible by the
-eye would be the mass of the body in an oval form, or rather in a
-cylindrical form and this would lose its apparent thickness before
-its length--according to the 2nd rule given above, &c. [Footnote 23:
-Compare line 11.].
-
-If the eye remains stationary the perspective terminates in the
-distance in a point. But if the eye moves in a straight [horizontal]
-line the perspective terminates in a line and the reason is that
-this line is generated by the motion of the point and our sight;
-therefore it follows that as we move our sight [eye], the point
-moves, and as we move the point, the line is generated, &c.
-
-An illustration by experiment.
-
-224.
-
-Every visible body, in so far as it affects the eye, includes three
-attributes; that is to say: mass, form and colour; and the mass is
-recognisable at a greater distance from the place of its actual
-existence than either colour or form. Again, colour is discernible
-at a greater distance than form, but this law does not apply to
-luminous bodies.
-
-The above proposition is plainly shown and proved by experiment;
-because: if you see a man close to you, you discern the exact
-appearance of the mass and of the form and also of the colouring; if
-he goes to some distance you will not recognise who he is, because
-the character of the details will disappear, if he goes still
-farther you will not be able to distinguish his colouring, but he
-will appear as a dark object, and still farther he will appear as a
-very small dark rounded object. It appears rounded because distance
-so greatly diminishes the various details that nothing remains
-visible but the larger mass. And the reason is this: We know very
-well that all the images of objects reach the senses by a small
-aperture in the eye; hence, if the whole horizon _a d_ is admitted
-through such an aperture, the object _b c_ being but a very small
-fraction of this horizon what space can it fill in that minute image
-of so vast a hemisphere? And because luminous bodies have more power
-in darkness than any others, it is evident that, as the chamber of
-the eye is very dark, as is the nature of all colored cavities, the
-images of distant objects are confused and lost in the great light
-of the sky; and if they are visible at all, appear dark and black,
-as every small body must when seen in the diffused light of the
-atmosphere.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is placed between
-lines 5 and 6; it is No. 4 on Pl. VI. ]
-
-A guiding rule.
-
-225.
-
-OF THE ATMOSPHERE THAT INTERPOSES BETWEEN THE EYE AND VISIBLE
-OBJECTS.
-
-An object will appear more or less distinct at the same distance, in
-proportion as the atmosphere existing between the eye and that
-object is more or less clear. Hence, as I know that the greater or
-less quantity of the air that lies between the eye and the object
-makes the outlines of that object more or less indistinct, you must
-diminish the definiteness of outline of those objects in proportion
-to their increasing distance from the eye of the spectator.
-
-An experiment.
-
-226.
-
-When I was once in a place on the sea, at an equal distance from the
-shore and the mountains, the distance from the shore looked much
-greater than that from the mountains.
-
-On indistinctness at short distances (227-231).
-
-227.
-
-If you place an opaque object in front of your eye at a distance of
-four fingers' breadth, if it is smaller than the space between the
-two eyes it will not interfere with your seeing any thing that may
-be beyond it. No object situated beyond another object seen by the
-eye can be concealed by this [nearer] object if it is smaller than
-the space from eye to eye.
-
-228.
-
-The eye cannot take in a luminous angle which is too close to it.
-
-229.
-
-That part of a surface will be better lighted on which the light
-falls at the greater angle. And that part, on which the shadow falls
-at the greatest angle, will receive from those rays least of the
-benefit of the light.
-
-230.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-The edges of an object placed in front of the pupil of the eye will
-be less distinct in proportion as they are closer to the eye. This
-is shown by the edge of the object _n_ placed in front of the pupil
-_d_; in looking at this edge the pupil also sees all the space _a c_
-which is beyond the edge; and the images the eye receives from that
-space are mingled with the images of the edge, so that one image
-confuses the other, and this confusion hinders the pupil from
-distinguishing the edge.
-
-231.
-
-The outlines of objects will be least clear when they are nearest to
-the eye, and therefore remoter outlines will be clearer. Among
-objects which are smaller than the pupil of the eye those will be
-less distinct which are nearer to the eye.
-
-On indistinctness at great distances (232-234).
-
-232.
-
-Objects near to the eye will appear larger than those at a distance.
-
-Objects seen with two eyes will appear rounder than if they are seen
-with only one.
-
-Objects seen between light and shadow will show the most relief.
-
-233.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Our true perception of an object diminishes in proportion as its
-size is diminished by distance.
-
-234.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Why objects seen at a distance appear large to the eye and in the
-image on the vertical plane they appear small.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-I ask how far away the eye can discern a non-luminous body, as, for
-instance, a mountain. It will be very plainly visible if the sun is
-behind it; and could be seen at a greater or less distance according
-to the sun's place in the sky.
-
-[Footnote: The clue to the solution of this problem (lines 1-3) is
-given in lines 4-6, No. 232. Objects seen with both eyes appear
-solid since they are seen from two distinct points of sight
-separated by the distance between the eyes, but this solidity cannot
-be represented in a flat drawing. Compare No. 535.]
-
-The importance of light and shade in the perspective of
-disappearance (235-239).
-
-235.
-
-An opaque body seen in a line in which the light falls will reveal
-no prominences to the eye. For instance, let _a_ be the solid body
-and _c_ the light; _c m_ and _c n_ will be the lines of incidence of
-the light, that is to say the lines which transmit the light to the
-object _a_. The eye being at the point _b_, I say that since the
-light _c_ falls on the whole part _m n_ the portions in relief on
-that side will all be illuminated. Hence the eye placed at _c_
-cannot see any light and shade and, not seeing it, every portion
-will appear of the same tone, therefore the relief in the prominent
-or rounded parts will not be visible.
-
-236.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-When you represent in your work shadows which you can only discern
-with difficulty, and of which you cannot distinguish the edges so
-that you apprehend them confusedly, you must not make them sharp or
-definite lest your work should have a wooden effect.
-
-237.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-You will observe in drawing that among the shadows some are of
-undistinguishable gradation and form, as is shown in the 3rd
-[proposition] which says: Rounded surfaces display as many degrees
-of light and shade as there are varieties of brightness and darkness
-reflected from the surrounding objects.
-
-238.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-You who draw from nature, look (carefully) at the extent, the
-degree, and the form of the lights and shadows on each muscle; and
-in their position lengthwise observe towards which muscle the axis
-of the central line is directed.
-
-239.
-
-An object which is [so brilliantly illuminated as to be] almost as
-bright as light will be visible at a greater distance, and of larger
-apparent size than is natural to objects so remote.
-
-The effect of light or dark backgrounds on the apparent size of
-objects (240-250).
-
-240.
-
-A shadow will appear dark in proportion to the brilliancy of the
-light surrounding it and conversely it will be less conspicuous
-where it is seen against a darker background.
-
-241.
-
-OF ORDINARY PERSPECTIVE.
-
-An object of equal breadth and colour throughout, seen against a
-background of various colours will appear unequal in breadth.
-
-And if an object of equal breadth throughout, but of various
-colours, is seen against a background of uniform colour, that object
-will appear of various breadth. And the more the colours of the
-background or of the object seen against the ground vary, the
-greater will the apparent variations in the breadth be though the
-objects seen against the ground be of equal breadth [throughout].
-
-242.
-
-A dark object seen against a bright background will appear smaller
-than it is.
-
-A light object will look larger when it is seen against a background
-darker than itself.
-
-243.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-A luminous body when obscured by a dense atmosphere will appear
-smaller; as may be seen by the moon or sun veiled by mists.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-Of several luminous bodies of equal size and brilliancy and at an
-equal distance, that will look the largest which is surrounded by
-the darkest background.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-I find that any luminous body when seen through a dense and thick
-mist diminishes in proportion to its distance from the eye. Thus it
-is with the sun by day, as well as the moon and the other eternal
-lights by night. And when the air is clear, these luminaries appear
-larger in proportion as they are farther from the eye.
-
-244.
-
-That portion of a body of uniform breadth which is against a lighter
-background will look narrower [than the rest].
-
-[4] _e_ is a given object, itself dark and of uniform breadth; _a b_
-and _c d_ are two backgrounds one darker than the other; _b c_ is a
-bright background, as it might be a spot lighted by the sun through
-an aperture in a dark room. Then I say that the object _e g_ will
-appear larger at _e f_ than at _g h_; because _e f_ has a darker
-background than _g h_; and again at _f g_ it will look narrower from
-being seen by the eye _o_, on the light background _b c_. [Footnote
-12: The diagram to which the text, lines 1-11, refers, is placed in
-the original between lines 3 and 4, and is given on Pl. XLI, No. 3.
-Lines 12 to 14 are explained by the lower of the two diagrams on Pl.
-XLI, No. 4. In the original these are placed after line 14.] That
-part of a luminous body, of equal breadth and brilliancy throughout,
-will look largest which is seen against the darkest background; and
-the luminous body will seem on fire.
-
-245.
-
-WHY BODIES IN LIGHT AND SHADE HAVE THEIR OUTLINES ALTERED BY THE
-COLOUR AND BRIGHTNESS OF THE OBJECTS SERVING AS A BACKGROUND TO
-THEM.
-
-If you look at a body of which the illuminated portion lies and ends
-against a dark background, that part of the light which will look
-brightest will be that which lies against the dark [background] at
-_d_. But if this brighter part lies against a light background, the
-edge of the object, which is itself light, will be less distinct
-than before, and the highest light will appear to be between the
-limit of the background _m f_ and the shadow. The same thing is seen
-with regard to the dark [side], inasmuch as that edge of the shaded
-portion of the object which lies against a light background, as at
-_l_, it looks much darker than the rest. But if this shadow lies
-against a dark background, the edge of the shaded part will appear
-lighter than before, and the deepest shade will appear between the
-edge and the light at the point _o_.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram _o_ is inside the shaded surface
-at the level of _d_.]
-
-246.
-
-An opaque body will appear smaller when it is surrounded by a highly
-luminous background, and a light body will appear larger when it is
-seen against a darker background. This may be seen in the height of
-buildings at night, when lightning flashes behind them; it suddenly
-seems, when it lightens, as though the height of the building were
-diminished. For the same reason such buildings look larger in a
-mist, or by night than when the atmosphere is clear and light.
-
-247.
-
-ON LIGHT BETWEEN SHADOWS
-
-When you are drawing any object, remember, in comparing the grades
-of light in the illuminated portions, that the eye is often deceived
-by seeing things lighter than they are. And the reason lies in our
-comparing those parts with the contiguous parts. Since if two
-[separate] parts are in different grades of light and if the less
-bright is conterminous with a dark portion and the brighter is
-conterminous with a light background--as the sky or something
-equally bright--, then that which is less light, or I should say
-less radiant, will look the brighter and the brighter will seem the
-darker.
-
-248.
-
-Of objects equally dark in themselves and situated at a considerable
-and equal distance, that will look the darkest which is farthest
-above the earth.
-
-249.
-
-TO PROVE HOW IT IS THAT LUMINOUS BODIES APPEAR LARGER, AT A
-DISTANCE, THAN THEY ARE.
-
-If you place two lighted candles side by side half a braccio apart,
-and go from them to a distance 200 braccia you will see that by the
-increased size of each they will appear as a single luminous body
-with the light of the two flames, one braccio wide.
-
-TO PROVE HOW YOU MAY SEE THE REAL SIZE OF LUMINOUS BODIES.
-
-If you wish to see the real size of these luminous bodies, take a
-very thin board and make in it a hole no bigger than the tag of a
-lace and place it as close to your eye as possible, so that when you
-look through this hole, at the said light, you can see a large space
-of air round it. Then by rapidly moving this board backwards and
-forwards before your eye you will see the light increase [and
-diminish].
-
-Propositions on perspective of disappearance from MS. C. (250-262).
-
-250.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and equally distant from the eye,
-those will look the smallest which are against the lightest
-background.
-
-Every visible object must be surrounded by light and shade. A
-perfectly spherical body surrounded by light and shade will appear
-to have one side larger than the other in proportion as one is more
-highly lighted than the other.
-
-251.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No visible object can be well understood and comprehended by the
-human eye excepting from the difference of the background against
-which the edges of the object terminate and by which they are
-bounded, and no object will appear [to stand out] separate from that
-background so far as the outlines of its borders are concerned. The
-moon, though it is at a great distance from the sun, when, in an
-eclipse, it comes between our eyes and the sun, appears to the eyes
-of men to be close to the sun and affixed to it, because the sun is
-then the background to the moon.
-
-252.
-
-A luminous body will appear more brilliant in proportion as it is
-surrounded by deeper shadow. [Footnote: The diagram which, in the
-original, is placed after this text, has no connection with it.]
-
-253.
-
-The straight edges of a body will appear broken when they are
-conterminous with a dark space streaked with rays of light.
-[Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
-connection with the text.]
-
-254.
-
-Of several bodies, all equally large and equally distant, that which
-is most brightly illuminated will appear to the eye nearest and
-largest. [Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
-connection with the text.]
-
-255.
-
-If several luminous bodies are seen from a great distance although
-they are really separate they will appear united as one body.
-
-256.
-
-If several objects in shadow, standing very close together, are seen
-against a bright background they will appear separated by wide
-intervals.
-
-257.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and tone, that which is farthest
-will appear the lightest and smallest.
-
-258.
-
-Of several objects equal in size, brightness of background and
-length that which has the flattest surface will look the largest. A
-bar of iron equally thick throughout and of which half is red hot,
-affords an example, for the red hot part looks thicker than the
-rest.
-
-259.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and length, and alike in form and in
-depth of shade, that will appear smallest which is surrounded by the
-most luminous background.
-
-260.
-
-DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF A WALL SURFACE WILL BE DARKER OR BRIGHTER IN
-PROPORTION AS THE LIGHT OR SHADOW FALLS ON THEM AT A LARGER ANGLE.
-
-The foregoing proposition can be clearly proved in this way. Let us
-say that _m q_ is the luminous body, then _f g_ will be the opaque
-body; and let _a e_ be the above-mentioned plane on which the said
-angles fall, showing [plainly] the nature and character of their
-bases. Then: _a_ will be more luminous than _b_; the base of the
-angle _a_ is larger than that of _b_ and it therefore makes a
-greater angle which will be _a m q_; and the pyramid _b p m_ will be
-narrower and _m o c_ will be still finer, and so on by degrees, in
-proportion as they are nearer to _e_, the pyramids will become
-narrower and darker. That portion of the wall will be the darkest
-where the breadth of the pyramid of shadow is greater than the
-breadth of the pyramid of light.
-
-At the point _a_ the pyramid of light is equal in strength to the
-pyramid of shadow, because the base _f g_ is equal to the base _r
-f_. At the point _d_ the pyramid of light is narrower than the
-pyramid of shadow by so much as the base _s f_ is less than the base
-_f g_.
-
-Divide the foregoing proposition into two diagrams, one with the
-pyramids of light and shadow, the other with the pyramids of light
-[only].
-
-261.
-
-Among shadows of equal depth those which are nearest to the eye will
-look least deep.
-
-262.
-
-The more brilliant the light given by a luminous body, the deeper
-will the shadows be cast by the objects it illuminates.
-
-_V._
-
-_Theory of colours._
-
-_Leonardo's theory of colours is even more intimately connected with
-his principles of light and shade than his Perspective of
-Disappearance and is in fact merely an appendix or supplement to
-those principles, as we gather from the titles to sections_ 264,
-267_, and _276_, while others again_ (_Nos._ 281, 282_) are headed_
-Prospettiva.
-
-_A very few of these chapters are to be found in the oldest copies
-and editions of the Treatise on Painting, and although the material
-they afford is but meager and the connection between them but
-slight, we must still attribute to them a special theoretical value
-as well as practical utility--all the more so because our knowledge
-of the theory and use of colours at the time of the Renaissance is
-still extremely limited._
-
-The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each
-other (263-272).
-
-263.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The hue of an illuminated object is affected by that of the luminous
-body.
-
-264.
-
-OF SHADOW.
-
-The surface of any opaque body is affected by the colour of
-surrounding objects.
-
-265.
-
-A shadow is always affected by the colour of the surface on which it
-is cast.
-
-266.
-
-An image produced in a mirror is affected by the colour of the
-mirror.
-
-267.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Every portion of the surface of a body is varied [in hue] by the
-[reflected] colour of the object that may be opposite to it.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-If you place a spherical body between various objects that is to say
-with [direct] sunlight on one side of it, and on the other a wall
-illuminated by the sun, which wall may be green or of any other
-colour, while the surface on which it is placed may be red, and the
-two lateral sides are in shadow, you will see that the natural
-colour of that body will assume something of the hue reflected from
-those objects. The strongest will be [given by] the luminous body;
-the second by the illuminated wall, the third by the shadows. There
-will still be a portion which will take a tint from the colour of
-the edges.
-
-268.
-
-The surface of every opaque body is affected by the colour of the
-objects surrounding it. But this effect will be strong or weak in
-proportion as those objects are more or less remote and more or less
-strongly [coloured].
-
-269.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The surface of every opaque body assumes the hues reflected from
-surrounding objects.
-
-The surface of an opaque body assumes the hues of surrounding
-objects more strongly in proportion as the rays that form the images
-of those objects strike the surface at more equal angles.
-
-And the surface of an opaque body assumes a stronger hue from the
-surrounding objects in proportion as that surface is whiter and the
-colour of the object brighter or more highly illuminated.
-
-270.
-
-OF THE RAYS WHICH CONVEY THROUGH THE AIR THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS.
-
-All the minutest parts of the image intersect each other without
-interfering with each other. To prove this let _r_ be one of the
-sides of the hole, opposite to which let _s_ be the eye which sees
-the lower end _o_ of the line _n o_. The other extremity cannot
-transmit its image to the eye _s_ as it has to strike the end _r_
-and it is the same with regard to _m_ at the middle of the line. The
-case is the same with the upper extremity _n_ and the eye _u_. And
-if the end _n_ is red the eye _u_ on that side of the holes will not
-see the green colour of _o_, but only the red of _n_ according to
-the 7th of this where it is said: Every form projects images from
-itself by the shortest line, which necessarily is a straight line,
-&c.
-
-[Footnote: 13. This probably refers to the diagram given under No.
-66.]
-
-271.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The surface of a body assumes in some degree the hue of those around
-it. The colours of illuminated objects are reflected from the
-surfaces of one to the other in various spots, according to the
-various positions of those objects. Let _o_ be a blue object in full
-light, facing all by itself the space _b c_ on the white sphere _a b
-e d e f_, and it will give it a blue tinge, _m_ is a yellow body
-reflected onto the space _a b_ at the same time as _o_ the blue
-body, and they give it a green colour (by the 2nd [proposition] of
-this which shows that blue and yellow make a beautiful green &c.)
-And the rest will be set forth in the Book on Painting. In that Book
-it will be shown, that, by transmitting the images of objects and
-the colours of bodies illuminated by sunlight through a small round
-perforation and into a dark chamber onto a plane surface, which
-itself is quite white, &c.
-
-But every thing will be upside down.
-
-Combination of different colours in cast shadows.
-
-272.
-
-That which casts the shadow does not face it, because the shadows
-are produced by the light which causes and surrounds the shadows.
-The shadow caused by the light _e_, which is yellow, has a blue
-tinge, because the shadow of the body _a_ is cast upon the pavement
-at _b_, where the blue light falls; and the shadow produced by the
-light _d_, which is blue, will be yellow at _c_, because the yellow
-light falls there and the surrounding background to these shadows _b
-c_ will, besides its natural colour, assume a hue compounded of
-yellow and blue, because it is lighted by the yellow light and by
-the blue light both at once.
-
-Shadows of various colours, as affected by the lights falling on
-them. That light which causes the shadow does not face it.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram we find in the circle _e_
-"_giallo_" (yellow) and the cirle _d_ "_azurro"_ (blue) and also
-under the circle of shadow to the left "_giallo_" is written and
-under that to the right "_azurro_".
-
-In the second diagram where four circles are placed in a row we find
-written, beginning at the left hand, "_giallo_" (yellow), "_azurro_"
-(blue), "_verde_" (green), "_rosso_" (red).]
-
-The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273-274).
-
-273.
-
-The edges of a colour(ed object) transmitted through a small hole
-are more conspicuous than the central portions.
-
-The edges of the images, of whatever colour, which are transmitted
-through a small aperture into a dark chamber will always be stronger
-than the middle portions.
-
-274.
-
-OF THE INTERSECTIONS OF THE IMAGES IN THE PUPIL OF THE EYE.
-
-The intersections of the images as they enter the pupil do not
-mingle in confusion in the space where that intersection unites
-them; as is evident, since, if the rays of the sun pass through two
-panes of glass in close contact, of which one is blue and the other
-yellow, the rays, in penetrating them, do not become blue or yellow
-but a beautiful green. And the same thing would happen in the eye,
-if the images which were yellow or green should mingle where they
-[meet and] intersect as they enter the pupil. As this does not
-happen such a mingling does not exist.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE RAYS COMPOSED OF THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS, AND OF
-THEIR INTERSECTIONS.
-
-The directness of the rays which transmit the forms and colours of
-the bodies whence they proceed does not tinge the air nor can they
-affect each other by contact where they intersect. They affect only
-the spot where they vanish and cease to exist, because that spot
-faces and is faced by the original source of these rays, and no
-other object, which surrounds that original source can be seen by
-the eye where these rays are cut off and destroyed, leaving there
-the spoil they have conveyed to it. And this is proved by the 4th
-[proposition], on the colour of bodies, which says: The surface of
-every opaque body is affected by the colour of surrounding objects;
-hence we may conclude that the spot which, by means of the rays
-which convey the image, faces--and is faced by the cause of the
-image, assumes the colour of that object.
-
-On the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).
-
-275.
-
-ANY SHADOW CAST BY AN OPAQUE BODY SMALLER THAN THE LIGHT CAUSING THE
-SHADOW WILL THROW A DERIVED SHADOW WHICH IS TINGED BY THE COLOUR OF
-THE LIGHT.
-
-Let _n_ be the source of the shadow _e f_; it will assume its hue.
-Let _o_ be the source of _h e_ which will in the same way be tinged
-by its hue and so also the colour of _v h_ will be affected by _p_
-which causes it; and the shadow of the triangle _z k y_ will be
-affected by the colour of _q_, because it is produced by it. [7] In
-proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_, will _n r s_ be darker than
-_m_; and the rest of the space will be shadowless [11]. _f g_ is
-the highest light, because here the whole light of the window _a d_
-falls; and thus on the opaque body _m e_ is in equally high light;
-_z k y_ is a triangle which includes the deepest shadow, because the
-light _a d_ cannot reach any part of it. _x h_ is the 2nd grade of
-shadow, because it receives only 1/3 of the light from the window,
-that is _c d_. The third grade of shadow is _h e_, where two thirds
-of the light from the window is visible. The last grade of shadow is
-_b d e f_, because the highest grade of light from the window falls
-at _f_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram Pl. III, No. 1 belongs to this chapter as
-well as the text given in No. 148. Lines 7-11 (compare lines 8-12 of
-No. 148) which are written within the diagram, evidently apply to
-both sections and have therefore been inserted in both.]
-
-276.
-
-OF THE COLOURS OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-The colour of derived shadows is always affected by that of the body
-towards which they are cast. To prove this: let an opaque body be
-placed between the plane _s c t d_ and the blue light _d e_ and the
-red light _a b_, then I say that _d e_, the blue light, will fall on
-the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at _o p_ which is covered by
-the shadow of the body _q r_, as is shown by the straight lines _d q
-o e r p_. And the same occurs with the light _a b_ which falls on
-the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at the spot obscured by the
-shadow _q r_; as is shown by the lines _d q o_, and _e r p_. Hence
-we may conclude that the shadow _n m_ is exposed to the blue light
-_d e_; but, as the red light _a b_ cannot fall there, _n m_ will
-appear as a blue shadow on a red background tinted with blue,
-because on the surface _s c t d_ both lights can fall. But in the
-shadows only one single light falls; for this reason these shadows
-are of medium depth, since, if no light whatever mingled with the
-shadow, it would be of the first degree of darkness &c. But in the
-shadow at _o p_ the blue light does not fall, because the body _q r_
-interposes and intercepts it there. Only the red light _a b_ falls
-there and tinges the shadow of a red hue and so a ruddy shadow
-appears on the background of mingled red and blue.
-
-The shadow of _q r_ at _o p_ is red, being caused by the blue light
-_d e_; and the shadow of _q r_ at _o' p'_ is blue being caused by
-the red light _a b_. Hence we say that the blue light in this
-instance causes a red derived shadow from the opaque body _q' r'_,
-while the red light causes the same body to cast a blue derived
-shadow; but the primary shadow [on the dark side of the body itself]
-is not of either of those hues, but a mixture of red and blue.
-
-The derived shadows will be equal in depth if they are produced by
-lights of equal strength and at an equal distance; this is proved.
-[Footnote 53: The text is unfinished in the original.]
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram Leonardo has written within the
-circle _q r corpo obroso_ (body in shadow); at the spot marked _A,
-luminoso azzurro_ (blue luminous body); at _B, luminoso rosso_ (red
-luminous body). At _E_ we read _ombra azzurra_ (blue tinted shadow)
-and at _D ombra rossa_ (red tinted shadow).]
-
-On the nature of colours (277. 278).
-
-277.
-
-No white or black is transparent.
-
-278.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-[Footnote 2: See Footnote 3] Since white is not a colour but the
-neutral recipient of every colour [Footnote 3: _il bianco non e
-colore ma e inpotentia ricettiva d'ogni colore_ (white is not a
-colour, but the neutral recipient of every colour). LEON BATT.
-ALBERTI "_Della pittura_" libro I, asserts on the contrary: "_Il
-bianco e'l nero non sono veri colori, ma sono alteratione delli
-altri colori_" (ed. JANITSCHEK, p. 67; Vienna 1877).], when it is
-seen in the open air and high up, all its shadows are bluish; and
-this is caused, according to the 4th [prop.], which says: the
-surface of every opaque body assumes the hue of the surrounding
-objects. Now this white [body] being deprived of the light of the
-sun by the interposition of some body between the sun and itself,
-all that portion of it which is exposed to the sun and atmosphere
-assumes the colour of the sun and atmosphere; the side on which the
-sun does not fall remains in shadow and assumes the hue of the
-atmosphere. And if this white object did not reflect the green of
-the fields all the way to the horizon nor get the brightness of the
-horizon itself, it would certainly appear simply of the same hue as
-the atmosphere.
-
-On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).
-
-279.
-
-Since black, when painted next to white, looks no blacker than when
-next to black; and white when next to black looks no whiter than
-white, as is seen by the images transmitted through a small hole or
-by the edges of any opaque screen ...
-
-280.
-
-OF COLOURS.
-
-Of several colours, all equally white, that will look whitest which
-is against the darkest background. And black will look intensest
-against the whitest background.
-
-And red will look most vivid against the yellowest background; and
-the same is the case with all colours when surrounded by their
-strongest contrasts.
-
-On the reflection of colours (281-283).
-
-281.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Every object devoid of colour in itself is more or less tinged by
-the colour [of the object] placed opposite. This may be seen by
-experience, inasmuch as any object which mirrors another assumes the
-colour of the object mirrored in it. And if the surface thus
-partially coloured is white the portion which has a red reflection
-will appear red, or any other colour, whether bright or dark.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Every opaque and colourless body assumes the hue of the colour
-reflected on it; as happens with a white wall.
-
-282.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-That side of an object in light and shade which is towards the light
-transmits the images of its details more distinctly and immediately
-to the eye than the side which is in shadow.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The solar rays reflected on a square mirror will be thrown back to
-distant objects in a circular form.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Any white and opaque surface will be partially coloured by
-reflections from surrounding objects.
-
-[Footnote 281. 282: The title line of these chapters is in the
-original simply _"pro"_, which may be an abbreviation for either
-_Propositione_ or _Prospettiva_--taking Prospettiva of course in its
-widest sense, as we often find it used in Leonardo's writings. The
-title _"pro"_ has here been understood to mean _Prospettiva_, in
-accordance with the suggestion afforded by page 10b of this same
-MS., where the first section is headed _Prospettiva_ in full (see
-No. 94), while the four following sections are headed merely _"pro"_
-(see No. 85).]
-
-283.
-
-WHAT PORTION OF A COLOURED SURFACE OUGHT IN REASON TO BE THE MOST
-INTENSE.
-
-If _a_ is the light, and _b_ illuminated by it in a direct line,
-_c_, on which the light cannot fall, is lighted only by reflection
-from _b_ which, let us say, is red. Hence the light reflected from
-it, will be affected by the hue of the surface causing it and will
-tinge the surface _c_ with red. And if _c_ is also red you will see
-it much more intense than _b_; and if it were yellow you would see
-there a colour between yellow and red.
-
-On the use of dark and light colours in painting (284--286).
-
-284.
-
-WHY BEAUTIFUL COLOURS MUST BE IN THE [HIGHEST] LIGHT.
-
-Since we see that the quality of colour is known [only] by means of
-light, it is to be supposed that where there is most light the true
-character of a colour in light will be best seen; and where there is
-most shadow the colour will be affected by the tone of that. Hence,
-O Painter! remember to show the true quality of colours in bright
-lights.
-
-285.
-
-An object represented in white and black will display stronger
-relief than in any other way; hence I would remind you O Painter! to
-dress your figures in the lightest colours you can, since, if you
-put them in dark colours, they will be in too slight relief and
-inconspicuous from a distance. And the reason is that the shadows of
-all objects are dark. And if you make a dress dark there is little
-variety in the lights and shadows, while in light colours there are
-many grades.
-
-286.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Colours seen in shadow will display more or less of their natural
-brilliancy in proportion as they are in fainter or deeper shadow.
-
-But if these same colours are situated in a well-lighted place, they
-will appear brighter in proportion as the light is more brilliant.
-
-THE ADVERSARY.
-
-The variety of colours in shadow must be as great as that of the
-colours in the objects in that shadow.
-
-THE ANSWER.
-
-Colours seen in shadow will display less variety in proportion as
-the shadows in which they lie are deeper. And evidence of this is to
-be had by looking from an open space into the doorways of dark and
-shadowy churches, where the pictures which are painted in various
-colours all look of uniform darkness.
-
-Hence at a considerable distance all the shadows of different
-colours will appear of the same darkness.
-
-It is the light side of an object in light and shade which shows the
-true colour.
-
-On the colours of the rainbow (287. 288).
-
-287.
-
-Treat of the rainbow in the last book on Painting, but first write
-the book on colours produced by the mixture of other colours, so as
-to be able to prove by those painters' colours how the colours of
-the rainbow are produced.
-
-288.
-
-WHETHER THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW ARE PRODUCED BY THE SUN.
-
-The colours of the rainbow are not produced by the sun, for they
-occur in many ways without the sunshine; as may be seen by holding a
-glass of water up to the eye; when, in the glass--where there are
-those minute bubbles always seen in coarse glass--each bubble, even
-though the sun does not fall on it, will produce on one side all the
-colours of the rainbow; as you may see by placing the glass between
-the day light and your eye in such a way as that it is close to the
-eye, while on one side the glass admits the [diffused] light of the
-atmosphere, and on the other side the shadow of the wall on one side
-of the window; either left or right, it matters not which. Then, by
-turning the glass round you will see these colours all round the
-bubbles in the glass &c. And the rest shall be said in its place.
-
-THAT THE EYE HAS NO PART IN PRODUCING THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW.
-
-In the experiment just described, the eye would seem to have some
-share in the colours of the rainbow, since these bubbles in the
-glass do not display the colours except through the medium of the
-eye. But, if you place the glass full of water on the window sill,
-in such a position as that the outer side is exposed to the sun's
-rays, you will see the same colours produced in the spot of light
-thrown through the glass and upon the floor, in a dark place, below
-the window; and as the eye is not here concerned in it, we may
-evidently, and with certainty pronounce that the eye has no share in
-producing them.
-
-OF THE COLOURS IN THE FEATHERS OF CERTAIN BIRDS.
-
-There are many birds in various regions of the world on whose
-feathers we see the most splendid colours produced as they move, as
-we see in our own country in the feathers of peacocks or on the
-necks of ducks or pigeons, &c.
-
-Again, on the surface of antique glass found underground and on the
-roots of turnips kept for some time at the bottom of wells or other
-stagnant waters [we see] that each root displays colours similar to
-those of the real rainbow. They may also be seen when oil has been
-placed on the top of water and in the solar rays reflected from the
-surface of a diamond or beryl; again, through the angular facet of a
-beryl every dark object against a background of the atmosphere or
-any thing else equally pale-coloured is surrounded by these rainbow
-colours between the atmosphere and the dark body; and in many other
-circumstances which I will not mention, as these suffice for my
-purpose.
-
-_VI._
-
-_'Prospettiva de' colri' (Perspective of Colour)_
-
-_and_
-
-_'Prospettiva aerea' (Aerial Perspective)._
-
-_Leonardo distinctly separates these branches of his subject, as may
-be seen in the beginning of No._ 295. _Attempts have been made to
-cast doubts on the results which Leonardo arrived at by experiment
-on the perspective of colour, but not with justice, as may be seen
-from the original text of section_ 294.
-
-_The question as to the composition of the atmosphere, which is
-inseparable from a discussion on Aerial Perspective, forms a
-separate theory which is treated at considerable length. Indeed the
-author enters into it so fully that we cannot escape the conviction
-that he must have dwelt with particular pleasure on this part of his
-subject, and that he attached great importance to giving it a
-character of general applicability._
-
-General rules (289--291).
-
-289.
-
-The variety of colour in objects cannot be discerned at a great
-distance, excepting in those parts which are directly lighted up by
-the solar rays.
-
-290.
-
-As to the colours of objects: at long distances no difference is
-perceptible in the parts in shadow.
-
-291.
-
-OF THE VISIBILITY OF COLOURS.
-
-Which colour strikes most? An object at a distance is most
-conspicuous, when it is lightest, and the darkest is least visible.
-
-An exceptional case.
-
-292.
-
-Of the edges [outlines] of shadows. Some have misty and ill defined
-edges, others distinct ones.
-
-No opaque body can be devoid of light and shade, except it is in a
-mist, on ground covered with snow, or when snow is falling on the
-open country which has no light on it and is surrounded with
-darkness.
-
-And this occurs [only] in spherical bodies, because in other bodies
-which have limbs and parts, those sides of limbs which face each
-other reflect on each other the accidental [hue and tone] of their
-surface.
-
-An experiment.
-
-293.
-
-ALL COLOURS ARE AT A DISTANCE UNDISTINGUISHABLE AND UNDISCERNIBLE.
-
-All colours at a distance are undistinguishable in shadow, because
-an object which is not in the highest light is incapable of
-transmitting its image to the eye through an atmosphere more
-luminous than itself; since the lesser brightness must be absorbed
-by the greater. For instance: We, in a house, can see that all the
-colours on the surface of the walls are clearly and instantly
-visible when the windows of the house are open; but if we were to go
-out of the house and look in at the windows from a little distance
-to see the paintings on those walls, instead of the paintings we
-should see an uniform deep and colourless shadow.
-
-The practice of the prospettiva de colori.
-
-294.
-
-HOW A PAINTER SHOULD CARRY OUT THE PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR IN
-PRACTICE.
-
-In order to put into practice this perspective of the variation and
-loss or diminution of the essential character of colours, observe at
-every hundred braccia some objects standing in the landscape, such
-as trees, houses, men and particular places. Then in front of the
-first tree have a very steady plate of glass and keep your eye very
-steady, and then, on this plate of glass, draw a tree, tracing it
-over the form of that tree. Then move it on one side so far as that
-the real tree is close by the side of the tree you have drawn; then
-colour your drawing in such a way as that in colour and form the two
-may be alike, and that both, if you close one eye, seem to be
-painted on the glass and at the same distance. Then, by the same
-method, represent a second tree, and a third, with a distance of a
-hundred braccia between each. And these will serve as a standard and
-guide whenever you work on your own pictures, wherever they may
-apply, and will enable you to give due distance in those works. [14]
-But I have found that as a rule the second is 4/5 of the first when
-it is 20 braccia beyond it.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is one of those copied in the Manuscript of
-the Vatican library Urbinas 1270, and the original text is rendered
-here with no other alterations, but in the orthography. H. LUDWIG,
-in his edition of this copy translates lines 14 and 15 thus: "_Ich
-finde aber als Regel, dass der zweite um vier Funftel des ersten
-abnimmt, wenn er namlich zwanzig Ellen vom ersten entfernt ist
-(?)"_. He adds in his commentary: "_Das Ende der Nummer ist wohl
-jedenfalls verstummelt_". However the translation given above shows
-that it admits of a different rendering.]
-
-The rules of aerial perspective (295--297).
-
-295.
-
-OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There is another kind of perspective which I call Aerial
-Perspective, because by the atmosphere we are able to distinguish
-the variations in distance of different buildings, which appear
-placed on a single line; as, for instance, when we see several
-buildings beyond a wall, all of which, as they appear above the top
-of the wall, look of the same size, while you wish to represent them
-in a picture as more remote one than another and to give the effect
-of a somewhat dense atmosphere. You know that in an atmosphere of
-equal density the remotest objects seen through it, as mountains, in
-consequence of the great quantity of atmosphere between your eye and
-them--appear blue and almost of the same hue as the atmosphere
-itself [Footnote 10: _quado il sole e per leuante_ (when the sun is
-in the East). Apparently the author refers here to morning light in
-general. H. LUDWIG however translates this passage from the Vatican
-copy "_wenn namlich die Sonne (dahinter) im Osten steht_".] when the
-sun is in the East [Footnote 11: See Footnote 10]. Hence you must
-make the nearest building above the wall of its real colour, but the
-more distant ones make less defined and bluer. Those you wish should
-look farthest away you must make proportionately bluer; thus, if one
-is to be five times as distant, make it five times bluer. And by
-this rule the buildings which above a [given] line appear of the
-same size, will plainly be distinguished as to which are the more
-remote and which larger than the others.
-
-296.
-
-The medium lying between the eye and the object seen, tinges that
-object with its colour, as the blueness of the atmosphere makes the
-distant mountains appear blue and red glass makes objects seen
-beyond it, look red. The light shed round them by the stars is
-obscured by the darkness of the night which lies between the eye and
-the radiant light of the stars.
-
-297.
-
-Take care that the perspective of colour does not disagree with the
-size of your objects, hat is to say: that the colours diminish from
-their natural [vividness] in proportion as the objects at various
-distances dimmish from their natural size.
-
-On the relative density of the atmosphere (298--290).
-
-298.
-
-WHY THE ATMOSPHERE MUST BE REPRESENTED AS PALER TOWARDS THE LOWER
-PORTION.
-
-Because the atmosphere is dense near the earth, and the higher it is
-the rarer it becomes. When the sun is in the East if you look
-towards the West and a little way to the South and North, you will
-see that this dense atmosphere receives more light from the sun than
-the rarer; because the rays meet with greater resistance. And if the
-sky, as you see it, ends on a low plain, that lowest portion of the
-sky will be seen through a denser and whiter atmosphere, which will
-weaken its true colour as seen through that medium, and there the
-sky will look whiter than it is above you, where the line of sight
-travels through a smaller space of air charged with heavy vapour.
-And if you turn to the East, the atmosphere will appear darker as
-you look lower down because the luminous rays pass less freely
-through the lower atmosphere.
-
-299.
-
-OF THE MODE OF TREATING REMOTE OBJECTS IN PAINTING.
-
-It is easy to perceive that the atmosphere which lies closest to the
-level ground is denser than the rest, and that where it is higher
-up, it is rarer and more transparent. The lower portions of large
-and lofty objects which are at a distance are not much seen, because
-you see them along a line which passes through a denser and thicker
-section of the atmosphere. The summits of such heights are seen
-along a line which, though it starts from your eye in a dense
-atmosphere, still, as it ends at the top of those lofty objects,
-ceases in a much rarer atmosphere than exists at their base; for
-this reason the farther this line extends from your eye, from point
-to point the atmosphere becomes more and more rare. Hence, O
-Painter! when you represent mountains, see that from hill to hill
-the bases are paler than the summits, and in proportion as they
-recede beyond each other make the bases paler than the summits;
-while, the higher they are the more you must show of their true form
-and colour.
-
-On the colour of the atmosphere (300-307).
-
-300.
-
-OF THE COLOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-I say that the blueness we see in the atmosphere is not intrinsic
-colour, but is caused by warm vapour evaporated in minute and
-insensible atoms on which the solar rays fall, rendering them
-luminous against the infinite darkness of the fiery sphere which
-lies beyond and includes it. And this may be seen, as I saw it by
-any one going up [Footnote 5: With regard to the place spoken of as
-_M'oboso_ (compare No. 301 line 20) its identity will be discussed
-under Leonardo's Topographical notes in Vol. II.] Monboso, a peak of
-the Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain
-gives birth to the four rivers which flow in four different
-directions through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base
-at so great a height as this, which lifts itself almost above the
-clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
-when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
-that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
-clouds, which does not happen twice in an age, an enormous mass of
-ice would be piled up there by the hail, and in the middle of July I
-found it very considerable. There I saw above me the dark sky, and
-the sun as it fell on the mountain was far brighter here than in the
-plains below, because a smaller extent of atmosphere lay between the
-summit of the mountain and the sun. Again as an illustration of the
-colour of the atmosphere I will mention the smoke of old and dry
-wood, which, as it comes out of a chimney, appears to turn very
-blue, when seen between the eye and the dark distance. But as it
-rises, and comes between the eye and the bright atmosphere, it at
-once shows of an ashy grey colour; and this happens because it no
-longer has darkness beyond it, but this bright and luminous space.
-If the smoke is from young, green wood, it will not appear blue,
-because, not being transparent and being full of superabundant
-moisture, it has the effect of condensed clouds which take distinct
-lights and shadows like a solid body. The same occurs with the
-atmosphere, which, when overcharged with moisture appears white, and
-the small amount of heated moisture makes it dark, of a dark blue
-colour; and this will suffice us so far as concerns the colour of
-the atmosphere; though it might be added that, if this transparent
-blue were the natural colour of the atmosphere, it would follow that
-wherever a larger mass air intervened between the eye and the
-element of fire, the azure colour would be more intense; as we see
-in blue glass and in sapphires, which are darker in proportion as
-they are larger. But the atmosphere in such circumstances behaves in
-an opposite manner, inasmuch as where a greater quantity of it lies
-between the eye and the sphere of fire, it is seen much whiter. This
-occurs towards the horizon. And the less the extent of atmosphere
-between the eye and the sphere of fire, the deeper is the blue
-colour, as may be seen even on low plains. Hence it follows, as I
-say, that the atmosphere assumes this azure hue by reason of the
-particles of moisture which catch the rays of the sun. Again, we may
-note the difference in particles of dust, or particles of smoke, in
-the sun beams admitted through holes into a dark chamber, when the
-former will look ash grey and the thin smoke will appear of a most
-beautiful blue; and it may be seen again in in the dark shadows of
-distant mountains when the air between the eye and those shadows
-will look very blue, though the brightest parts of those mountains
-will not differ much from their true colour. But if any one wishes
-for a final proof let him paint a board with various colours, among
-them an intense black; and over all let him lay a very thin and
-transparent [coating of] white. He will then see that this
-transparent white will nowhere show a more beautiful blue than over
-the black--but it must be very thin and finely ground.
-
-[Footnote 7: _reta_ here has the sense of _malanno_.]
-
-301.
-
-Experience shows us that the air must have darkness beyond it and
-yet it appears blue. If you produce a small quantity of smoke from
-dry wood and the rays of the sun fall on this smoke, and if you then
-place behind the smoke a piece of black velvet on which the sun does
-not shine, you will see that all the smoke which is between the eye
-and the black stuff will appear of a beautiful blue colour. And if
-instead of the velvet you place a white cloth smoke, that is too
-thick smoke, hinders, and too thin smoke does not produce, the
-perfection of this blue colour. Hence a moderate amount of smoke
-produces the finest blue. Water violently ejected in a fine spray
-and in a dark chamber where the sun beams are admitted produces
-these blue rays and the more vividly if it is distilled water, and
-thin smoke looks blue. This I mention in order to show that the
-blueness of the atmosphere is caused by the darkness beyond it, and
-these instances are given for those who cannot confirm my experience
-on Monboso.
-
-302.
-
-When the smoke from dry wood is seen between the eye of the
-spectator and some dark space [or object], it will look blue. Thus
-the sky looks blue by reason of the darkness beyond it. And if you
-look towards the horizon of the sky, you will see the atmosphere is
-not blue, and this is caused by its density. And thus at each
-degree, as you raise your eyes above the horizon up to the sky over
-your head, you will see the atmosphere look darker [blue] and this
-is because a smaller density of air lies between your eye and the
-[outer] darkness. And if you go to the top of a high mountain the
-sky will look proportionately darker above you as the atmosphere
-becomes rarer between you and the [outer] darkness; and this will be
-more visible at each degree of increasing height till at last we
-should find darkness.
-
-That smoke will look bluest which rises from the driest wood and
-which is nearest to the fire and is seen against the darkest
-background, and with the sunlight upon it.
-
-303.
-
-A dark object will appear bluest in proportion as it has a greater
-mass of luminous atmosphere between it and the eye. As may be seen
-in the colour of the sky.
-
-304.
-
-The atmosphere is blue by reason of the darkness above it because
-black and white make blue.
-
-305.
-
-In the morning the mist is denser above than below, because the sun
-draws it upwards; hence tall buildings, even if the summit is at the
-same distance as the base have the summit invisible. Therefore,
-also, the sky looks darkest [in colour] overhead, and towards the
-horizon it is not blue but rather between smoke and dust colour.
-
-The atmosphere, when full of mist, is quite devoid of blueness, and
-only appears of the colour of clouds, which shine white when the
-weather is fine. And the more you turn to the west the darker it
-will be, and the brighter as you look to the east. And the verdure
-of the fields is bluish in a thin mist, but grows grey in a dense
-one.
-
-The buildings in the west will only show their illuminated side,
-where the sun shines, and the mist hides the rest. When the sun
-rises and chases away the haze, the hills on the side where it lifts
-begin to grow clearer, and look blue, and seem to smoke with the
-vanishing mists; and the buildings reveal their lights and shadows;
-through the thinner vapour they show only their lights and through
-the thicker air nothing at all. This is when the movement of the
-mist makes it part horizontally, and then the edges of the mist will
-be indistinct against the blue of the sky, and towards the earth it
-will look almost like dust blown up. In proportion as the atmosphere
-is dense the buildings of a city and the trees in a landscape will
-look fewer, because only the tallest and largest will be seen.
-
-Darkness affects every thing with its hue, and the more an object
-differs from darkness, the more we see its real and natural colour.
-The mountains will look few, because only those will be seen which
-are farthest apart; since, at such a distance, the density increases
-to such a degree that it causes a brightness by which the darkness
-of the hills becomes divided and vanishes indeed towards the top.
-There is less [mist] between lower and nearer hills and yet little
-is to be distinguished, and least towards the bottom.
-
-306.
-
-The surface of an object partakes of the colour of the light which
-illuminates it; and of the colour of the atmosphere which lies
-between the eye and that object, that is of the colour of the
-transparent medium lying between the object and the eye; and among
-colours of a similar character the second will be of the same tone
-as the first, and this is caused by the increased thickness of the
-colour of the medium lying between the object and the eye.
-
-307. OF PAINTING.
-
-Of various colours which are none of them blue that which at a great
-distance will look bluest is the nearest to black; and so,
-conversely, the colour which is least like black will at a great
-distance best preserve its own colour.
-
-Hence the green of fields will assume a bluer hue than yellow or
-white will, and conversely yellow or white will change less than
-green, and red still less.
-
-_VII._
-
-_On the Proportions and on the Movements of the Human Figure._
-
-_Leonardo's researches on the proportions and movements of the human
-figure must have been for the most part completed and written before
-the year_ 1498; _for LUCA PACIOLO writes, in the dedication to
-Ludovico il Moro, of his book_ Divina Proportione, _which was
-published in that year:_ "Leonardo da venci ... hauedo gia co tutta
-diligetia al degno libro de pictura e movimenti humani posto fine".
-
-_The selection of Leonardo's axioms contained in the Vatican copy
-attributes these words to the author:_ "e il resto si dira nella
-universale misura del huomo". (_MANZI, p. 147; LUDWIG, No. 264_).
-_LOMAZZO, again, in his_ Idea del Tempio della Pittura Milano 1590,
-cap. IV, _says:_ "Lionardo Vinci ... dimostro anco in figura tutte
-le proporzioni dei membri del corpo umano".
-
-_The Vatican copy includes but very few sections of the_ "Universale
-misura del huomo" _and until now nothing has been made known of the
-original MSS. on the subject which have supplied the very extensive
-materials for this portion of the work. The collection at Windsor,
-belonging to her Majesty the Queen, includes by far the most
-important part of Leonardo's investigations on this subject,
-constituting about half of the whole of the materials here
-published; and the large number of original drawings adds greatly to
-the interest which the subject itself must command. Luca Paciolo
-would seem to have had these MSS. (which I have distinguished by the
-initials W. P.) in his mind when he wrote the passage quoted above.
-Still, certain notes of a later date--such as Nos. 360, 362 and 363,
-from MS. E, written in 1513--14, sufficiently prove that Leonardo did
-not consider his earlier studies on the Proportions and Movements of
-the Human Figure final and complete, as we might suppose from Luca
-Paciolo's statement. Or else he took the subject up again at a
-subsequent period, since his former researches had been carried on
-at Milan between 1490 and 1500. Indeed it is highly probable that
-the anatomical studies which he was pursuing zvith so much zeal
-between 1510--16 should have led him to reconsider the subject of
-Proportion.
-
-Preliminary observations (308. 309).
-
-308.
-
-Every man, at three years old is half the full height he will grow
-to at last.
-
-309.
-
-If a man 2 braccia high is too small, one of four is too tall, the
-medium being what is admirable. Between 2 and 4 comes 3; therefore
-take a man of 3 braccia in height and measure him by the rule I will
-give you. If you tell me that I may be mistaken, and judge a man to
-be well proportioned who does not conform to this division, I answer
-that you must look at many men of 3 braccia, and out of the larger
-number who are alike in their limbs choose one of those who are most
-graceful and take your measurements. The length of the hand is 1/3
-of a braccio [8 inches] and this is found 9 times in man. And the
-face [Footnote 7: The account here given of the _braccio_ is of
-importance in understanding some of the succeeding chapters. _Testa_
-must here be understood to mean the face. The statements in this
-section are illustrated in part on Pl. XI.] is the same, and from
-the pit of the throat to the shoulder, and from the shoulder to the
-nipple, and from one nipple to the other, and from each nipple to
-the pit of the throat.
-
-Proportions of the head and face (310-318).
-
-310.
-
-The space between the parting of the lips [the mouth] and the base
-of the nose is one-seventh of the face.
-
-The space from the mouth to the bottom of the chin _c d_ is the
-fourth part of the face and equal to the width of the mouth.
-
-The space from the chin to the base of the nose _e f_ is the third
-part of the face and equal to the length of the nose and to the
-forehead.
-
-The distance from the middle of the nose to the bottom of the chin
-_g h_, is half the length of the face.
-
-The distance from the top of the nose, where the eyebrows begin, to
-the bottom of the chin, _i k_, is two thirds of the face.
-
-The space from the parting of the lips to the top of the chin _l m_,
-that is where the chin ends and passes into the lower lip of the
-mouth, is the third of the distance from the parting of the lips to
-the bottom of the chin and is the twelfth part of the face. From the
-top to the bottom of the chin _m n_ is the sixth part of the face
-and is the fifty fourth part of a man's height.
-
-From the farthest projection of the chin to the throat _o p_ is
-equal to the space between the mouth and the bottom of the chin, and
-a fourth of the face.
-
-The distance from the top of the throat to the pit of the throat
-below _q r_ is half the length of the face and the eighteenth part
-of a man's height.
-
-From the chin to the back of the neck _s t_, is the same distance as
-between the mouth and the roots of the hair, that is three quarters
-of the head.
-
-From the chin to the jaw bone _v x_ is half the head and equal to
-the thickness of the neck in profile.
-
-The thickness of the head from the brow to the nape is once and 3/4
-that of the neck.
-
-[Footnote: The drawings to this text, lines 1-10 are on Pl. VII, No.
-I. The two upper sketches of heads, Pl. VII, No. 2, belong to lines
-11-14, and in the original are placed immediately below the sketches
-reproduced on Pl. VII, No. 1.]
-
-311.
-
-The distance from the attachment of one ear to the other is equal to
-that from the meeting of the eyebrows to the chin, and in a fine
-face the width of the mouth is equal to the length from the parting
-of the lips to the bottom of the chin.
-
-312.
-
-The cut or depression below the lower lip of the mouth is half way
-between the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin.
-
-The face forms a square in itself; that is its width is from the
-outer corner of one eye to the other, and its height is from the
-very top of the nose to the bottom of the lower lip of the mouth;
-then what remains above and below this square amounts to the height
-of such another square, _a_ _b_ is equal to the space between _c_
-_d_; _d_ _n_ in the same way to _n_ _c_, and likewise _s_ _r_, _q_
-_p_, _h_ _k_ are equal to each other.
-
-It is as far between _m_ and _s_ as from the bottom of the nose to
-the chin. The ear is exactly as long as the nose. It is as far from
-_x_ to _j_ as from the nose to the chin. The parting of the mouth
-seen in profile slopes to the angle of the jaw. The ear should be as
-high as from the bottom of the nose to the top of the eye-lid. The
-space between the eyes is equal to the width of an eye. The ear is
-over the middle of the neck, when seen in profile. The distance from
-4 to 5 is equal to that from s_ to _r_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. I, where the text of lines 3-13 is also
-given in facsimile.]
-
-313.
-
-(_a_ _b_) is equal to (_c_ _d_).
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VII, No. 3. Reference may also be made here to
-two pen and ink drawings of heads in profile with figured
-measurements, of which there is no description in the MS. These are
-given on Pl. XVII, No. 2.--A head, to the left, with part of the
-torso [W. P. 5a], No. 1 on the same plate is from MS. A 2b and in
-the original occurs on a page with wholly irrelevant text on matters
-of natural history. M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A
-has reproduced this head and discussed it fully [note on page 12];
-he has however somewhat altered the original measurements. The
-complicated calculations which M. RAVAISSON has given appear to me
-in no way justified. The sketch, as we see it, can hardly have been
-intended for any thing more than an experimental attempt to
-ascertain relative proportions. We do not find that Leonardo made
-use of circular lines in any other study of the proportions of the
-human head. At the same time we see that the proportions of this
-sketch are not in accordance with the rules which he usually
-observed (see for instance No. 310).]
-
-The head _a_ _f_ 1/6 larger than _n_ _f_.
-
-315.
-
-From the eyebrow to the junction of the lip with the chin, and the
-angle of the jaw and the upper angle where the ear joins the temple
-will be a perfect square. And each side by itself is half the head.
-
-The hollow of the cheek bone occurs half way between the tip of the
-nose and the top of the jaw bone, which is the lower angle of the
-setting on of the ear, in the frame here represented.
-
-From the angle of the eye-socket to the ear is as far as the length
-of the ear, or the third of the face.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. IX. The text, in the original is written behind
-the head. The handwriting would seem to indicate a date earlier than
-1480. On the same leaf there is a drawing in red chalk of two
-horsemen of which only a portion of the upper figure is here
-visible. The whole leaf measures 22 1/2 centimetres wide by 29 long,
-and is numbered 127 in the top right-hand corner.]
-
-316.
-
-From _a_ to _b_--that is to say from the roots of the hair in front
-to the top of the head--ought to be equal to _c_ _d_;--that is from
-the bottom of the nose to the meeting of the lips in the middle of
-the mouth. From the inner corner of the eye _m_ to the top of the
-head _a_ is as far as from _m_ down to the chin _s_. _s_ _c_ _f_ _b_
-are all at equal distances from each other.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing in silver-point on bluish tinted paper--Pl.
-X--which belongs to this chapter has been partly drawn over in ink
-by Leonardo himself.]
-
-317.
-
-From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is 1/9, and from
-the roots of the hair to the chin is 1/9 of the distance from the
-roots of the hair to the ground. The greatest width of the face is
-equal to the space between the mouth and the roots of the hair and
-is 1/12 of the whole height. From the top of the ear to the top of
-the head is equal to the distance from the bottom of the chin to the
-lachrymatory duct of the eye; and also equal to the distance from
-the angle of the chin to that of the jaw; that is the 1/16 of the
-whole. The small cartilage which projects over the opening of the
-ear towards the nose is half-way between the nape and the eyebrow;
-the thickness of the neck in profile is equal to the space between
-the chin and the eyes, and to the space between the chin and the
-jaw, and it is 1/18 of the height of the man.
-
-318.
-
-_a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_, _i k_ are equal to each other in size
-excepting that _d f_ is accidental.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XI.]
-
-Proportions of the head seen in front (319-321).
-
-319.
-
-_a n o f_ are equal to the mouth.
-
-_a c_ and _a f_ are equal to the space between one eye and the
-other.
-
-_n m o f q r_ are equal to half the width of the eye lids, that is
-from the inner [lachrymatory] corner of the eye to its outer corner;
-and in like manner the division between the chin and the mouth; and
-in the same way the narrowest part of the nose between the eyes. And
-these spaces, each in itself, is the 19th part of the head, _n o_ is
-equal to the length of the eye or of the space between the eyes.
-
-_m c_ is 1/3 of _n m_ measuring from the outer corner of the eyelids
-to the letter _c_. _b s_ will be equal to the width of the nostril.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XII.]
-
-320.
-
-The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes is 1/3 of
-the face. The space between the outer corners of the eyes, that is
-where the eye ends in the eye socket which contains it, thus the
-outer corners, is half the face.
-
-The greatest width of the face at the line of the eyes is equal to
-the distance from the roots of the hair in front to the parting of
-the lips.
-
-[Footnote: There are, with this section, two sketches of eyes, not
-reproduced here.]
-
-321.
-
-The nose will make a double square; that is the width of the nose at
-the nostrils goes twice into the length from the tip of the nose to
-the eyebrows. And, in the same way, in profile the distance from the
-extreme side of the nostril where it joins the cheek to the tip of
-the nose is equal to the width of the nose in front from one nostril
-to the other. If you divide the whole length of the nose--that is
-from the tip to the insertion of the eyebrows, into 4 equal parts,
-you will find that one of these parts extends from the tip of the
-nostrils to the base of the nose, and the upper division lies
-between the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the
-eyebrows; and the two middle parts [together] are equal to the
-length of the eye from the inner to the outer corner.
-
-[Footnote: The two bottom sketches on Pl. VII, No. 4 face the six
-lines of this section,--With regard to the proportions of the head
-in profile see No. 312.]
-
-322.
-
-The great toe is the sixth part of the foot, taking the measure in
-profile, on the inside of the foot, from where this toe springs from
-the ball of the sole of the foot to its tip _a b_; and it is equal
-to the distance from the mouth to the bottom of the chin. If you
-draw the foot in profile from the outside, make the little toe begin
-at three quarters of the length of the foot, and you will find the
-same distance from the insertion of this toe as to the farthest
-prominence of the great toe.
-
-323.
-
-For each man respectively the distance between _a b_ is equal to _c
-d_.
-
-324.
-
-Relative proportion of the hand and foot.
-
-The foot is as much longer than the hand as the thickness of the arm
-at the wrist where it is thinnest seen facing.
-
-Again, you will find that the foot is as much longer than the hand
-as the space between the inner angle of the little toe to the last
-projection of the big toe, if you measure along the length of the
-foot.
-
-The palm of the hand without the fingers goes twice into the length
-of the foot without the toes.
-
-If you hold your hand with the fingers straight out and close
-together you will find it to be of the same width as the widest part
-of the foot, that is where it is joined onto the toes.
-
-And if you measure from the prominence of the inner ancle to the end
-of the great toe you will find this measure to be as long as the
-whole hand.
-
-From the top angle of the foot to the insertion of the toes is equal
-to the hand from wrist joint to the tip of the thumb.
-
-The smallest width of the hand is equal to the smallest width of the
-foot between its joint into the leg and the insertion of the toes.
-
-The width of the heel at the lower part is equal to that of the arm
-where it joins the hand; and also to the leg where it is thinnest
-when viewed in front.
-
-The length of the longest toe, from its first division from the
-great toe to its tip is the fourth of the foot from the centre of
-the ancle bone to the tip, and it is equal to the width of the
-mouth. The distance between the mouth and the chin is equal to that
-of the knuckles and of the three middle fingers and to the length of
-their first joints if the hand is spread, and equal to the distance
-from the joint of the thumb to the outset of the nails, that is the
-fourth part of the hand and of the face.
-
-The space between the extreme poles inside and outside the foot
-called the ancle or ancle bone _a b_ is equal to the space between
-the mouth and the inner corner of the eye.
-
-325.
-
-The foot, from where it is attached to the leg, to the tip of the
-great toe is as long as the space between the upper part of the chin
-and the roots of the hair _a b_; and equal to five sixths of the
-face.
-
-326.
-
-_a d_ is a head's length, _c b_ is a head's length. The four smaller
-toes are all equally thick from the nail at the top to the bottom,
-and are 1/13 of the foot.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIV, No. 1, a drawing of a foot with the text in
-three lines below it.]
-
-327.
-
-The whole length of the foot will lie between the elbow and the
-wrist and between the elbow and the inner angle of the arm towards
-the breast when the arm is folded. The foot is as long as the whole
-head of a man, that is from under the chin to the topmost part of
-the head[Footnote 2: _nel modo che qui i figurato_. See Pl. VII, No.
-4, the upper figure. The text breaks off at the end of line 2 and
-the text given under No. 321 follows below. It may be here remarked
-that the second sketch on W. P. 311 has in the original no
-explanatory text.] in the way here figured.
-
-Proportions of the leg (328-331).
-
-328.
-
-The greatest thickness of the calf of the leg is at a third of its
-height _a b_, and is a twentieth part thicker than the greatest
-thickness of the foot.
-
-_a c_ is half of the head, and equal to _d b_ and to the insertion
-of the five toes _e f_. _d k_ diminishes one sixth in the leg _g h_.
-_g h_ is 1/3 of the head; _m n_ increases one sixth from _a e_ and
-is 7/12 of the head, _o p_ is 1/10 less than _d k_ and is 6/17 of
-the head. _a_ is at half the distance between _b q_, and is 1/4 of
-the man. _r_ is half way between _s_ and _b_[Footnote 11: _b_ is
-here and later on measured on the right side of the foot as seen by
-the spectator.]. The concavity of the knee outside _r_ is higher
-than that inside _a_. The half of the whole height of the leg from
-the foot _r_, is half way between the prominence _s_ and the ground
-_b_. _v_ is half way between _t_ and _b_. The thickness of the thigh
-seen in front is equal to the greatest width of the face, that is
-2/3 of the length from the chin to the top of the head; _z r_ is 5/6
-of 7 to _v_; _m n_ is equal to 7 _v_ and is 1/4 of _r b_, _x y_ goes
-3 times into _r b_, and into _r s_.
-
-[Footnote 22-35: The sketch illustrating these lines is on Pl. XIII,
-No. 2.]
-
-[Footnote 22: a b _entra in_ c f 6 _e_ 6 _in_ c n. Accurate
-measurement however obliges us to read 7 for 6.] _a b_ goes six
-times into _c f_ and six times into _c n_ and is equal to _g h_; _i
-k l m_ goes 4 times into _d f_, and 4 times into _d n_ and is 3/7 of
-the foot; _p q r s_ goes 3 times into _d f, and 3 times into _b n_;
-[Footnote: 25. _y_ is not to be found on the diagram and _x_ occurs
-twice; this makes the passage very obscure.] _x y_ is 1/8 of _x f_
-and is equal to _n q_. 3 7 is 1/9 of _n f_; 4 5 is 1/10 of _n f_
-[Footnote: 22-27. Compare with this lines 18-24 of No. 331, and the
-sketch of a leg in profile Pl. XV.].
-
-I want to know how much a man increases in height by standing on
-tip-toe and how much _p g_ diminishes by stooping; and how much it
-increases at _n q_ likewise in bending the foot.
-
-[Footnote 34: _e f_ 4 _dal cazo_. By reading _i_ for _e_ the sense
-of this passage is made clear.] _e f_ is four times in the distance
-between the genitals and the sole of the foot; [Footnote 35: 2 is
-not to be found in the sketch which renders the passage obscure. The
-two last lines are plainly legible in the facsimile.] 3 7 is six
-times from 3 to 2 and is equal to _g h_ and _i k_.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing of a leg seen in front Pl. XIII, No. 1
-belongs to the text from lines 3-21. The measurements in this
-section should be compared with the text No. 331, lines 1-13, and
-the sketch of a leg seen in front on Pl. XV.]
-
-329.
-
-The length of the foot from the end of the toes to the heel goes
-twice into that from the heel to the knee, that is where the leg
-bone [fibula] joins the thigh bone [femur].
-
-330.
-
-_a n b_ are equal; _c n d_ are equal; _n c_ makes two feet; _n d_
-makes 2 feet.
-
-[Footnote: See the lower sketch, Pl. XIV, No. 1.]
-
-331.
-
-_m n o_ are equal. The narrowest width of the leg seen in front goes
-8 times from the sole of the foot to the joint of the knee, and is
-the same width as the arm, seen in front at the wrist, and as the
-longest measure of the ear, and as the three chief divisions into
-which we divide the face; and this measurement goes 4 times from the
-wrist joint of the hand to the point of the elbow. [14] The foot is
-as long as the space from the knee between _a_ and _b_; and the
-patella of the knee is as long as the leg between _r_ and _s_.
-
-[18] The least thickness of the leg in profile goes 6 times from the
-sole of the foot to the knee joint and is the same width as the
-space between the outer corner of the eye and the opening of the
-ear, and as the thickest part of the arm seen in profile and between
-the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the hair.
-
-_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice
-from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same
-from the knee to the hip.
-
-[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say
-measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the
-front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the
-middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the
-left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above,
-to the left and apply to the sketch below them.
-
-Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in
-No. 336, lines 6, 7.]
-
-On the central point of the whole body.
-
-332.
-
-In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height.
-
-When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel
-will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows.
-
-Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top
-of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and
-below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to
-the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height]
-by the length of the scrotum.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure.
-
-333.
-
-The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the
-greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to
-the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of
-the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would
-seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this
-point to the genitals is a face's length.
-
-[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the
-same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
-
-The relative proportions of the head and of the torso.
-
-334.
-
-From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the
-sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal.
-
-From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same
-distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure
-goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the
-nose.
-
-The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in
-front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of
-the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the
-length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside.
-
-[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. 336).
-
-335.
-
-_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of
-the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the
-fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the
-breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height
-of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each
-other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.]
-
-336.
-
---Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end
-of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the
-swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of
-the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot.
-
-337.
-
-The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_
-to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest
-part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
-
-The proportions of the whole figure (338-341).
-
-338.
-
-A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height.
-
-339.
-
-The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip
-and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.]
-
-340.
-
-From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure.
-From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest
-finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from
-the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the
-pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin
-to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to
-the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is
-1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4.
-
-341.
-
-The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of
-the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to
-below the shoulder-blade is one foot.
-
-The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one
-8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of
-the chin and the top of the head.
-
-The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4.
-
-The torso from the front and back.
-
-342.
-
-The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips.
-
-A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top
-of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally
-balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top
-of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips
-will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock.
-
-[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of
-line 1.]
-
-Vitruvius' scheme of proportions.
-
-343.
-
-Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the
-measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows:
-that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms
-make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one
-pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his
-buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height
-1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch
-the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of
-the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the
-legs will be an equilateral triangle.
-
-The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height.
-
-From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of
-a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head
-is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top
-of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast
-to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man.
-From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a
-man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the
-fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will
-be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the
-armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be
-the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the
-middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the
-sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the
-man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be
-the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin
-to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in
-each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide
-and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are
-written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage
-quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is
-given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511,
-fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).]
-
-The arm and head.
-
-344.
-
-From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this
-happens when the elbow forms a right angle.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.]
-
-Proportions of the arm (345-349).
-
-345.
-
-From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint
-is four hands or, if you will, four faces.
-
-_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the
-leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering
-refers to the bent arm near the text.]
-
-346.
-
-The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times
-from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint.
-
-347.
-
-_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space
-between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the
-whole man.
-
-_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures
-a cubit.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little
-child) may mean here the navel.]
-
-348.
-
-_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest
-thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times
-into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm
-between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is
-equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow
-_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space
-_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the
-wrist joint.
-
-[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is
-from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times
-into the hand and 9 into the arm.
-
-The arm when bent is 4 heads.
-
-The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in
-length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and
-this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when
-seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and
-the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle
-fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the
-roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote:
-_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to
-rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the
-accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances
-are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the
-above-mentioned increase in the arm.
-
-The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or
-extended.
-
-The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended.
-
-When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is
-bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The
-outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it
-increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by
-bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the
-side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the
-half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to
-the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand.
-
-The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the
-elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on
-the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the
-elbow never alters in any position of the arm.
-
-If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_
-and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the
-half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is
-however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the
-shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb,
-inside, to the elbow _a b c_.
-
-[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is
-identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may
-therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore
-_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_
-goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the
-elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the
-whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is
-equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first
-is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow
-and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two
-columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we
-find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the
-text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl.
-XXXV, No. 1.]
-
-349.
-
-From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as
-from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of
-the hand, and each is 2 faces.
-
-[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal
-to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_
-to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into
-_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is
-extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point
-between _a_ and _s_.
-
-_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when
-the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending
-loses 1/6 and so does _o r_.
-
-_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those
-2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part
-between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r
-c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.]
-
-The movement of the arm (350-354).
-
-350.
-
-In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are
-converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost
-bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the
-utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who
-have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do
-not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations
-occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the
-back than at the sides.
-
-351.
-
-When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some
-angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within
-the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of
-greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will
-shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.]
-
-352.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle
-of the back.
-
-353.
-
-The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards,
-backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down,
-to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them
-together.
-
-354.
-
-OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS.
-
-The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and
-bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is,
-sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they
-bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend
-in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2
-first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be
-bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if
-the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides
-all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2
-are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these
-is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite
-number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon
-ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are
-made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons
-inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not.
-
-[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to
-follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the
-fingers at the 3 joints.
-
-The movement of the torso (355-361).
-
-355.
-
-Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of
-the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to
-the front, and also in circular movements and any others.
-
-And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the
-breast above the lips &c.
-
-356.
-
-Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_,
-and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward,
-that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed
-raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_
-upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it
-downwards.
-
-The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward;
-and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been
-written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the
-figures have in most places been inked over.]
-
-357.
-
-OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT.
-
-The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower
-than the shoulderblades of the back.
-
-If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the
-shoulderblades.
-
-If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same
-level as the shoulderblades.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.]
-
-358.
-
-_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other
-by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's
-breadth.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with
-Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of
-LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.]
-
-359.
-
-Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this
-position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in
-proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal
-size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal]
-size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and
-this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that
-foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight.
-This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it
-out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central
-line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper
-extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and
-the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are
-lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 3.]
-
-360.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and
-their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and
-shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will
-find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy.
-
-361.
-
-OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE.
-
-The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm
-forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the
-leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and.
-so it varies in every attitude.
-
-362.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become
-prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or
-which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these
-indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in
-any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c.
-
-And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at
-every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c.
-
-And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which
-swell and which grow thinner.
-
-363.
-
-O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the
-bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in
-your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all
-their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in
-what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean
-persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same
-muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them,
-which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any
-amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the
-attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in
-many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the
-increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one
-single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise,
-each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and
-particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c.
-Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the
-above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of
-any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb;
-for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is
-wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which
-these muscles are composed, &c.
-
-[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of
-the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora
-osservera il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno
-abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con cio ha in
-mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_."
-Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the
-immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine
-Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.]
-
-364.
-
-OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN.
-
-There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men
-and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to
-the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one
-shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy
-it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the
-home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital
-elements.
-
-365.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when
-becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame
-where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of
-leanness ever diminishes it?
-
-The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the
-external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists,
-finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of
-which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by
-any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its
-attachments.
-
-Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones
-are near to the surface.
-
-At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never
-makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man
-all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the
-shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for
-the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these
-parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be
-the cause of their destruction.
-
-Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand
-and foot [respectively].
-
-And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the
-limbs.
-
-366.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if
-a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his
-parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with
-short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on
-with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to
-all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in
-due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging.
-
-367.
-
-OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS.
-
-And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs,
-that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and
-likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very
-muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round,
-and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular,
-while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the
-sinews very prominent.
-
-HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN,
-AS TO SIZE.
-
-Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between
-them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers
-the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew,
-connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid
-on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the
-bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between
-them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity
-which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings
-more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since
-there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy
-skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus,
-and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat
-between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers,
-arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on
-the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are
-thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences.
-
-The movement of the human figure (368-375).
-
-368.
-
-Of the manner of representing the 18 actions of man. Repose,
-movement, running, standing, supported, sitting, leaning, kneeling,
-lying down, suspended. Carrying or being carried, thrusting,
-pulling, striking, being struck, pressing down and lifting up.
-
-[As to how a figure should stand with a weight in its hand [Footnote
-8: The original text ends here.] Remember].
-
-369.
-
-A sitting man cannot raise himself if that part of his body which is
-front of his axis [centre of gravity] does not weigh more than that
-which is behind that axis [or centre] without using his arms.
-
-A man who is mounting any slope finds that he must involuntarily
-throw the most weight forward, on the higher foot, rather than
-behind--that is in front of the axis and not behind it. Hence a man
-will always, involuntarily, throw the greater weight towards the
-point whither he desires to move than in any other direction.
-
-The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the point
-he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis than behind.
-A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto his heels, and one who
-runs up hill throws it into the points of his feet; and a man
-running on level ground throws it first on his heels and then on the
-points of his feet.
-
-This man cannot carry his own weight unless, by drawing his body
-back he balances the weight in front, in such a way as that the foot
-on which he stands is the centre of gravity.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 4.]
-
-370.
-
-How a man proceeds to raise himself to his feet, when he is sitting
-on level ground.
-
-371.
-
-A man when walking has his head in advance of his feet.
-
-A man when walking across a long level plain first leans [rather]
-backwards and then as much forwards.
-
-[Footnote 3-6: He strides forward with the air of a man going down
-hill; when weary, on the contrary he walks like a man going up
-hill.]
-
-372.
-
-A man when running throws less weight on his legs than when standing
-still. And in the same way a horse which is running feels less the
-weight of the man he carries. Hence many persons think it wonderful
-that, in running, the horse can rest on one single foot. From this
-it may be stated that when a weight is in progressive motion the
-more rapid it is the less is the perpendicular weight towards the
-centre.
-
-373.
-
-If a man, in taking a jump from firm ground, can leap 3 braccia, and
-when he was taking his leap it were to recede 1/3 of a braccio, that
-would be taken off his former leap; and so if it were thrust forward
-1/3 of a braccio, by how much would his leap be increased?
-
-374.
-
-OF DRAWING.
-
-When a man who is running wants to neutralise the impetus that
-carries him on he prepares a contrary impetus which is generated by
-his hanging backwards. This can be proved, since, if the impetus
-carries a moving body with a momentum equal to 4 and the moving body
-wants to turn and fall back with a momentum of 4, then one momentum
-neutralises the other contrary one, and the impetus is neutralised.
-
-Of walking up and down (375-379)
-
-375.
-
-When a man wants to stop running and check the impetus he is forced
-to hang back and take short quick steps. [Footnote: Lines 5-31 refer
-to the two upper figures, and the lower figure to the right is
-explained by the last part of the chapter.] The centre of gravity of
-a man who lifts one of his feet from the ground always rests on the
-centre of the sole of the foot [he stands on].
-
-A man, in going up stairs involuntarily throws so much weight
-forward and on the side of the upper foot as to be a counterpoise to
-the lower leg, so that the labour of this lower leg is limited to
-moving itself.
-
-The first thing a man does in mounting steps is to relieve the leg
-he is about to lift of the weight of the body which was resting on
-that leg; and besides this, he gives to the opposite leg all the
-rest of the bulk of the whole man, including [the weight of] the
-other leg; he then raises the other leg and sets the foot upon the
-step to which he wishes to raise himself. Having done this he
-restores to the upper foot all the weight of the body and of the leg
-itself, and places his hand on his thigh and throws his head forward
-and repeats the movement towards the point of the upper foot,
-quickly lifting the heel of the lower one; and with this impetus he
-lifts himself up and at the same time extends the arm which rested
-on his knee; and this extension of the arm carries up the body and
-the head, and so straightens the spine which was curved.
-
-[32] The higher the step is which a man has to mount, the farther
-forward will he place his head in advance of his upper foot, so as
-to weigh more on _a_ than on _b_; this man will not be on the step
-_m_. As is shown by the line _g f_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 1. The lower sketch to the left
-belongs to the four first lines.]
-
-376.
-
-I ask the weight [pressure] of this man at every degree of motion on
-these steps, what weight he gives to _b_ and to _c_.
-
-[Footnote 8: These lines are, in the original, written in ink]
-Observe the perpendicular line below the centre of gravity of the
-man.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 2.]
-
-377.
-
-In going up stairs if you place your hands on your knees all the
-labour taken by the arms is removed from the sinews at the back of
-the knees.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 3.]
-
-378.
-
-The sinew which guides the leg, and which is connected with the
-patella of the knee, feels it a greater labour to carry the man
-upwards, in proportion as the leg is more bent; and the muscle which
-acts upon the angle made by the thigh where it joins the body has
-less difficulty and has a less weight to lift, because it has not
-the [additional] weight of the thigh itself. And besides this it has
-stronger muscles, being those which form the buttock.
-
-379.
-
-A man coming down hill takes little steps, because the weight rests
-upon the hinder foot, while a man mounting takes wide steps, because
-his weight rests on the foremost foot.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 4.]
-
-On the human body in action (380-388).
-
-380.
-
-OF THE HUMAN BODY IN ACTION.
-
-When you want to represent a man as moving some weight consider what
-the movements are that are to be represented by different lines;
-that is to say either from below upwards, with a simple movement, as
-a man does who stoops forward to take up a weight which he will lift
-as he straightens himself. Or as a man does who wants to squash
-something backwards, or to force it forwards or to pull it downwards
-with ropes passed through pullies [Footnote 10: Compare the sketch
-on page 198 and on 201 (S. K. M. II.1 86b).]. And here remember that
-the weight of a man pulls in proportion as his centre of gravity is
-distant from his fulcrum, and to this is added the force given by
-his legs and bent back as he raises himself.
-
-381.
-
-Again, a man has even a greater store of strength in his legs than
-he needs for his own weight; and to see if this is true, make a man
-stand on the shore-sand and then put another man on his back, and
-you will see how much he will sink in. Then take the man from off
-his back and make him jump straight up as high as he can, and you
-will find that the print of his feet will be made deeper by the jump
-than from having the man on his back. Hence, here, by 2 methods it
-is proved that a man has double the strength he requires to support
-his own body.
-
-382.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-If you have to draw a man who is in motion, or lifting or pulling,
-or carrying a weight equal to his own, in what way must you set on
-his legs below his body?
-
-[Footnote: In the MS. this question remains unanswered.]
-
-383.
-
-OF THE STRENGTH OF MAN.
-
-A man pulling a [dead] weight balanced against himself cannot pull
-more than his own weight. And if he has to raise it he will [be able
-to] raise as much more than his weight as his strength may be more
-than that of other men. [Footnote 7: The stroke at the end of this
-line finishes in the original in a sort of loop or flourish, and a
-similar flourish occurs at the end of the previous passage written
-on the same page. M. RAVAISSON regards these as numbers (compare the
-photograph of page 30b in his edition of MS. A). He remarks: "_Ce
-chiffre_ 8 _et, a la fin de l'alinea precedent, le chiffre_ 7 _sont,
-dans le manuscrit, des renvois_."] The greatest force a man can
-apply, with equal velocity and impetus, will be when he sets his
-feet on one end of the balance [or lever] and then presses his
-shoulders against some stable body. This will raise a weight at the
-other end of the balance [lever], equal to his own weight and [added
-to that] as much weight as he can carry on his shoulders.
-
-384.
-
-No animal can simply move [by its dead weight] a greater weight than
-the sum of its own weight outside the centre of his fulcrum.
-
-385.
-
-A man who wants to send an arrow very far from the bow must be
-standing entirely on one foot and raising the other so far from the
-foot he stands on as to afford the requisite counterpoise to his
-body which is thrown on the front foot. And he must not hold his arm
-fully extended, and in order that he may be more able to bear the
-strain he must hold a piece of wood which there is in all crossbows,
-extending from the hand to the breast, and when he wishes to shoot
-he suddenly leaps forward at the same instant and extends his arm
-with the bow and releases the string. And if he dexterously does
-every thing at once it will go a very long way.
-
-386.
-
-When two men are at the opposite ends of a plank that is balanced,
-and if they are of equal weight, and if one of them wants to make a
-leap into the air, then his leap will be made down from his end of
-the plank and the man will never go up again but must remain in his
-place till the man at the other end dashes up the board.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIV, No. 3.]
-
-387.
-
-Of delivering a blow to the right or left.
-
-[Footnote: Four sketches on Pl. XXIV, No. 1 belong to this passage.
-The rest of the sketches and notes on that page are of a
-miscellaneous nature.]
-
-388.
-
-Why an impetus is not spent at once [but diminishes] gradually in
-some one direction? [Footnote 1: The paper has been damaged at the
-end of line 1.] The impetus acquired in the line _a b c d_ is spent
-in the line _d e_ but not so completely but that some of its force
-remains in it and to this force is added the momentum in the line _d
-e_ with the force of the motive power, and it must follow than the
-impetus multiplied by the blow is greater that the simple impetus
-produced by the momentum _d e_.
-
-[Footnote 8: The sketch No. 2 on Pl. XXIV stands, in the original,
-between lines 7 and 8. Compare also the sketches on Pl. LIV.] A man
-who has to deal a great blow with his weapon prepares himself with
-all his force on the opposite side to that where the spot is which
-he is to hit; and this is because a body as it gains in velocity
-gains in force against the object which impedes its motion.
-
-On hair falling down in curls.
-
-389.
-
-Observe the motion of the surface of the water which resembles that
-of hair, and has two motions, of which one goes on with the flow of
-the surface, the other forms the lines of the eddies; thus the water
-forms eddying whirlpools one part of which are due to the impetus of
-the principal current and the other to the incidental motion and
-return flow.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXV. Where also the text of this passage is given
-in facsimile.]
-
-On draperies (390--392).
-
-390.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE FOLDS IN DRAPERY.
-
-That part of a fold which is farthest from the ends where it is
-confined will fall most nearly in its natural form.
-
-Every thing by nature tends to remain at rest. Drapery, being of
-equal density and thickness on its wrong side and on its right, has
-a tendency to lie flat; therefore when you give it a fold or plait
-forcing it out of its flatness note well the result of the
-constraint in the part where it is most confined; and the part which
-is farthest from this constraint you will see relapses most into the
-natural state; that is to say lies free and flowing.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-[Footnote 13: _a c sia_. In the original text _b_ is written instead
-of _c_--an evident slip of the pen.] Let _a b c_ be the fold of the
-drapery spoken of above, _a c_ will be the places where this folded
-drapery is held fast. I maintain that the part of the drapery which
-is farthest from the plaited ends will revert most to its natural
-form.
-
-Therefore, _b_ being farthest from _a_ and _c_ in the fold _a b c_
-it will be wider there than anywhere else.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 6, and compare the drawing from
-Windsor Pl. XXX for farther illustration of what is here stated.]
-
-391.
-
-OF SMALL FOLDS IN DRAPERIES.
-
-How figures dressed in a cloak should not show the shape so much as
-that the cloak looks as if it were next the flesh; since you surely
-cannot wish the cloak to be next the flesh, for you must suppose
-that between the flesh and the cloak there are other garments which
-prevent the forms of the limbs appearing distinctly through the
-cloak. And those limbs which you allow to be seen you must make
-thicker so that the other garments may appear to be under the cloak.
-But only give something of the true thickness of the limbs to a
-nymph [Footnote 9: _Una nifa_. Compare the beautiful drawing of a
-Nymph, in black chalk from the Windsor collection, Pl. XXVI.] or an
-angel, which are represented in thin draperies, pressed and clinging
-to the limbs of the figures by the action of the wind.
-
-392.
-
-You ought not to give to drapery a great confusion of many folds,
-but rather only introduce them where they are held by the hands or
-the arms; the rest you may let fall simply where it is its nature to
-flow; and do not let the nude forms be broken by too many details
-and interrupted folds. How draperies should be drawn from nature:
-that is to say if youwant to represent woollen cloth draw the folds
-from that; and if it is to be silk, or fine cloth or coarse, or of
-linen or of crape, vary the folds in each and do not represent
-dresses, as many do, from models covered with paper or thin leather
-which will deceive you greatly.
-
-[Footnote: The little pen and ink drawing from Windsor (W. 102),
-given on Pl. XXVIII, No. 7, clearly illustrates the statement made
-at the beginning of this passage; the writing of the cipher 19 on
-the same page is in Leonardo's hand; the cipher 21 is certainly
-not.]
-
-_VIII._
-
-_Botany for Painters and Elements of Landscape Painting._
-
-_The chapters composing this portion of the work consist of
-observations on Form, Light and Shade in Plants, and particularly in
-Trees summed up in certain general rules by which the author intends
-to guide the artist in the pictorial representation of landscape._
-
-_With these the first principles of a_ Theory of Landscape painting
-_are laid down--a theory as profoundly thought out in its main
-lines as it is lucidly worked out in its details. In reading these
-chapters the conviction is irresistible that such a_ Botany for
-painters _is or ought to be of similar importance in the practice of
-painting as the principles of the Proportions and Movements of the
-human figure_ i. e. Anatomy for painters.
-
-_There can be no doubt that Leonardo, in laying down these rules,
-did not intend to write on Botany in the proper scientific
-sense--his own researches on that subject have no place here; it
-need only be observed that they are easily distinguished by their
-character and contents from those which are here collected and
-arranged under the title 'Botany for painters'. In some cases where
-this division might appear doubtful,--as for instance in No._
-402--_the Painter is directly addressed and enjoined to take the
-rule to heart as of special importance in his art._
-
-_The original materials are principally derived from MS._ G, _in
-which we often find this subject treated on several pages in
-succession without any of that intermixture of other matters, which
-is so frequent in Leonardo's writings. This MS., too, is one of the
-latest; when it was written, the great painter was already more than
-sixty years of age, so we can scarcely doubt that he regarded all he
-wrote as his final views on the subject. And the same remark applies
-to the chapters from MSS._ E _and_ M _which were also written
-between_ 1513--15.
-
-_For the sake of clearness, however, it has been desirable to
-sacrifice--with few exceptions--the original order of the passages
-as written, though it was with much reluctance and only after long
-hesitation that I resigned myself to this necessity. Nor do I mean
-to impugn the logical connection of the author's ideas in his MS.;
-but it will be easily understood that the sequence of disconnected
-notes, as they occurred to Leonardo and were written down from time
-to time, might be hardly satisfactory as a systematic arrangement of
-his principles. The reader will find in the Appendix an exact
-account of the order of the chapters in the original MS. and from
-the data there given can restore them at will. As the materials are
-here arranged, the structure of the tree as regards the growth of
-the branches comes first_ (394-411) _and then the insertion of the
-leaves on the stems_ (412-419). _Then follow the laws of Light and
-Shade as applied, first, to the leaves (420-434), and, secondly, to
-the whole tree and to groups of trees_ (435-457). _After the remarks
-on the Light and Shade in landscapes generally_ (458-464), _we find
-special observations on that of views of towns and buildings_
-(465-469). _To the theory of Landscape Painting belong also the
-passages on the effect of Wind on Trees_ (470-473) _and on the Light
-and Shade of Clouds_ (474-477), _since we find in these certain
-comparisons with the effect of Light and Shade on Trees_ (e. g.: _in
-No._ 476, 4. 5; _and No._ 477, 9. 12). _The chapters given in the
-Appendix Nos._ 478 _and_ 481 _have hardly any connection with the
-subjects previously treated._
-
-Classification of trees.
-
-393.
-
-TREES.
-
-Small, lofty, straggling, thick, that is as to foliage, dark, light,
-russet, branched at the top; some directed towards the eye, some
-downwards; with white stems; this transparent in the air, that not;
-some standing close together, some scattered.
-
-The relative thickness of the branches to the trunk (393--396).
-
-394.
-
-All the branches of a tree at every stage of its height when put
-together are equal in thickness to the trunk [below them].
-
-All the branches of a water [course] at every stage of its course,
-if they are of equal rapidity, are equal to the body of the main
-stream.
-
-395.
-
-Every year when the boughs of a plant [or tree] have made an end of
-maturing their growth, they will have made, when put together, a
-thickness equal to that of the main stem; and at every stage of its
-ramification you will find the thickness of the said main stem; as:
-_i k_, _g h_, _e f_, _c d_, _a b_, will always be equal to each
-other; unless the tree is pollard--if so the rule does not hold
-good.
-
-All the branches have a direction which tends to the centre of the
-tree _m_.
-
-[Footnote: The two sketches of leafless trees one above another on
-the left hand side of Pl. XXVII, No. 1, belong to this passage.]
-
-396.
-
-If the plant n grows to the thickness shown at m, its branches will
-correspond [in thickness] to the junction a b in consequence of the
-growth inside as well as outside.
-
-The branches of trees or plants have a twist wherever a minor branch
-is given off; and this giving off the branch forms a fork; this said
-fork occurs between two angles of which the largest will be that
-which is on the side of the larger branch, and in proportion, unless
-accident has spoilt it.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches illustrating this are on the right hand side
-of PI. XXVII, No. I, and the text is also given there in facsimile.]
-
-397.
-
-There is no boss on branches which has not been produced by some
-branch which has failed.
-
-The lower shoots on the branches of trees grow more than the upper
-ones and this occurs only because the sap that nourishes them, being
-heavy, tends downwards more than upwards; and again, because those
-[branches] which grow downwards turn away from the shade which
-exists towards the centre of the plant. The older the branches are,
-the greater is the difference between their upper and their lower
-shoots and in those dating from the same year or epoch.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch accompanying this in the MS. is so effaced
-that an exact reproduction was impossible.]
-
-398.
-
-OF THE SCARS ON TREES.
-
-The scars on trees grow to a greater thickness than is required by
-the sap of the limb which nourishes them.
-
-399.
-
-The plant which gives out the smallest ramifications will preserve
-the straightest line in the course of its growth.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is illustrated by two partly effaced
-sketches. One of these closely resembles the lower one given under
-No. 408, the other also represents short closely set boughs on an
-upright trunk.]
-
-400.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATION.
-
-The beginning of the ramification [the shoot] always has the central
-line [axis] of its thickness directed to the central line [axis] of
-the plant itself.
-
-401.
-
-In starting from the main stem the branches always form a base with
-a prominence as is shown at _a b c d_.
-
-402.
-
-WHY, VERY FREQUENTLY, TIMBER HAS VEINS THAT ARE NOT STRAIGHT.
-
-When the branches which grow the second year above the branch of the
-preceding year, are not of equal thickness above the antecedent
-branches, but are on one side, then the vigour of the lower branch
-is diverted to nourish the one above it, although it may be somewhat
-on one side.
-
-But if the ramifications are equal in their growth, the veins of the
-main stem will be straight [parallel] and equidistant at every
-degree of the height of the plant.
-
-Wherefore, O Painter! you, who do not know these laws! in order to
-escape the blame of those who understand them, it will be well that
-you should represent every thing from nature, and not despise such
-study as those do who work [only] for money.
-
-The direction of growth (403-407).
-
-403.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF PLANTS.
-
-The plants which spread very much have the angles of the spaces
-which divide their branches more obtuse in proportion as their point
-of origin is lower down; that is nearer to the thickest and oldest
-portion of the tree. Therefore in the youngest portions of the tree
-the angles of ramification are more acute. [Footnote: Compare the
-sketches on the lower portion of Pl. XXVII, No. 2.]
-
-404.
-
-The tips of the boughs of plants [and trees], unless they are borne
-down by the weight of their fruits, turn towards the sky as much as
-possible.
-
-The upper side of their leaves is turned towards the sky that it may
-receive the nourishment of the dew which falls at night.
-
-The sun gives spirit and life to plants and the earth nourishes them
-with moisture. [9] With regard to this I made the experiment of
-leaving only one small root on a gourd and this I kept nourished
-with water, and the gourd brought to perfection all the fruits it
-could produce, which were about 60 gourds of the long kind, andi set
-my mind diligently [to consider] this vitality and perceived that
-the dews of night were what supplied it abundantly with moisture
-through the insertion of its large leaves and gave nourishment to
-the plant and its offspring--or the seeds which its offspring had
-to produce--[21].
-
-The rule of the leaves produced on the last shoot of the year will
-be that they will grow in a contrary direction on the twin branches;
-that is, that the insertion of the leaves turns round each branch in
-such a way, as that the sixth leaf above is produced over the sixth
-leaf below, and the way they turn is that if one turns towards its
-companion to the right, the other turns to the left, the leaf
-serving as the nourishing breast for the shoot or fruit which grows
-the following year.
-
-[Footnote: A French translation of lines 9-12 was given by M.
-RAVAISSON in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Oct. 1877; his paper also
-contains some valuable information as to botanical science in the
-ancient classical writers and at the time of the Renaissance.]
-
-405.
-
-The lowest branches of those trees which have large leaves and heavy
-fruits, such as nut-trees, fig-trees and the like, always droop
-towards the ground.
-
-The branches always originate above [in the axis of] the leaves.
-
-406.
-
-The upper shoots of the lateral branches of plants lie closer to the
-parent branch than the lower ones.
-
-407.
-
-The lowest branches, after they have formed the angle of their
-separation from the parent stem, always bend downwards so as not to
-crowd against the other branches which follow them on the same stem
-and to be better able to take the air which nourishes them. As is
-shown by the angle _b a c_; the branch _a c_ after it has made the
-corner of the angle _a c_ bends downwards to _c d_ and the lesser
-shoot _c_ dries up, being too thin.
-
-The main branch always goes below, as is shown by the branch _f n
-m_, which does not go to _f n o_.
-
-The forms of trees (408--411).
-
-408.
-
-The elm always gives a greater length to the last branches of the
-year's growth than to the lower ones; and Nature does this because
-the highest branches are those which have to add to the size of the
-tree; and those at the bottom must get dry because they grow in the
-shade and their growth would be an impediment to the entrance of the
-solar rays and the air among the main branches of the tree.
-
-The main branches of the lower part bend down more than those above,
-so as to be more oblique than those upper ones, and also because
-they are larger and older.
-
-409.
-
-In general almost all the upright portions of trees curve somewhat
-turning the convexity towards the South; and their branches are
-longer and thicker and more abundant towards the South than towards
-the North. And this occurs because the sun draws the sap towards
-that surface of the tree which is nearest to it.
-
-And this may be observed if the sun is not screened off by other
-plants.
-
-410.
-
-The cherry-tree is of the character of the fir tree as regards its
-ramification placed in stages round its main stem; and its branches
-spring, 4 or five or 6 [together] opposite each other; and the tips
-of the topmost shoots form a pyramid from the middle upwards; and
-the walnut and oak form a hemisphere from the middle upwards.
-
-411.
-
-The bough of the walnut which is only hit and beaten when it has
-brought to perfection...
-
-[Footnote: The end of the text and the sketch in red chalk belonging
-to it, are entirely effaced.]
-
-The insertion of the leaves (412--419).
-
-412.
-
-OF THE INSERTION OF THE BRANCHES ON PLANTS.
-
-Such as the growth of the ramification of plants is on their
-principal branches, so is that of the leaves on the shoots of the
-same plant. These leaves have [Footnote 6: _Quattro modi_ (four
-modes). Only three are described in the text, the fourth is only
-suggested by a sketch.
-
-This passage occurs in MANZI'S edition of the Trattato, p. 399, but
-without the sketches and the text is mutilated in an important part.
-The whole passage has been commented on, from MANZI'S version, in
-Part I of the _Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano_, by Prof. G.
-UZIELLI (Florence 1869, Vol. I). He remarks as to the 'four modes':
-"_Leonardo, come si vede nelle linie sententi da solo tre esempli.
-Questa ed altre inessattezze fanno desiderare, sia esaminato di
-nuovo il manoscritto Vaticano_". This has since been done by D.
-KNAPP of Tubingen, and his accurate copy has been published by H.
-LUDWIG, the painter. The passage in question occurs in his edition
-as No. 833; and there also the drawings are wanting. The space for
-them has been left vacant, but in the Vatican copy '_niente_' has
-been written on the margin; and in it, as well as in LUDWIG'S and
-MANZI'S edition, the text is mutilated.] four modes of growing one
-above another. The first, which is the most general, is that the
-sixth always originates over the sixth below [Footnote 8: _la sesta
-di sotto. "Disposizione 2/5 o 1/5. Leonardo osservo probabilmente
-soltanto la prima"_ (UZIELLl).]; the second is that two third ones
-above are over the two third ones below [Footnote 10: _terze di
-sotto: "Intende qui senza dubbio parlare di foglie decussate, in cui
-il terzo verticello e nel piano del primo"_ (UZIELLI).]; and the
-third way is that the third above is over the third below [Footnote
-11: 3a _di sotto: "Disposizione 1/2"_ (UZIELLI).].
-
-[Footnote: See the four sketches on the upper portion of the page
-reproduced as fig. 2 on P1. XXVII.]
-
-413.
-
-A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELM.
-
-The ramification of the elm has the largest branch at the top. The
-first and the last but one are smaller, when the main trunk is
-straight.
-
-The space between the insertion of one leaf to the rest is half the
-extreme length of the leaf or somewhat less, for the leaves are at
-an interval which is about the 3rd of the width of the leaf.
-
-The elm has more leaves near the top of the boughs than at the base;
-and the broad [surface] of the leaves varies little as to [angle
-and] aspect.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 3. Above the sketch and close under
-the number of the page is the word '_olmo_' (elm).]
-
-414.
-
-In the walnut tree the leaves which are distributed on the shoots of
-this year are further apart from each other and more numerous in
-proportion as the branch from which this shoot springs is a young
-one. And they are inserted more closely and less in number when the
-shoot that bears them springs from an old branch. Its fruits are
-borne at the ends of the shoots. And its largest boughs are the
-lowest on the boughs they spring from. And this arises from the
-weight of its sap which is more apt to descend than to rise, and
-consequently the branches which spring from them and rise towards
-the sky are small and slender [20]; and when the shoot turns towards
-the sky its leaves spread out from it [at an angle] with an equal
-distribution of their tips; and if the shoot turns to the horizon
-the leaves lie flat; and this arises from the fact that leaves
-without exception, turn their underside to the earth [29].
-
-The shoots are smaller in proportion as they spring nearer to the
-base of the bough they spring from.
-
-[Footnote: See the two sketches on Pl XXVII, No. 4. The second
-refers to the passage lines 20-30.]
-
-415.
-
-OF THE INSERTION OF THE LEAVES ON THE BRANCHES.
-
-The thickness of a branch never diminishes within the space between
-one leaf and the next excepting by so much as the thickness of the
-bud which is above the leaf and this thickness is taken off from the
-branch above [the node] as far as the next leaf.
-
-Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many plants
-that the sixth leaf is always above the first, and so on in
-succession, if the rule is not [accidentally] interfered with; and
-this occurs for two useful ends in the plant: First that as the
-shoot and the fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye
-which lies above and in close contact with the insertion of the leaf
-[in the axil], the water which falls upon the shoot can run down to
-nourish the bud, by the drop being caught in the hollow [axil] at
-the insertion of the leaf. And the second advantage is, that as
-these shoots develop in the following year one will not cover the
-next below, since the 5 come forth on five different sides; and the
-sixth which is above the first is at some distance.
-
-416.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF TREES AND THEIR FOLIAGE.
-
-The ramifications of any tree, such as the elm, are wide and slender
-after the manner of a hand with spread fingers, foreshortened. And
-these are seen in the distribution [thus]: the lower portions are
-seen from above; and those that are above are seen from below; and
-those in the middle, some from below and some from above. The upper
-part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle
-portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are
-turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle
-of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of
-the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the
-common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers.
-
-Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put
-forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed
-above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and
-others.
-
-417.
-
-You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth
-leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above
-another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this
-order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part
-of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards
-the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves
-on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper
-branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to
-turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night,
-it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no
-longer form a cross.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.]
-
-418.
-
-A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may
-the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently
-from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the
-plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but
-shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy
-which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that
-is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate
-between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the
-first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the
-sixth.
-
-419.
-
-Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the
-axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from
-the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above,
-and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of
-the sun.
-
-LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422).
-
-420.
-
-That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the
-luminous ray coming between right angles.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.]
-
-421.
-
-Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark
-than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in
-May than in September.
-
-422.
-
-OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES.
-
-The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is:
-shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency.
-
-OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS.
-
-These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at
-a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or
-shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous.
-
-The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426).
-
-423.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF.
-
-Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade,
-lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus,
-if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at
-_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_
-transparent.
-
-424.
-
-A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and
-up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half
-transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the
-eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall
-upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under
-side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is
-transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the
-upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red
-chalk.]
-
-425.
-
-Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great
-extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it
-may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will
-have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to
-have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye
-is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without
-exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the
-lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the
-shadows.
-
-The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the
-same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour
-that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is
-placed between
-
-426.
-
-the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side.
-
-And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the
-opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at
-hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see
-its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the
-upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more
-foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right
-side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two
-colours.
-
-Of the transparency of leaves (427-429).
-
-427.
-
-The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the
-same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will
-show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre
-[reflected light] can never show through.
-
-428.
-
-When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the
-leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in
-those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere.
-
-And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between
-it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the
-reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong.
-
-It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and
-dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some
-distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which
-is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous
-atmosphere.
-
-429.
-
-Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are
-confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will
-be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow
-has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is
-[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and
-consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation
-of it should be avoided.
-
-The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an
-acute angle.
-
-The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434).
-
-430.
-
-The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere
-penetrates there can never be utter darkness.
-
-431.
-
-If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see
-the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_
---that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under
-side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on
-yellow.
-
-If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes
-that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful
-light green, being transparent.
-
-In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without
-shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent
-and the right side lustrous [reflecting light].
-
-432.
-
-The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped
-every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their
-shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards
-the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves
-and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards
-the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the
-branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring
-from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to
-their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations
-of light against a background of shadow.
-
-That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches
-and few leaves.
-
-433.
-
-OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES.
-
-When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then
-that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most
-distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere;
-and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the
-tree, that is towards the light.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
-
-434.
-
-OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES.
-
-The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to
-the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the
-cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles
-with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is
-produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the
-smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this
-light usually produces when it falls on dark objects.
-
-OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN.
-
-But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the
-atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as
-every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that
-mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the
-yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed
-together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of
-light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow.
-
-A classification of trees according to their colours.
-
-435.
-
-The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as
-some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels,
-box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears,
-vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts,
-holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate,
-vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds
-and the like. Trees are of various forms ...
-
-The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440).
-
-436.
-
-OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES.
-
-That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow
-which is farthest from the earth.
-
-To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated
-hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth
-_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the
-hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces
-the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this
-reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it
-is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the
-laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because,
-although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of
-the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected
-onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these
-trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree.
-
-437.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE.
-
-The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every
-shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion
-as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are
-nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always
-present themselves to the eye edgewise.
-
-OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most
-nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon
-it.
-
-438.
-
-OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere
-and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated
-by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend
-to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the
-atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated
-by the sun will reflect light.
-
-439.
-
-OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE.
-
-The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender
-branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants
-which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow.
-
-440.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree
-illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be
-seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let
-the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated
-by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in
-the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other.
-Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much
-the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one
-tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than
-the other; &c.
-
-You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow,
-while the same eye _c_ sees the tree _b_ half in light and half in
-shade.
-
-When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed
-within the circle made by its boughs[23].
-
-Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one
-particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density
-of their branches.
-
-[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3,
-refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced
-by Leonardo himself.]
-
-The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position
-of the spectator (441-443).
-
-441.
-
-The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves
-in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the
-left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved
-by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and
-the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The
-eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the
-opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and
-the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be
-seen half in shadow and half in light.
-
-[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No.
-3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram
-and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No.
-461.]
-
-442.
-
-OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD.
-
-Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among
-them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the
-stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which
-the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that
-is on the background beyond the shadow.
-
-OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT.
-
-Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in
-front will be light; but this light will be broken by the
-ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under
-side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the
-background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from
-the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed
-above the eye.
-
-443.
-
-FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE
-
-Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in
-light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun
-is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the
-general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And
-then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts
-are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth.
-
-The effects of morning light (444-448).
-
-444.
-
-OF TREES TO THE SOUTH.
-
-When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North
-have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in
-proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in
-proportion as they lie to the East.
-
-OF MEADOWS.
-
-If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other
-small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to
-the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in
-those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant
-green.
-
-445.
-
-OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES].
-
-When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it
-are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves
-lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the
-Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the
-verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the
-colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East,
-which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is
-moister.
-
-The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them
-and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker.
-
-446.
-
-OF TREES IN THE EAST.
-
-When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will
-have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows,
-excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been
-pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and
-North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in
-shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East
-or to the West.
-
-The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and
-lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with
-the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of
-shadow.
-
-The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species.
-
-447.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES.
-
-The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or
-left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible
-gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and
-those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This
-possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this
-note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.],
-see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow
-exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the
-images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and
-mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their
-minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees,
-and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by
-the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests
-are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen.
-
-448.
-
-OF TREES TO THE EAST.
-
-When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle
-while their edges are light.
-
-The effects of midday light.
-
-449.
-
-OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW
-THEY STAND OUT WELL.
-
-To represent a landscape choose that the sun shall be at noon and
-look towards the West or East and then draw. And if you turn towards
-the North, every object placed on that side will have no shadow,
-particularly those which are nearest to the [direction of the]
-shadow of your head. And if you turn towards the South every object
-on that side will be wholly in shadow. All the trees which are
-towards the sun and have the atmosphere for their background are
-dark, and the other trees which lie against that darkness will be
-black [very dark] in the middle and lighter towards the edges.
-
-The appearance of trees in the distance (450. 451).
-
-450.
-
-OF THE SPACES [SHOWING THE SKY] IN TREES THEMSELVES.
-
-The spaces between the parts in the mass of trees, and the spaces
-between the trees in the air, are, at great distances, invisible to
-the eye; for, where it is an effort [even] to see the whole it is
-most difficult to discern the parts.--But a confused mixture is the
-result, partaking chiefly of the [hue] which predominates. The
-spaces between the leaves consist of particles of illuminated air
-which are very much smaller than the tree and are lost sight of
-sooner than the tree; but it does not therefore follow that they are
-not there. Hence, necessarily, a compounded [effect] is produced of
-the sky and of the shadows of the tree in shade, which both together
-strike the eye which sees them.
-
-OF TREES WHICH CONCEAL THESE SPACES IN ONE ANOTHER.
-
-That part of a tree will show the fewest spaces, behind which a
-large number of trees are standing between the tree and the air
-[sky]; thus in the tree _a_ the spaces are not concealed nor in _b_,
-as there is no tree behind. But in _c_ only half shows the spaces
-filled up by the tree _d_, and part of the tree _d_ is filled up by
-the tree _e_ and a little farther on all the spaces in the mass of
-the trees are lost, and only that at the side remains.
-
-451.
-
-OF TREES.
-
-What outlines are seen in trees at a distance against the sky which
-serves as their background?
-
-The outlines of the ramification of trees, where they lie against
-the illuminated sky, display a form which more nearly approaches the
-spherical on proportion as they are remote, and the nearer they are
-the less they appear in this spherical form; as in the first tree
-_a_ which, being near to the eye, displays the true form of its
-ramification; but this shows less in _b_ and is altogether lost in
-_c_, where not merely the branches of the tree cannot be seen but
-the whole tree is distinguished with difficulty. Every object in
-shadow, of whatever form it may be, at a great distance appears to
-be spherical. And this occurs because, if it is a square body, at a
-very short distance it loses its angles, and a little farther off it
-loses still more of its smaller sides which remain. And thus before
-the whole is lost [to sight] the parts are lost, being smaller than
-the whole; as a man, who in such a distant position loses his legs,
-arms and head before [the mass of] his body, then the outlines of
-length are lost before those of breadth, and where they have become
-equal it would be a square if the angles remained; but as they are
-lost it is round.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch No. 4, Pl. XXVIII, belongs to this passage.]
-
-The cast shadow of trees (452. 453).
-
-452.
-
-The image of the shadow of any object of uniform breadth can never
-be [exactly] the same as that of the body which casts it.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 5.]
-
-Light and shade on groups of trees (453-457).
-
-453.
-
-All trees seen against the sun are dark towards the middle and this
-shadow will be of the shape of the tree when apart from others.
-
-The shadows cast by trees on which the sun shines are as dark as
-those of the middle of the tree.
-
-The shadow cast by a tree is never less than the mass of the tree
-but becomes taller in proportion as the spot on which it falls,
-slopes towards the centre of the world.
-
-The shadow will be densest in the middle of the tree when the tree
-has the fewest branches.
-
-[Footnote: The three diagrams which accompany this text are placed,
-in the original, before lines 7-11. At the spots marked _B_ Leonardo
-wrote _Albero_ (tree). At _A_ is the word _Sole_ (sun), at _C Monte_
-(mountain) at _D piano_ (plain) and at _E cima_ (summit).]
-
-Every branch participates of the central shadow of every other
-branch and consequently [of that] of the whole tree.
-
-The form of any shadow from a branch or tree is circumscribed by the
-light which falls from the side whence the light comes; and this
-illumination gives the shape of the shadow, and this may be of the
-distance of a mile from the side where the sun is.
-
-If it happens that a cloud should anywhere overshadow some part of a
-hill the [shadow of the] trees there will change less than in the
-plains; for these trees on the hills have their branches thicker,
-because they grow less high each year than in the plains. Therefore
-as these branches are dark by nature and being so full of shade, the
-shadow of the clouds cannot darken them any more; but the open
-spaces between the trees, which have no strong shadow change very
-much in tone and particularly those which vary from green; that is
-ploughed lands or fallen mountains or barren lands or rocks. Where
-the trees are against the atmosphere they appear all the same
-colour--if indeed they are not very close together or very thickly
-covered with leaves like the fir and similar trees. When you see the
-trees from the side from which the sun lights them, you will see
-them almost all of the same tone, and the shadows in them will be
-hidden by the leaves in the light, which come between your eye and
-those shadows.
-
-TREES AT A SHORT DISTANCE.
-
-[Footnote 29: The heading _alberi vicini_ (trees at a short
-distance) is in the original manuscript written in the margin.] When
-the trees are situated between the sun and the eye, beyond the
-shadow which spreads from their centre, the green of their leaves
-will be seen transparent; but this transparency will be broken in
-many places by the leaves and boughs in shadow which will come
-between you and them, or, in their upper portions, they will be
-accompanied by many lights reflected from the leaves.
-
-454.
-
-The trees of the landscape stand out but little from each other;
-because their illuminated portions come against the illuminated
-portions of those beyond and differ little from them in light and
-shade.
-
-455.
-
-Of trees seen from below and against the light, one beyond the other
-and near together. The topmost part of the first will be in great
-part transparent and light, and will stand out against the dark
-portion of the second tree. And thus it will be with all in
-succession that are placed under the same conditions.
-
-Let _s_ be the light, and _r_ the eye, _c d n_ the first tree, _a b
-c_ the second. Then I say that _r_, the eye, will see the portion _c
-f_ in great part transparent and lighted by the light _s_ which
-falls upon it from the opposite side, and it will see it, on a dark
-ground _b c_ because that is the dark part and shadow of the tree _a
-b c_.
-
-But if the eye is placed at _t_ it will see _o p_ dark on the light
-background _n g_.
-
-Of the transparent and shadowy parts of trees, that which is nearest
-to you is the darkest.
-
-456.
-
-That part of a tree which has shadow for background, is all of one
-tone, and wherever the trees or branches are thickest they will be
-darkest, because there are no little intervals of air. But where the
-boughs lie against a background of other boughs, the brighter parts
-are seen lightest and the leaves lustrous from the sunlight falling
-on them.
-
-457.
-
-In the composition of leafy trees be careful not to repeat too often
-the same colour of one tree against the same colour of another
-[behind it]; but vary it with a lighter, or a darker, or a stronger
-green.
-
-On the treatment of light for landscapes (458-464).
-
-458.
-
-The landscape has a finer azure [tone] when, in fine weather the sun
-is at noon than at any other time of the day, because the air is
-purified of moisture; and looking at it under that aspect you will
-see the trees of a beautiful green at the outside and the shadows
-dark towards the middle; and in the remoter distance the atmosphere
-which comes between you and them looks more beautiful when there is
-something dark beyond. And still the azure is most beautiful. The
-objects seen from the side on which the sun shines will not show you
-their shadows. But, if you are lower than the sun, you can see what
-is not seen by the sun and that will be all in shade. The leaves of
-the trees, which come between you and the sun are of two principal
-colours which are a splendid lustre of green, and the reflection of
-the atmosphere which lights up the objects which cannot be seen by
-the sun, and the shaded portions which only face the earth, and the
-darkest which are surrounded by something that is not dark. The
-trees in the landscape which are between you and the sun are far
-more beautiful than those you see when you are between the sun and
-them; and this is so because those which face the sun show their
-leaves as transparent towards the ends of their branches, and those
-that are not transparent--that is at the ends--reflect the light;
-and the shadows are dark because they are not concealed by any
-thing.
-
-The trees, when you place yourself between them and the sun, will
-only display to you their light and natural colour, which, in
-itself, is not very strong, and besides this some reflected lights
-which, being against a background which does not differ very much
-from themselves in tone, are not conspicuous; and if you are lower
-down than they are situated, they may also show those portions on
-which the light of the sun does not fall and these will be dark.
-
-In the Wind.
-
-But, if you are on the side whence the wind blows, you will see the
-trees look very much lighter than on the other sides, and this
-happens because the wind turns up the under side of the leaves,
-which, in all trees, is much whiter than the upper sides; and, more
-especially, will they be very light indeed if the wind blows from
-the quarter where the sun is, and if you have your back turned to
-it.
-
-[Footnote: At _S_, in the original is the word _Sole_ (sun) and at
-_N parte di nuvolo_ (the side of the clouds).]
-
-459.
-
-When the sun is covered by clouds, objects are less conspicuous,
-because there is little difference between the light and shade of
-the trees and of the buildings being illuminated by the brightness
-of the atmosphere which surrounds the objects in such a way that the
-shadows are few, and these few fade away so that their outline is
-lost in haze.
-
-460.
-
-OF TREES AND LIGHTS ON THEM.
-
-The best method of practice in representing country scenes, or I
-should say landscapes with their trees, is to choose them so that
-the sun is covered with clouds so that the landscape receives an
-universal light and not the direct light of the sun, which makes the
-shadows sharp and too strongly different from the lights.
-
-461.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-In landscapes which represent [a scene in] winter. The mountains
-should not be shown blue, as we see in the mountains in the summer.
-And this is proved [Footnote 5. 6.: _Per la_ 4_a di questo_. It is
-impossible to ascertain what this quotation refers to. _Questo_
-certainly does not mean the MS. in hand, nor any other now known to
-us. The same remark applies to the phrase in line 15: _per la_ 2_a
-di questo_.] in the 4th of this which says: Among mountains seen
-from a great distance those will look of the bluest colour which are
-in themselves the darkest; hence, when the trees are stripped of
-their leaves, they will show a bluer tinge which will be in itself
-darker; therefore, when the trees have lost their leaves they will
-look of a gray colour, while, with their leaves, they are green, and
-in proportion as the green is darker than the grey hue the green
-will be of a bluer tinge than the gray. Also by the 2nd of this: The
-shadows of trees covered with leaves are darker than the shadows of
-those trees which have lost their leaves in proportion as the trees
-covered with leaves are denser than those without leaves--and thus
-my meaning is proved.
-
-The definition of the blue colour of the atmosphere explains why the
-landscape is bluer in the summer than in the winter.
-
-462.
-
-OF PAINTING IN A LANDSCAPE.
-
-If the slope of a hill comes between the eye and the horizon,
-sloping towards the eye, while the eye is opposite the middle of the
-height of this slope, then that hill will increase in darkness
-throughout its length. This is proved by the 7th of this which says
-that a tree looks darkest when it is seen from below; the
-proposition is verified, since this hill will, on its upper half
-show all its trees as much from the side which is lighted by the
-light of the sky, as from that which is in shade from the darkness
-of the earth; whence it must result that these trees are of a medium
-darkness. And from this [middle] spot towards the base of the hill,
-these trees will be lighter by degrees by the converse of the 7th
-and by the said 7th: For trees so placed, the nearer they are to the
-summit of the hill the darker they necessarily become. But this
-darkness is not in proportion to the distance, by the 8th of this
-which says: That object shows darkest which is [seen] in the
-clearest atmosphere; and by the 10th: That shows darkest which
-stands out against a lighter background.
-
-[Footnote: The quotation in this passage again cannot be verified.]
-
-463.
-
-OF LANDSCAPES.
-
-The colours of the shadows in mountains at a great distance take a
-most lovely blue, much purer than their illuminated portions. And
-from this it follows that when the rock of a mountain is reddish the
-illuminated portions are violet (?) and the more they are lighted
-the more they display their proper colour.
-
-464.
-
-A place is most luminous when it is most remote from mountains.
-
-On the treatment of light for views of towns (465-469).
-
-465.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADOW IN A TOWN.
-
-When the sun is in the East and the eye is above the centre of a
-town, the eye will see the Southern part of the town with its roofs
-half in shade and half in light, and the same towards the North; the
-Eastern side will be all in shadow and the Western will be all in
-light.
-
-466.
-
-Of the houses of a town, in which the divisions between the houses
-may be distinguished by the light which fall on the mist at the
-bottom. If the eye is above the houses the light seen in the space
-that is between one house and the next sinks by degrees into thicker
-mist; and yet, being less transparent, it appears whiter; and if the
-houses are some higher than the others, since the true [colour] is
-always more discernible through the thinner atmosphere, the houses
-will look darker in proportion as they are higher up. Let _n o p q_
-represent the various density of the atmosphere thick with moisture,
-_a_ being the eye, the house _b c_ will look lightest at the bottom,
-because it is in a thicker atmosphere; the lines _c d f_ will appear
-equally light, for although _f_ is more distant than _c_, it is
-raised into a thinner atmosphere, if the houses _b e_ are of the
-same height, because they cross a brightness which is varied by
-mist, but this is only because the line of the eye which starts from
-above ends by piercing a lower and denser atmosphere at _d_ than at
-_b_. Thus the line a _f_ is lower at _f_ than at _c_; and the house
-_f_ will be seen darker at _e_ from the line _e k_ as far as _m_,
-than the tops of the houses standing in front of it.
-
-467.
-
-OF TOWNS OR OTHER BUILDINGS SEEN IN THE EVENING OR THE MORNING
-THROUGH THE MIST.
-
-Of buildings seen at a great distance in the evening or the morning,
-as in mist or dense atmosphere, only those portions are seen in
-brightness which are lighted up by the sun which is near the
-horizon; and those portions which are not lighted up by the sun
-remain almost of the same colour and medium tone as the mist.
-
-WHY OBJECTS WHICH ARE HIGH UP AND AT A DISTANCE ARE DARKER THAN THE
-LOWER ONES, EVEN IF THE MIST IS UNIFORMLY DENSE.
-
-Of objects standing in a mist or other dense atmosphere, whether
-from vapour or smoke or distance, those will be most visible which
-are the highest. And among objects of equal height that will be the
-darkest [strongest] which has for background the deepest mist. Thus
-the eye _h_ looking at _a b c_, towers of equal height, one with
-another, sees _c_ the top of the first tower at _r_, at two degrees
-of depth in the mist; and sees the height of the middle tower _b_
-through one single degree of mist. Therefore the top of the tower
-_c_ appears stronger than the top of the tower _b_, &c.
-
-468.
-
-OF THE SMOKE OF A TOWN.
-
-Smoke is seen better and more distinctly on the Eastern side than on
-the Western when the sun is in the East; and this arises from two
-causes; the first is that the sun, with its rays, shines through the
-particles of the smoke and lights them up and makes them visible.
-The second is that the roofs of the houses seen in the East at this
-time are in shadow, because their obliquity does not allow of their
-being illuminated by the sun. And the same thing occurs with dust;
-and both one and the other look the lighter in proportion as they
-are denser, and they are densest towards the middle.
-
-469.
-
-OF SMOKE AND DUST.
-
-If the sun is in the East the smoke of cities will not be visible in
-the West, because on that side it is not seen penetrated by the
-solar rays, nor on a dark background; since the roofs of the houses
-turn the same side to the eye as they turn towards the sun, and on
-this light background the smoke is not very visible.
-
-But dust, under the same aspect, will look darker than smoke being
-of denser material than smoke which is moist.
-
-The effect of wind on trees (470-473).
-
-470.
-
-OF REPRESENTING WIND.
-
-In representing wind, besides the bending of the boughs and the
-reversing of their leaves towards the quarter whence the wind comes,
-you should also represent them amid clouds of fine dust mingled with
-the troubled air.
-
-471.
-
-Describe landscapes with the wind, and the water, and the setting
-and rising of the sun.
-
-THE WIND.
-
-All the leaves which hung towards the earth by the bending of the
-shoots with their branches, are turned up side down by the gusts of
-wind, and here their perspective is reversed; for, if the tree is
-between you and the quarter of the wind, the leaves which are
-towards you remain in their natural aspect, while those on the
-opposite side which ought to have their points in a contrary
-direction have, by being turned over, their points turned towards
-you.
-
-472.
-
-Trees struck by the force of the wind bend to the side towards which
-the wind is blowing; and the wind being past they bend in the
-contrary direction, that is in reverse motion.
-
-473.
-
-That portion of a tree which is farthest from the force which
-strikes it is the most injured by the blow because it bears most
-strain; thus nature has foreseen this case by thickening them in
-that part where they can be most hurt; and most in such trees as
-grow to great heights, as pines and the like. [Footnote: Compare the
-sketch drawn with a pen and washed with Indian ink on Pl. XL, No. 1.
-In the Vatican copy we find, under a section entitled '_del fumo_',
-the following remark: _Era sotto di questo capitulo un rompimento di
-montagna, per dentro delle quali roture scherzaua fiame di fuoco,
-disegnate di penna et ombrate d'acquarella, da uedere cosa mirabile
-et uiua (Ed. MANZI, p. 235. Ed. LUDWIG, Vol. I, 460). This appears
-to refer to the left hand portion of the drawing here given from the
-Windsor collection, and from this it must be inferred, that the leaf
-as it now exists in the library of the Queen of England, was already
-separated from the original MS. at the time when the Vatican copy
-was made.]
-
-Light and shade on clouds (474-477).
-
-474.
-
-Describe how the clouds are formed and how they dissolve, and what
-cause raises vapour.
-
-475.
-
-The shadows in clouds are lighter in proportion as they are nearer
-to the horizon.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing belonging to this was in black chalk and is
-totally effaced.]
-
-476.
-
-When clouds come between the sun and the eye all the upper edges of
-their round forms are light, and towards the middle they are dark,
-and this happens because towards the top these edges have the sun
-above them while you are below them; and the same thing happens with
-the position of the branches of trees; and again the clouds, like
-the trees, being somewhat transparent, are lighted up in part, and
-at the edges they show thinner.
-
-But, when the eye is between the cloud and the sun, the cloud has
-the contrary effect to the former, for the edges of its mass are
-dark and it is light towards the middle; and this happens because
-you see the same side as faces the sun, and because the edges have
-some transparency and reveal to the eye that portion which is hidden
-beyond them, and which, as it does not catch the sunlight like that
-portion turned towards it, is necessarily somewhat darker. Again, it
-may be that you see the details of these rounded masses from the
-lower side, while the sun shines on the upper side and as they are
-not so situated as to reflect the light of the sun, as in the first
-instance they remain dark.
-
-The black clouds which are often seen higher up than those which are
-illuminated by the sun are shaded by other clouds, lying between
-them and the sun.
-
-Again, the rounded forms of the clouds that face the sun, show their
-edges dark because they lie against the light background; and to see
-that this is true, you may look at the top of any cloud that is
-wholly light because it lies against the blue of the atmosphere,
-which is darker than the cloud.
-
-[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk from the Windsor collection (see
-Pl. XXIX), representing a landscape with storm-clouds, may serve to
-illustrate this section as well as the following one.]
-
-477.
-
-OF CLOUDS, SMOKE AND DUST AND THE FLAMES OF A FURNACE OR OF A
-BURNING KILN.
-
-The clouds do not show their rounded forms excepting on the sides
-which face the sun; on the others the roundness is imperceptible
-because they are in the shade. [Footnote: The text of this chapter
-is given in facsimile on Pls. XXXVI and XXXVII. The two halves of
-the leaf form but one in the original. On the margin close to lines
-4 and 5 is the note: _rossore d'aria inverso l'orizonte_--(of the
-redness of the atmosphere near the horizon). The sketches on the
-lower portion of the page will be spoken of in No. 668.]
-
-If the sun is in the East and the clouds in the West, the eye placed
-between the sun and the clouds sees the edges of the rounded forms
-composing these clouds as dark, and the portions which are
-surrounded by this dark [edge] are light. And this occurs because
-the edges of the rounded forms of these clouds are turned towards
-the upper or lateral sky, which is reflected in them.
-
-Both the cloud and the tree display no roundness at all on their
-shaded side.
-
-On images reflected in water.
-
-478.
-
-Painters often deceive themselves, by representing water in which
-they make the water reflect the objects seen by the man. But the
-water reflects the object from one side and the man sees it from the
-other; and it often happens that the painter sees an object from
-below, and thus one and the same object is seen from hind part
-before and upside down, because the water shows the image of the
-object in one way, and the eye sees it in another.
-
-Of rainbows and rain (479. 480).
-
-479.
-
-The colours in the middle of the rainbow mingle together.
-
-The bow in itself is not in the rain nor in the eye that sees it;
-though it is generated by the rain, the sun, and the eye. The
-rainbow is always seen by the eye that is between the rain and the
-body of the sun; hence if the sun is in the East and the rain is in
-the West it will appear on the rain in the West.
-
-480.
-
-When the air is condensed into rain it would produce a vacuum if the
-rest of the air did not prevent this by filling its place, as it
-does with a violent rush; and this is the wind which rises in the
-summer time, accompanied by heavy rain.
-
-Of flower seeds.
-
-481.
-
-All the flowers which turn towards the sun perfect their seeds; but
-not the others; that is to say those which get only the reflection
-of the sun.
-
-IX.
-
-_The Practice of Painting._
-
-_It is hardly necessary to offer any excuses for the division
-carried out in the arrangement of the text into practical
-suggestions and theoretical enquiries. It was evidently intended by
-Leonardo himself as we conclude from incidental remarks in the MSS.
-(for instance No_ 110_). The fact that this arrangement was never
-carried out either in the old MS. copies or in any edition since, is
-easily accounted for by the general disorder which results from the
-provisional distribution of the various chapters in the old copies.
-We have every reason to believe that the earliest copyists, in
-distributing the materials collected by them, did not in the least
-consider the order in which the original MS.lay before them._
-
-_It is evident that almost all the chapters which refer to the
-calling and life of the painter--and which are here brought together
-in the first section (Nos._ 482-508_)--may be referred to two
-distinct periods in Leonardo's life; most of them can be dated as
-belonging to the year_ 1492 _or to_ 1515. _At about this later time
-Leonardo may have formed the project of completing his Libro della
-Pittura, after an interval of some years, as it would seem, during
-which his interest in the subject had fallen somewhat into the
-background._
-
-_In the second section, which treats first of the artist's studio,
-the construction of a suitable window forms the object of careful
-investigations; the special importance attached to this by Leonardo
-is sufficiently obvious. His theory of the incidence of light which
-was fully discussed in a former part of this work, was to him by no
-means of mere abstract value, but, being deduced, as he says, from
-experience (or experiment) was required to prove its utility in
-practice. Connected with this we find suggestions for the choice of
-a light with practical hints as to sketching a picture and some
-other precepts of a practical character which must come under
-consideration in the course of completing the painting. In all this
-I have followed the same principle of arrangement in the text as was
-carried out in the Theory of Painting, thus the suggestions for the
-Perspective of a picture, (Nos._ 536-569_), are followed by the
-theory of light and shade for the practical method of optics (Nos._
-548--566_) and this by the practical precepts or the treatment of
-aerial perspective (_567--570_)._
-
-_In the passage on Portrait and Figure Painting the principles of
-painting as applied to a bust and head are separated and placed
-first, since the advice to figure painters must have some connection
-with the principles of the treatment of composition by which they
-are followed._
-
-_But this arrangement of the text made it seem advisable not to pick
-out the practical precepts as to the representation of trees and
-landscape from the close connection in which they were originally
-placed--unlike the rest of the practical precepts--with the theory
-of this branch of the subject. They must therefore be sought under
-the section entitled Botany for Painters._
-
-_As a supplement to the_ Libro di Pittura _I have here added those
-texts which treat of the Painter's materials,--as chalk, drawing
-paper, colours and their preparation, of the management of oils and
-varnishes; in the appendix are some notes on chemical substances.
-Possibly some of these, if not all, may have stood in connection
-with the preparation of colours. It is in the very nature of things
-that Leonardo's incidental indications as to colours and the like
-should be now-a-days extremely obscure and could only be explained
-by professional experts--by them even in but few instances. It might
-therefore have seemed advisable to reproduce exactly the original
-text without offering any translation. The rendering here given is
-merely an attempt to suggest what Leonardo's meaning may have been._
-
-_LOMAZZO tells us in his_ Trattato dell'arte della Pittura, Scultura
-ed Architettura (Milano 1584, libro II, Cap. XIV): "Va discorrendo
-ed argomentando Leonardo Vinci in un suo libro letto da me (?)
-questi anni passati, ch'egli scrisse di mano stanca ai prieghi di
-LUDOVICO SFORZA duca di Milano, in determinazione di questa
-questione, se e piu nobile la pittura o la scultura; dicendo che
-quanto piu un'arte porta seco fatica di corpo, e sudore, tanto piu e
-vile, e men pregiata". _But the existence of any book specially
-written for Lodovico il Moro on the superiority of Painting over
-sculpture is perhaps mythical. The various passages in praise of
-Painting as compared not merely with Sculpture but with Poetry, are
-scattered among MSS. of very different dates._
-
-_Besides, the way, in which the subject is discussed appears not to
-support the supposition, that these texts were prepared at a special
-request of the Duke._
-
-I.
-
-MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.
-
-How to ascertain the dispositions for an artistic career.
-
-482.
-
-A WARNING CONCERNING YOUTHS WISHING TO BE PAINTERS.
-
-Many are they who have a taste and love for drawing, but no talent;
-and this will be discernible in boys who are not diligent and never
-finish their drawings with shading.
-
-The course of instruction for an artist (483-485).
-
-483.
-
-The youth should first learn perspective, then the proportions of
-objects. Then he may copy from some good master, to accustom himself
-to fine forms. Then from nature, to confirm by practice the rules he
-has learnt. Then see for a time the works of various masters. Then
-get the habit of putting his art into practice and work.
-
-[Footnote: The Vatican copy and numerous abridgements all place this
-chapter at the beginning of the _Trattato_, and in consequence
-DUFRESNE and all subsequent editors have done the same. In the
-Vatican copy however all the general considerations on the relation
-of painting to the other arts are placed first, as introductory.]
-
-484.
-
-OF THE ORDER OF LEARNING TO DRAW.
-
-First draw from drawings by good masters done from works of art and
-from nature, and not from memory; then from plastic work, with the
-guidance of the drawing done from it; and then from good natural
-models and this you must put into practice.
-
-485.
-
-PRECEPTS FOR DRAWING.
-
-The artist ought first to exercise his hand by copying drawings from
-the hand of a good master. And having acquired that practice, under
-the criticism of his master, he should next practise drawing objects
-in relief of a good style, following the rules which will presently
-be given.
-
-The study of the antique (486. 487).
-
-486.
-
-OF DRAWING.
-
-Which is best, to draw from nature or from the antique? and which is
-more difficult to do outlines or light and shade?
-
-487.
-
-It is better to imitate [copy] the antique than modern work.
-
-[Footnote 486, 487: These are the only two passages in which
-Leonardo alludes to the importance of antique art in the training of
-an artist. The question asked in No. 486 remains unanswered by him
-and it seems to me very doubtful whether the opinion stated in No.
-487 is to be regarded as a reply to it. This opinion stands in the
-MS. in a connection--as will be explained later on--which seems to
-require us to limit its application to a single special case. At any
-rate we may suspect that when Leonardo put the question, he felt
-some hesitation as to the answer. Among his very numerous drawings I
-have not been able to find a single study from the antique, though a
-drawing in black chalk, at Windsor, of a man on horseback (PI.
-LXXIII) may perhaps be a reminiscence of the statue of Marcus
-Aurelius at Rome. It seems to me that the drapery in a pen and ink
-drawing of a bust, also at Windsor, has been borrowed from an
-antique model (Pl. XXX). G. G. Rossi has, I believe, correctly
-interpreted Leonardo's feeling towards the antique in the following
-note on this passage in manzi's edition, p. 501: "Sappiamo dalla
-storia, che i valorosi artisti Toscani dell'eta dell'oro dell'arte
-studiarono sugli antichi marmi raccolti dal Magnifico LORENZO DE'
-MEDICI. Pare che il Vinci a tali monumenti non si accostasse. Quest'
-uomo sempre riconosce per maestra la natura, e questo principio lo
-stringeva alla sola imitazione di essa"--Compare No. 10, 26--28
-footnote.]
-
-The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).
-
-488.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-It is indispensable to a Painter who would be thoroughly familiar
-with the limbs in all the positions and actions of which they are
-capable, in the nude, to know the anatomy of the sinews, bones,
-muscles and tendons so that, in their various movements and
-exertions, he may know which nerve or muscle is the cause of each
-movement and show those only as prominent and thickened, and not the
-others all over [the limb], as many do who, to seem great
-draughtsmen, draw their nude figures looking like wood, devoid of
-grace; so that you would think you were looking at a sack of walnuts
-rather than the human form, or a bundle of radishes rather than the
-muscles of figures.
-
-489.
-
-HOW IT IS NECESSARY TO A PAINTER THAT HE SHOULD KNOW THE INTRINSIC
-FORMS [STRUCTURE] OF MAN.
-
-The painter who is familiar with the nature of the sinews, muscles,
-and tendons, will know very well, in giving movement to a limb, how
-many and which sinews cause it; and which muscle, by swelling,
-causes the contraction of that sinew; and which sinews, expanded
-into the thinnest cartilage, surround and support the said muscle.
-Thus he will variously and constantly demonstrate the different
-muscles by means of the various attitudes of his figures, and will
-not do, as many who, in a variety of movements, still display the
-very same things [modelling] in the arms, back, breast and legs. And
-these things are not to be regarded as minor faults.
-
-How to acquire practice.
-
-490.
-
-OF STUDY AND THE ORDER OF STUDY.
-
-I say that first you ought to learn the limbs and their mechanism,
-and having this knowledge, their actions should come next, according
-to the circumstances in which they occur in man. And thirdly to
-compose subjects, the studies for which should be taken from natural
-actions and made from time to time, as circumstances allow; and pay
-attention to them in the streets and _piazze_ and fields, and note
-them down with a brief indication of the forms; [Footnote 5: Lines
-5-7 explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.]
-thus for a head make an o, and for an arm a straight or a bent line,
-and the same for the legs and the body, [Footnote 7: Lines 5-7
-explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] and
-when you return home work out these notes in a complete form. The
-Adversary says that to acquire practice and do a great deal of work
-it is better that the first period of study should be employed in
-drawing various compositions done on paper or on walls by divers
-masters, and that in this way practice is rapidly gained, and good
-methods; to which I reply that the method will be good, if it is
-based on works of good composition and by skilled masters. But since
-such masters are so rare that there are but few of them to be found,
-it is a surer way to go to natural objects, than to those which are
-imitated from nature with great deterioration, and so form bad
-methods; for he who can go to the fountain does not go to the
-water-jar.
-
-[Footnote: This passage has been published by Dr. M. JORDAN, _Das
-Malerbuck des L. da Vinci_, p. 89; his reading however varies
-slightly from mine.]
-
-Industry and thoroughness the first conditions (491-493.)
-
-491.
-
-WHAT RULES SHOULD BE GIVEN TO BOYS LEARNING TO PAINT.
-
-We know for certain that sight is one of the most rapid actions we
-can perform. In an instant we see an infinite number of forms, still
-we only take in thoroughly one object at a time. Supposing that you,
-Reader, were to glance rapidly at the whole of this written page,
-you would instantly perceive that it was covered with various
-letters; but you could not, in the time, recognise what the letters
-were, nor what they were meant to tell. Hence you would need to see
-them word by word, line by line to be able to understand the
-letters. Again, if you wish to go to the top of a building you must
-go up step by step; otherwise it will be impossible that you should
-reach the top. Thus I say to you, whom nature prompts to pursue this
-art, if you wish to have a sound knowledge of the forms of objects
-begin with the details of them, and do not go on to the second
-[step] till you have the first well fixed in memory and in practice.
-And if you do otherwise you will throw away your time, or certainly
-greatly prolong your studies. And remember to acquire diligence
-rather than rapidity.
-
-492.
-
-HOW THAT DILIGENCE [ACCURACY] SHOULD FIRST BE LEARNT RATHER THAN
-RAPID EXECUTION.
-
-If you, who draw, desire to study well and to good purpose, always
-go slowly to work in your drawing; and discriminate in. the lights,
-which have the highest degree of brightness, and to what extent and
-likewise in the shadows, which are those that are darker than the
-others and in what way they intermingle; then their masses and the
-relative proportions of one to the other. And note in their
-outlines, which way they tend; and which part of the lines is curved
-to one side or the other, and where they are more or less
-conspicuous and consequently broad or fine; and finally, that your
-light and shade blend without strokes and borders [but] looking like
-smoke. And when you have thus schooled your hand and your judgment
-by such diligence, you will acquire rapidity before you are aware.
-
-The artist's private life and choice of company (493-494).
-
-493.
-
-OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN THE COUNTRY.
-
-A painter needs such mathematics as belong to painting. And the
-absence of all companions who are alienated from his studies; his
-brain must be easily impressed by the variety of objects, which
-successively come before him, and also free from other cares
-[Footnote 6: Leonardo here seems to be speaking of his own method of
-work as displayed in his MSS. and this passage explains, at least in
-part, the peculiarities in their arrangement.]. And if, when
-considering and defining one subject, a second subject
-intervenes--as happens when an object occupies the mind, then he
-must decide which of these cases is the more difficult to work out,
-and follow that up until it becomes quite clear, and then work out
-the explanation of the other [Footnote 11: Leonardo here seems to be
-speaking of his own method of work as displayed in his MSS. and this
-passage explains, at least in part, the peculiarities in their
-arrangement.]. And above all he must keep his mind as clear as the
-surface of a mirror, which assumes colours as various as those of
-the different objects. And his companions should be like him as to
-their studies, and if such cannot be found he should keep his
-speculations to himself alone, so that at last he will find no more
-useful company [than his own].
-
-[Footnote: In the title line Leonardo had originally written _del
-pictore filosofo_ (the philosophical painter), but he himself struck
-out_filosofo_. Compare in No. 363 _pictora notomista_ (anatomical
-painter). The original text is partly reproduced on Pl. CI.]
-
-494.
-
-OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN HIS STUDIO.
-
-To the end that well-being of the body may not injure that of the
-mind, the painter or draughtsman must remain solitary, and
-particularly when intent on those studies and reflections which will
-constantly rise up before his eye, giving materials to be well
-stored in the memory. While you are alone you are entirely your own
-[master] and if you have one companion you are but half your own,
-and the less so in proportion to the indiscretion of his behaviour.
-And if you have many companions you will fall deeper into the same
-trouble. If you should say: "I will go my own way and withdraw
-apart, the better to study the forms of natural objects", I tell
-you, you will not be able to help often listening to their chatter.
-And so, since one cannot serve two masters, you will badly fill the
-part of a companion, and carry out your studies of art even worse.
-And if you say: "I will withdraw so far that their words cannot
-reach me and they cannot disturb me", I can tell you that you will
-be thought mad. But, you see, you will at any rate be alone. And if
-you must have companions ship find it in your studio. This may
-assist you to have the advantages which arise from various
-speculations. All other company may be highly mischievous.
-
-The distribution of time for studying (495-497).
-
-495.
-
-OF WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO DRAW WITH COMPANIONS OR NOT.
-
-I say and insist that drawing in company is much better than alone,
-for many reasons. The first is that you would be ashamed to be seen
-behindhand among the students, and such shame will lead you to
-careful study. Secondly, a wholesome emulation will stimulate you to
-be among those who are more praised than yourself, and this praise
-of others will spur you on. Another is that you can learn from the
-drawings of others who do better than yourself; and if you are
-better than they, you can profit by your contempt for their defects,
-while the praise of others will incite you to farther merits.
-
-[Footnote: The contradiction by this passage of the foregoing
-chapter is only apparent. It is quite clear, from the nature of the
-reasoning which is here used to prove that it is more improving to
-work with others than to work alone, that the studies of pupils only
-are under consideration here.]
-
-496.
-
-OF STUDYING, IN THE DARK, WHEN YOU WAKE, OR IN BED BEFORE YOU GO TO
-SLEEP.
-
-I myself have proved it to be of no small use, when in bed in the
-dark, to recall in fancy the external details of forms previously
-studied, or other noteworthy things conceived by subtle speculation;
-and this is certainly an admirable exercise, and useful for
-impressing things on the memory.
-
-497.
-
-OF THE TIME FOR STUDYING SELECTION OF SUBJECTS.
-
-Winter evenings ought to be employed by young students in looking
-over the things prepared during the summer; that is, all the
-drawings from the nude done in the summer should be brought together
-and a choice made of the best [studies of] limbs and bodies among
-them, to apply in practice and commit to memory.
-
-OF POSITIONS.
-
-After this in the following summer you should select some one who is
-well grown and who has not been brought up in doublets, and so may
-not be of stiff carriage, and make him go through a number of agile
-and graceful actions; and if his muscles do not show plainly within
-the outlines of his limbs that does not matter at all. It is enough
-that you can see good attitudes and you can correct [the drawing of]
-the limbs by those you studied in the winter.
-
-[Footnote: An injunction to study in the evening occurs also in No.
-524.]
-
-On the productive power of minor artists (498-501).
-
-498.
-
-He is a poor disciple who does not excel his master.
-
-499.
-
-Nor is the painter praiseworthy who does but one thing well, as the
-nude figure, heads, draperies, animals, landscapes or other such
-details, irrespective of other work; for there can be no mind so
-inept, that after devoting itself to one single thing and doing it
-constantly, it should fail to do it well.
-
-[Footnote: In MANZI'S edition (p. 502) the painter G. G. Bossi
-indignantly remarks on this passage. "_Parla il Vince in questo
-luogo come se tutti gli artisti avessero quella sublimita d'ingegno
-capace di abbracciare tutte le cose, di cui era egli dotato"_ And he
-then mentions the case of CLAUDE LORRAIN. But he overlooks the fact
-that in Leonardo's time landscape painting made no pretensions to
-independence but was reckoned among the details (_particulari_,
-lines 3, 4).]
-
-500.
-
-THAT A PAINTER IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS HE IS UNIVERSAL.
-
-Some may distinctly assert that those persons are under a delusion
-who call that painter a good master who can do nothing well but a
-head or a figure. Certainly this is no great achievement; after
-studying one single thing for a life-time who would not have
-attained some perfection in it? But, since we know that painting
-embraces and includes in itself every object produced by nature or
-resulting from the fortuitous actions of men, in short, all that the
-eye can see, he seems to me but a poor master who can only do a
-figure well. For do you not perceive how many and various actions
-are performed by men only; how many different animals there are, as
-well as trees, plants, flowers, with many mountainous regions and
-plains, springs and rivers, cities with public and private
-buildings, machines, too, fit for the purposes of men, divers
-costumes, decorations and arts? And all these things ought to be
-regarded as of equal importance and value, by the man who can be
-termed a good painter.
-
-501.
-
-OF THE MISERABLE PRETENCES MADE BY THOSE WHO FALSELY AND UNWORTHILY
-ACQUIRE THE NAME OF PAINTERS.
-
-Now there is a certain race of painters who, having studied but
-little, must need take as their standard of beauty mere gold and
-azure, and these, with supreme conceit, declare that they will not
-give good work for miserable payment, and that they could do as well
-as any other if they were well paid. But, ye foolish folks! cannot
-such artists keep some good work, and then say: this is a costly
-work and this more moderate and this is average work and show that
-they can work at all prices?
-
-A caution against one-sided study.
-
-502.
-
-HOW, IN IMPORTANT WORKS, A MAN SHOULD NOT TRUST ENTIRELY TO HIS
-MEMORY WITHOUT CONDESCENDING TO DRAW FROM NATURE.
-
-Any master who should venture to boast that he could remember all
-the forms and effects of nature would certainly appear to me to be
-graced with extreme ignorance, inasmuch as these effects are
-infinite and our memory is not extensive enough to retain them.
-Hence, O! painter, beware lest the lust of gain should supplant in
-you the dignity of art; for the acquisition of glory is a much
-greater thing than the glory of riches. Hence, for these and other
-reasons which might be given, first strive in drawing to represent
-your intention to the eye by expressive forms, and the idea
-originally formed in your imagination; then go on taking out or
-putting in, until you have satisfied yourself. Then have living men,
-draped or nude, as you may have purposed in your work, and take care
-that in dimensions and size, as determined by perspective, nothing
-is left in the work which is not in harmony with reason and the
-effects in nature. And this will be the way to win honour in your
-art.
-
-How to acquire universality (503-506).
-
-503.
-
-OF VARIETY IN THE FIGURES.
-
-The painter should aim at universality, because there is a great
-want of self-respect in doing one thing well and another badly, as
-many do who study only the [rules of] measure and proportion in the
-nude figure and do not seek after variety; for a man may be well
-proportioned, or he may be fat and short, or tall and thin, or
-medium. And a painter who takes no account of these varieties always
-makes his figures on one pattern so that they might all be taken for
-brothers; and this is a defect that demands stern reprehension.
-
-504.
-
-HOW SOMETHING MAY BE LEARNT EVERYWHERE.
-
-Nature has beneficently provided that throughout the world you may
-find something to imitate.
-
-505.
-
-OF THE MEANS OF ACQUIRING UNIVERSALITY.
-
-It is an easy matter to men to acquire universality, for all
-terrestrial animals resemble each other as to their limbs, that is
-in their muscles, sinews and bones; and they do not vary excepting
-in length or in thickness, as will be shown under Anatomy. But then
-there are aquatic animals which are of great variety; I will not try
-to convince the painter that there is any rule for them for they are
-of infinite variety, and so is the insect tribe.
-
-506.
-
-PAINTING.
-
-The mind of the painter must resemble a mirror, which always takes
-the colour of the object it reflects and is completely occupied by
-the images of as many objects as are in front of it. Therefore you
-must know, Oh Painter! that you cannot be a good one if you are not
-the universal master of representing by your art every kind of form
-produced by nature. And this you will not know how to do if you do
-not see them, and retain them in your mind. Hence as you go through
-the fields, turn your attention to various objects, and, in turn
-look now at this thing and now at that, collecting a store of divers
-facts selected and chosen from those of less value. But do not do
-like some painters who, when they are wearied with exercising their
-fancy dismiss their work from their thoughts and take exercise in
-walking for relaxation, but still keep fatigue in their mind which,
-though they see various objects [around them], does not apprehend
-them; but, even when they meet friends or relations and are saluted
-by them, although they see and hear them, take no more cognisance of
-them than if they had met so much empty air.
-
-Useful games and exercises (507. 508).
-
-507.
-
-OF GAMES TO BE PLAYED BY THOSE WHO DRAW.
-
-When, Oh draughtsmen, you desire to find relaxation in games you
-should always practise such things as may be of use in your
-profession, by giving your eye good practice in judging accurately
-of the breadth and length of objects. Thus, to accustom your mind to
-such things, let one of you draw a straight line at random on a
-wall, and each of you, taking a blade of grass or of straw in his
-hand, try to cut it to the length that the line drawn appears to him
-to be, standing at a distance of 10 braccia; then each one may go up
-to the line to measure the length he has judged it to be. And he who
-has come nearest with his measure to the length of the pattern is
-the best man, and the winner, and shall receive the prize you have
-settled beforehand. Again you should take forshortened measures:
-that is take a spear, or any other cane or reed, and fix on a point
-at a certain distance; and let each one estimate how many times he
-judges that its length will go into that distance. Again, who will
-draw best a line one braccio long, which shall be tested by a
-thread. And such games give occasion to good practice for the eye,
-which is of the first importance in painting.
-
-508.
-
-A WAY OF DEVELOPING AND AROUSING THE MIND TO VARIOUS INVENTIONS.
-
-I cannot forbear to mention among these precepts a new device for
-study which, although it may seem but trivial and almost ludicrous,
-is nevertheless extremely useful in arousing the mind to various
-inventions. And this is, when you look at a wall spotted with
-stains, or with a mixture of stones, if you have to devise some
-scene, you may discover a resemblance to various landscapes,
-beautified with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, wide
-valleys and hills in varied arrangement; or again you may see
-battles and figures in action; or strange faces and costumes, and an
-endless variety of objects, which you could reduce to complete and
-well drawn forms. And these appear on such walls confusedly, like
-the sound of bells in whose jangle you may find any name or word you
-choose to imagine.
-
-II.
-
-THE ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF
-PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.
-
-On the size of the studio.
-
-509.
-
-Small rooms or dwellings discipline the mind, large ones weaken it.
-
-On the construction of windows (510-512).
-
-510.
-
-The larger the wall the less the light will be.
-
-511.
-
-The different kinds of light afforded in cellars by various forms of
-windows. The least useful and the coldest is the window at _a_. The
-most useful, the lightest and warmest and most open to the sky is
-the window at _b_. The window at _c_ is of medium utility.
-
-[Footnote: From a reference to the notes on the right light for
-painting it becomes evident that the observations made on
-cellar-windows have a direct bearing on the construction of the
-studio-window. In the diagram _b_ as well as in that under No. 510
-the window-opening is reduced to a minimum, but only, it would seem,
-in order to emphasize the advantage of walls constructed on the plan
-there shown.]
-
-512.
-
-OF THE PAINTER'S WINDOW AND ITS ADVANTAGE.
-
-The painter who works from nature should have a window, which he can
-raise and lower. The reason is that sometimes you will want to
-finish a thing you are drawing, close to the light.
-
-Let _a b c d_ be the chest on which the work may be raised or
-lowered, so that the work moves up and down and not the painter. And
-every evening you can let down the work and shut it up above so that
-in the evening it may be in the fashion of a chest which, when shut
-up, may serve the purpose of a bench.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 2. In this plate the lines have
-unfortunately lost their sharpness, for the accidental loss of the
-negative has necessitated a reproduction from a positive. But having
-formerly published this sketch by another process, in VON LUTZOW'S
-_Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_ (Vol. XVII, pg. 13) I have
-reproduced it here in the text. The sharpness of the outline in the
-original sketch is here preserved but it gives it from the reversed
-side.]
-
-On the best light for painting (513-520).
-
-513.
-
-Which light is best for drawing from nature; whether high or low, or
-large or small, or strong and broad, or strong and small, or broad
-and weak or small and weak?
-
-[Footnote: The question here put is unanswered in the original MS.]
-
-514.
-
-OF THE QUALITY OF THE LIGHT.
-
-A broad light high up and not too strong will render the details of
-objects very agreeable.
-
-515.
-
-THAT THE LIGHT FOR DRAWING FROM NATURE SHOULD BE HIGH UP.
-
-The light for drawing from nature should come from the North in
-order that it may not vary. And if you have it from the South, keep
-the window screened with cloth, so that with the sun shining the
-whole day the light may not vary. The height of the light should be
-so arranged as that every object shall cast a shadow on the ground
-of the same length as itself.
-
-516.
-
-THE KIND OF LIGHT REQUISITE FOR PAINTING LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-An object will display the greatest difference of light and shade
-when it is seen in the strongest light, as by sunlight, or, at
-night, by the light of a fire. But this should not be much used in
-painting because the works remain crude and ungraceful.
-
-An object seen in a moderate light displays little difference in the
-light and shade; and this is the case towards evening or when the
-day is cloudy, and works then painted are tender and every kind of
-face becomes graceful. Thus, in every thing extremes are to be
-avoided: Too much light gives crudeness; too little prevents our
-seeing. The medium is best.
-
-OF SMALL LIGHTS.
-
-Again, lights cast from a small window give strong differences of
-light and shade, all the more if the room lighted by it be large,
-and this is not good for painting.
-
-517.
-
-PAINTING.
-
-The luminous air which enters by passing through orifices in walls
-into dark rooms will render the place less dark in proportion as the
-opening cuts into the walls which surround and cover in the
-pavement.
-
-518.
-
-OF THE QUALITY OF LIGHT.
-
-In proportion to the number of times that _a b_ goes into _c d_ will
-it be more luminous than _c d_. And similarly, in proportion as the
-point _e_ goes into _c d_ will it be more luminous than _c d;_ and
-this light is useful for carvers of delicate work. [Footnote 5: For
-the same reason a window thus constructed would be convenient for an
-illuminator or a miniature painter.]
-
-[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A remarks on
-this passage: _"La figure porte les lettres_ f _et_ g, _auxquelles
-rien ne renvoie dans l'explication; par consequent, cette
-explication est incomplete. La figure semblerait, d'ailleurs, se
-rapporter a l'effet de la reflexion par un miroir concave."_ So far
-as I can see the text is not imperfect, nor is the sense obscure. It
-is hardly necessary to observe that _c d_ here indicate the wall of
-the room opposite to the window _e_ and the semicircle described by
-_f g_ stands for the arch of the sky; this occurs in various
-diagrams, for example under 511. A similar semicircle, Pl III, No. 2
-(and compare No. 149) is expressly called '_orizonte_' in writing.]
-
-519.
-
-That the light should fall upon a picture from one window only. This
-may be seen in the case of objects in this form. If you want to
-represent a round ball at a certain height you must make it oval in
-this shape, and stand so far off as that by foreshortening it
-appears round.
-
-520.
-
-OF SELECTING THE LIGHT WHICH GIVES MOST GRACE TO FACES.
-
-If you should have a court yard that you can at pleasure cover with
-a linen awning that light will be good. Or when you want to take a
-portrait do it in dull weather, or as evening falls, making the
-sitter stand with his back to one of the walls of the court yard.
-Note in the streets, as evening falls, the faces of the men and
-women, and when the weather is dull, what softness and delicacy you
-may perceive in them. Hence, Oh Painter! have a court arranged with
-the walls tinted black and a narrow roof projecting within the
-walls. It should be 10 braccia wide and 20 braccia long and 10
-braccia high and covered with a linen awning; or else paint a work
-towards evening or when it is cloudy or misty, and this is a perfect
-light.
-
-On various helps in preparing a picture (521-530).
-
-521.
-
-To draw a nude figure from nature, or any thing else, hold in your
-hand a plumb-line to enable you to judge of the relative position
-of objects.
-
-522.
-
-OF DRAWING AN OBJECT.
-
-When you draw take care to set up a principal line which you must
-observe all throughout the object you are drawing; every thing
-should bear relation to the direction of this principal line.
-
-523.
-
-OF A MODE OF DRAWING A PLACE ACCURATELY.
-
-Have a piece of glass as large as a half sheet of royal folio paper
-and set thus firmly in front of your eyes that is, between your eye
-and the thing you want to draw; then place yourself at a distance of
-2/3 of a braccia from the glass fixing your head with a machine in
-such a way that you cannot move it at all. Then shut or entirely
-cover one eye and with a brush or red chalk draw upon the glass that
-which you see beyond it; then trace it on paper from the glass,
-afterwards transfer it onto good paper, and paint it if you like,
-carefully attending to the arial perspective.
-
-HOW TO LEARN TO PLACE YOUR FIGURES CORRECTLY.
-
-If you want to acquire a practice of good and correct attitudes for
-your figures, make a square frame or net, and square it out with
-thread; place this between your eye and the nude model you are
-drawing, and draw these same squares on the paper on which you mean
-to draw the figure, but very delicately. Then place a pellet of wax
-on a spot of the net which will serve as a fixed point, which,
-whenever you look at your model, must cover the pit of the throat;
-or, if his back is turned, it may cover one of the vertebrae of the
-neck. Thus these threads will guide you as to each part of the body
-which, in any given attitude will be found below the pit of the
-throat, or the angles of the shoulders, or the nipples, or hips and
-other parts of the body; and the transverse lines of the net will
-show you how much the figure is higher over the leg on which it is
-posed than over the other, and the same with the hips, and the knees
-and the feet. But always fix the net perpendicularly so that all the
-divisions that you see the model divided into by the net work
-correspond with your drawing of the model on the net work you have
-sketched. The squares you draw may be as much smaller than those of
-the net as you wish that your figure should be smaller than nature.
-Afterwards remember when drawing figures, to use the rule of the
-corresponding proportions of the limbs as you have learnt it from
-the frame and net. This should be 3 braccia and a half high and 3
-braccia wide; 7 braccia distant from you and 1 braccio from the
-model.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo is commonly credited with the invention of the
-arrangement of a plate of glass commonly known as the "vertical
-plane." Professor E. VON BRUCKE in his _"Bruchstucke aus der Theorie
-der bildenden Kunste,"_ Leipzig 1877, pg. 3, writes on this
-contrivance. _"Unsere Glastafel ist die sogenannte Glastafel des
-Leonardo da Vinci, die in Gestalt einer Glastafel vorgestellte
-Bildflache."_]
-
-524.
-
-A METHOD OF DRAWING AN OBJECT IN RELIEF AT NIGHT.
-
-Place a sheet of not too transparent paper between the relievo and
-the light and you can draw thus very well.
-
-[Footnote: Bodies thus illuminated will show on the surface of the
-paper how the copyist has to distribute light and shade.]
-
-525.
-
-If you want to represent a figure on a wall, the wall being
-foreshortened, while the figure is to appear in its proper form, and
-as standing free from the wall, you must proceed thus: have a thin
-plate of iron and make a small hole in the centre; this hole must be
-round. Set a light close to it in such a position as that it shines
-through the central hole, then place any object or figure you please
-so close to the wall that it touches it and draw the outline of the
-shadow on the wall; then fill in the shade and add the lights; place
-the person who is to see it so that he looks through that same hole
-where at first the light was; and you will never be able to persuade
-yourself that the image is not detached from the wall.
-
-[Footnote: _uno piccolo spiracelo nel mezzo_. M. RAVAISSON, in his
-edition of MS. A (Paris), p. 52, reads _nel muro_--evidently a
-mistake for _nel mezzo_ which is quite plainly written; and he
-translates it _"fait lui une petite ouverture dans le mur,"_ adding
-in a note: _"les mots 'dans le mur' paraissent etre de trop.
-Leonardo a du les ecrire par distraction"_ But _'nel mezzo'_ is
-clearly legible even on the photograph facsimile given by Ravaisson
-himself, and the objection he raises disappears at once. It is not
-always wise or safe to try to prove our author's absence of mind or
-inadvertence by apparent difficulties in the sense or connection of
-the text.]
-
-526.
-
-TO DRAW A FIGURE ON A WALL 12 BRACCIA HIGH WHICH SHALL LOOK 24
-BRACCIA HIGH.
-
-If you wish to draw a figure or any other object to look 24 braccia
-high you must do it in this way. First, on the surface _m r_ draw
-half the man you wish to represent; then the other half; then put on
-the vault _m n_ [the rest of] the figure spoken of above; first set
-out the vertical plane on the floor of a room of the same shape as
-the wall with the coved part on which you are to paint your figure.
-Then, behind it, draw a figure set out in profile of whatever size
-you please, and draw lines from it to the point _f_ and, as these
-lines cut _m n_ on the vertical plane, so will the figure come on
-the wall, of which the vertical plane gives a likeness, and you will
-have all the [relative] heights and prominences of the figure. And
-the breadth or thickness which are on the upright wall _m n_ are to
-be drawn in their proper form, since, as the wall recedes the figure
-will be foreshortened by itself; but [that part of] the figure which
-goes into the cove you must foreshorten, as if it were standing
-upright; this diminution you must set out on a flat floor and there
-must stand the figure which is to be transferred from the vertical
-plane _r n_[Footnote 17: _che leverai dalla pariete r n_. The
-letters refer to the larger sketch, No. 3 on Pl. XXXI.] in its real
-size and reduce it once more on a vertical plane; and this will be a
-good method [Footnote 18: Leonardo here says nothing as to how the
-image foreshortened by perspective and thus produced on the vertical
-plane is to be transferred to the wall; but from what is said in
-Nos. 525 and 523 we may conclude that he was familiar with the
-process of casting the enlarged shadow of a squaring net on the
-surface of a wall to guide him in drawing the figure.
-
-_Pariete di rilieuo; "sur une parai en relief"_ (RAVAISSON). _"Auf
-einer Schnittlinie zum Aufrichten"_ (LUDWIG). The explanation of
-this puzzling expression must be sought in No. 545, lines 15-17.].
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. 3. The second sketch, which in the plate is
-incomplete, is here reproduced and completed from the original to
-illustrate the text. In the original the larger diagram is placed
-between lines 5 and 6.
-
-1. 2. C. A. 157a; 463a has the similar heading: '_del cressciere
-della figura_', and the text begins: "_Se voli fare 1a figura
-grande_ b c" but here it breaks off. The translation here given
-renders the meaning of the passage as I think it must be understood.
-The MS. is perfectly legible and the construction of the sentence is
-simple and clear; difficulties can only arise from the very fullness
-of the meaning, particularly towards the end of the passage.]
-
-527.
-
-If you would to draw a cube in an angle of a wall, first draw the
-object in its own proper shape and raise it onto a vertical plane
-until it resembles the angle in which the said object is to be
-represented.
-
-528.
-
-Why are paintings seen more correctly in a mirror than out of it?
-
-529.
-
-HOW THE MIRROR IS THE MASTER [AND GUIDE] OF PAINTERS.
-
-When you want to see if your picture corresponds throughout with the
-objects you have drawn from nature, take a mirror and look in that
-at the reflection of the real things, and compare the reflected
-image with your picture, and consider whether the subject of the two
-images duly corresponds in both, particularly studying the mirror.
-You should take the mirror for your guide--that is to say a flat
-mirror--because on its surface the objects appear in many respects
-as in a painting. Thus you see, in a painting done on a flat
-surface, objects which appear in relief, and in the mirror--also a
-flat surface--they look the same. The picture has one plane surface
-and the same with the mirror. The picture is intangible, in so far
-as that which appears round and prominent cannot be grasped in the
-hands; and it is the same with the mirror. And since you can see
-that the mirror, by means of outlines, shadows and lights, makes
-objects appear in relief, you, who have in your colours far stronger
-lights and shades than those in the mirror, can certainly, if you
-compose your picture well, make that also look like a natural scene
-reflected in a large mirror.
-
-[Footnote: I understand the concluding lines of this passage as
-follows: If you draw the upper half a figure on a large sheet of
-paper laid out on the floor of a room (_sala be piana_) to the same
-scale (_con le sue vere grosseze_) as the lower half, already drawn
-upon the wall (lines 10, 11)you must then reduce them on a '_pariete
-di rilievo_,' a curved vertical plane which serves as a model to
-reproduce the form of the vault.]
-
-530.
-
-OF JUDGING YOUR OWN PICTURES.
-
-We know very well that errors are better recognised in the works of
-others than in our own; and that often, while reproving little
-faults in others, you may ignore great ones in yourself. To avoid
-such ignorance, in the first place make yourself a master of
-perspective, then acquire perfect knowledge of the proportions of
-men and other animals, and also, study good architecture, that is so
-far as concerns the forms of buildings and other objects which are
-on the face of the earth; these forms are infinite, and the better
-you know them the more admirable will your work be. And in cases
-where you lack experience do not shrink from drawing them from
-nature. But, to carry out my promise above [in the title]--I say
-that when you paint you should have a flat mirror and often look at
-your work as reflected in it, when you will see it reversed, and it
-will appear to you like some other painter's work, so you will be
-better able to judge of its faults than in any other way. Again, it
-is well that you should often leave off work and take a little
-relaxation, because, when you come back to it you are a better
-judge; for sitting too close at work may greatly deceive you. Again,
-it is good to retire to a distance because the work looks smaller
-and your eye takes in more of it at a glance and sees more easily
-the discords or disproportion in the limbs and colours of the
-objects.
-
-On the management of works (531. 532).
-
-531.
-
-OF A METHOD OF LEARNING WELL BY HEART.
-
-When you want to know a thing you have studied in your memory
-proceed in this way: When you have drawn the same thing so many
-times that you think you know it by heart, test it by drawing it
-without the model; but have the model traced on flat thin glass and
-lay this on the drawing you have made without the model, and note
-carefully where the tracing does not coincide with your drawing, and
-where you find you have gone wrong; and bear in mind not to repeat
-the same mistakes. Then return to the model, and draw the part in
-which you were wrong again and again till you have it well in your
-mind. If you have no flat glass for tracing on, take some very thin
-kidts-kin parchment, well oiled and dried. And when you have used it
-for one drawing you can wash it clean with a sponge and make a
-second.
-
-532.
-
-THAT A PAINTER OUGHT TO BE CURIOUS TO HEAR THE OPINIONS OF EVERY ONE
-ON HIS WORK.
-
-Certainly while a man is painting he ought not to shrink from
-hearing every opinion. For we know very well that a man, though he
-may not be a painter, is familiar with the forms of other men and
-very capable of judging whether they are hump backed, or have one
-shoulder higher or lower than the other, or too big a mouth or nose,
-and other defects; and, as we know that men are competent to judge
-of the works of nature, how much more ought we to admit that they
-can judge of our errors; since you know how much a man may be
-deceived in his own work. And if you are not conscious of this in
-yourself study it in others and profit by their faults. Therefore be
-curious to hear with patience the opinions of others, consider and
-weigh well whether those who find fault have ground or not for
-blame, and, if so amend; but, if not make as though you had not
-heard, or if he should be a man you esteem show him by argument the
-cause of his mistake.
-
-On the limitations of painting (533-535)
-
-533.
-
-HOW IN SMALL OBJECTS ERRORS ARE LESS EVIDENT THAN IN LARGE ONES.
-
-In objects of minute size the extent of error is not so perceptible
-as in large ones; and the reason is that if this small object is a
-representation of a man or of some other animal, from the immense
-diminution the details cannot be worked out by the artist with the
-finish that is requisite. Hence it is not actually complete; and,
-not being complete, its faults cannot be determined. For instance:
-Look at a man at a distance of 300 braccia and judge attentively
-whether he be handsome or ugly, or very remarkable or of ordinary
-appearance. You will find that with the utmost effort you cannot
-persuade yourself to decide. And the reason is that at such a
-distance the man is so much diminished that the character of the
-details cannot be determined. And if you wish to see how much this
-man is diminished [by distance] hold one of your fingers at a span's
-distance from your eye, and raise or lower it till the top joint
-touches the feet of the figure you are looking at, and you will see
-an incredible reduction. For this reason we often doubt as to the
-person of a friend at a distance.
-
-534.
-
-WHY A PAINTING CAN NEVER APPEAR DETACHED AS NATURAL OBJECTS DO.
-
-Painters often fall into despair of imitating nature when they see
-their pictures fail in that relief and vividness which objects have
-that are seen in a mirror; while they allege that they have colours
-which for brightness or depth far exceed the strength of light and
-shade in the reflections in the mirror, thus displaying their own
-ignorance rather than the real cause, because they do not know it.
-It is impossible that painted objects should appear in such relief
-as to resemble those reflected in the mirror, although both are seen
-on a flat surface, unless they are seen with only one eye; and the
-reason is that two eyes see one object behind another as _a_ and _b_
-see _m_ and _n_. _m_ cannot exactly occupy [the space of] _n_
-because the base of the visual lines is so broad that the second
-body is seen beyond the first. But if you close one eye, as at _s_
-the body _f_ will conceal _r_, because the line of sight proceeds
-from a single point and makes its base in the first body, whence the
-second, of the same size, can never be seen.
-
-[Footnote: This passage contains the solution of the problem
-proposed in No. 29, lines 10-14. Leonardo was evidently familiar
-with the law of optics on which the construction of the stereoscope
-depends. Compare E. VON BRUCKE, _Bruchstucke aus der Theorie der
-bildenden Kunste_, pg. 69: "_Schon Leonardo da Vinci wusste, dass
-ein noch so gut gemaltes Bild nie den vollen Eindruck der
-Korperlichkeit geben kann, wie ihn die Natur selbst giebt. Er
-erklart dies auch in Kap. LIII und Kap. CCCXLI_ (ed. DU FRESNE)
-_des_ 'Trattato' _in sachgemasser Weise aus dem Sehen mit beiden
-Augen_."
-
-Chap. 53 of DU FRESNE'S edition corresponds to No. 534 of this
-work.]
-
-535.
-
-WHY OF TWO OBJECTS OF EQUAL SIZE A PAINTED ONE WILL LOOK LARGER THAN
-A SOLID ONE.
-
-The reason of this is not so easy to demonstrate as many others.
-Still I will endeavour to accomplish it, if not wholly, at any rate
-in part. The perspective of diminution demonstrates by reason, that
-objects diminish in proportion as they are farther from the eye, and
-this reasoning is confirmed by experience. Hence, the lines of sight
-that extend between the object and the eye, when they are directed
-to the surface of a painting are all intersected at uniform limits,
-while those lines which are directed towards a piece of sculpture
-are intersected at various limits and are of various lengths. The
-lines which are longest extend to a more remote limb than the others
-and therefore that limb looks smaller. As there are numerous lines
-each longer than the others--since there are numerous parts, each
-more remote than the others and these, being farther off,
-necessarily appear smaller, and by appearing smaller it follows that
-their diminution makes the whole mass of the object look smaller.
-But this does not occur in painting; since the lines of sight all
-end at the same distance there can be no diminution, hence the parts
-not being diminished the whole object is undiminished, and for this
-reason painting does not diminish, as a piece of sculpture does.
-
-On the choice of a position (536-537)
-
-536.
-
-HOW HIGH THE POINT OF SIGHT SHOULD BE PLACED.
-
-The point of sight must be at the level of the eye of an ordinary
-man, and the farthest limit of the plain where it touches the sky
-must be placed at the level of that line where the earth and sky
-meet; excepting mountains, which are independent of it.
-
-537.
-
-OF THE WAY TO DRAW FIGURES FOR HISTORICAL PICTURES.
-
-The painter must always study on the wall on which he is to picture
-a story the height of the position where he wishes to arrange his
-figures; and when drawing his studies for them from nature he must
-place himself with his eye as much below the object he is drawing
-as, in the picture, it will have to be above the eye of the
-spectator. Otherwise the work will look wrong.
-
-The apparent size of figures in a picture (538-539)
-
-538.
-
-OF PLACING A FIGURE IN THE FOREGROUND OF A HISTORICAL PICTURE.
-
-You must make the foremost figure in the picture less than the size
-of nature in proportion to the number of braccia at which you place
-it from the front line, and make the others in proportion by the
-above rule.
-
-539.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-You are asked, O Painter, why the figures you draw on a small scale
-according to the laws of perspective do not appear--notwithstanding
-the demonstration of distance--as large as real ones--their height
-being the same as in those painted on the wall.
-
-And why [painted] objects seen at a small distance appear larger
-than the real ones?
-
-The right position of the artist, when painting, and of the
-spectator (540-547)
-
-540.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-When you draw from nature stand at a distance of 3 times the height
-of the object you wish to draw.
-
-541.
-
-OF DRAWING FROM RELIEF.
-
-In drawing from the round the draughtsman should so place himself
-that the eye of the figure he is drawing is on a level with his own.
-This should be done with any head he may have to represent from
-nature because, without exception, the figures or persons you meet
-in the streets have their eyes on the same level as your own; and if
-you place them higher or lower you will see that your drawing will
-not be true.
-
-542.
-
-WHY GROUPS OF FIGURES ONE ABOVE ANOTHER ARE TO BE AVOIDED.
-
-The universal practice which painters adopt on the walls of chapels
-is greatly and reasonably to be condemned. Inasmuch as they
-represent one historical subject on one level with a landscape and
-buildings, and then go up a step and paint another, varying the
-point [of sight], and then a third and a fourth, in such a way as
-that on one wall there are 4 points of sight, which is supreme folly
-in such painters. We know that the point of sight is opposite the
-eye of the spectator of the scene; and if you would [have me] tell
-you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several
-pictures on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out
-the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of
-the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more
-important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees
-the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you
-can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of
-the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the
-figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or
-clouds or similar objects; otherwise do not trouble yourself with it
-for your whole work will be wrong.
-
-543.
-
-A PICTURE OF OBJECTS IN PERSPECTIVE WILL LOOK MORE LIFELIKE WHEN
-SEEN FROM THE POINT FROM WHICH THE OBJECTS WERE DRAWN.
-
-If you want to represent an object near to you which is to have the
-effect of nature, it is impossible that your perspective should not
-look wrong, with every false relation and disagreement of proportion
-that can be imagined in a wretched work, unless the spectator, when
-he looks at it, has his eye at the very distance and height and
-direction where the eye or the point of sight was placed in doing
-this perspective. Hence it would be necessary to make a window, or
-rather a hole, of the size of your face through which you can look
-at the work; and if you do this, beyond all doubt your work, if it
-is correct as to light and shade, will have the effect of nature;
-nay you will hardly persuade yourself that those objects are
-painted; otherwise do not trouble yourself about it, unless indeed
-you make your view at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
-width or height of the objects represented, and this will satisfy
-any spectator placed anywhere opposite to the picture.
-
-If you want the proof briefly shown, take a piece of wood in the
-form of a little column, eight times as high as it is thick, like a
-column without any plinth or capital; then mark off on a flat wall
-40 equal spaces, equal to its width so that between them they make
-40 columns resembling your little column; you then must fix,
-opposite the centre space, and at 4 braccia from the wall, a thin
-strip of iron with a small round hole in the middle about as large
-as a big pearl. Close to this hole place a light touching it. Then
-place your column against each mark on the wall and draw the outline
-of its shadow; afterwards shade it and look through the hole in the
-iron plate.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there is a wide space between lines 3 and
-4 in which we find two sketches not belonging to the text. It is
-unnecessary to give prominence to the points in which my reading
-differs from that of M. RAVAISSON or to justify myself, since they
-are all of secondary importance and can also be immediately verified
-from the photograph facsimile in his edition.]
-
-544.
-
-A diminished object should be seen from the same distance, height
-and direction as the point of sight of your eye, or else your
-knowledge will produce no good effect.
-
-And if you will not, or cannot, act on this principle--because as
-the plane on which you paint is to be seen by several persons you
-would need several points of sight which would make it look
-discordant and wrong--place yourself at a distance of at least 10
-times the size of the objects.
-
-The lesser fault you can fall into then, will be that of
-representing all the objects in the foreground of their proper size,
-and on whichever side you are standing the objects thus seen will
-diminish themselves while the spaces between them will have no
-definite ratio. For, if you place yourself in the middle of a
-straight row [of objects], and look at several columns arranged in a
-line you will see, beyond a few columns separated by intervals, that
-the columns touch; and beyond where they touch they cover each
-other, till the last column projects but very little beyond the last
-but one. Thus the spaces between the columns are by degrees entirely
-lost. So, if your method of perspective is good, it will produce the
-same effect; this effect results from standing near the line in
-which the columns are placed. This method is not satisfactory unless
-the objects seen are viewed from a small hole, in the middle of
-which is your point of sight; but if you proceed thus your work will
-be perfect and will deceive the beholder, who will see the columns
-as they are here figured.
-
-Here the eye is in the middle, at the point _a_ and near to the
-columns.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which stands above this chapter in the
-original with the note belonging to it: "a b _e la ripruova_" (_a b_
-is the proof) has obviously no connection with the text. The second
-sketch alone is reproduced and stands in the original between lines
-22 and 23.]
-
-545.
-
-If you cannot arrange that those who look at your work should stand
-at one particular point, when constructing your work, stand back
-until your eye is at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
-height and width of your work. This will make so little difference
-when the eye of the spectator moves, that it will be hardly
-appreciable, and it will look very good.
-
-If the point of sight is at _t_ you would make the figures on the
-circle _d b e_ all of one size, as each of them bears the same
-relation to the point _t_. But consider the diagram given below and
-you will see that this is wrong, and why I shall make _b_ smaller
-than _d e_ [Footnote 8: The second diagram of this chapter stands in
-the original between lines 8 and 9.].
-
-It is easy to understand that if 2 objects equal to each other are
-placed side by side the one at 3 braccia distance looks smaller than
-that placed at 2 braccia. This however is rather theoretical than
-for practice, because you stand close by [Footnote 11: Instead of
-'_se preso_' (=_sie presso_) M. RAVAISSON reads '_sempre se_' which
-gives rise to the unmeaning rendering: '_parceque toujours_ ...'].
-
-All the objects in the foreground, whether large or small, are to be
-drawn of their proper size, and if you see them from a distance they
-will appear just as they ought, and if you see them close they will
-diminish of themselves.
-
-[Footnote 15: Compare No. 526 line 18.] Take care that the vertical
-plan on which you work out the perspective of the objects seen is of
-the same form as the wall on which the work is to be executed.
-
-546.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The size of the figures represented ought to show you the distance
-they are seen from. If you see a figure as large as nature you know
-it appears to be close to the eye.
-
-547.
-
-WHERE A SPECTATOR SHOULD STAND TO LOOK AT A PICTURE.
-
-Supposing _a b_ to be the picture and _d_ to be the light, I say
-that if you place yourself between _c_ and _e_ you will not
-understand the picture well and particularly if it is done in oils,
-or still more if it is varnished, because it will be lustrous and
-somewhat of the nature of a mirror. And for this reason the nearer
-you go towards the point _c_, the less you will see, because the
-rays of light falling from the window on the picture are reflected
-to that point. But if you place yourself between _e_ and _d_ you
-will get a good view of it, and the more so as you approach the
-point _d_, because that spot is least exposed to these reflected
-rays of light.
-
-III.
-
-THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Gradations of light and shade.
-
-548.
-
-OF PAINTING: OF THE DARKNESS OF THE SHADOWS, OR I MAY SAY, THE
-BRIGHTNESS OF THE LIGHTS.
-
-Although practical painters attribute to all shaded objects--trees,
-fields, hair, beards and skin--four degrees of darkness in each
-colour they use: that is to say first a dark foundation, secondly a
-spot of colour somewhat resembling the form of the details, thirdly
-a somewhat brighter and more defined portion, fourthly the lights
-which are more conspicuous than other parts of the figure; still to
-me it appears that these gradations are infinite upon a continuous
-surface which is in itself infinitely divisible, and I prove it
-thus:--[Footnote 7: See Pl. XXXI, No. 1; the two upper sketches.]
-Let _a g_ be a continuous surface and let _d_ be the light which
-illuminates it; I say--by the 4th [proposition] which says that that
-side of an illuminated body is most highly lighted which is nearest
-to the source of light--that therefore _g_ must be darker than _c_
-in proportion as the line _d g_ is longer than the line _d c_, and
-consequently that these gradations of light--or rather of shadow,
-are not 4 only, but may be conceived of as infinite, because _c d_
-is a continuous surface and every continuous surface is infinitely
-divisible; hence the varieties in the length of lines extending
-between the light and the illuminated object are infinite, and the
-proportion of the light will be the same as that of the length of
-the lines between them; extending from the centre of the luminous
-body to the surface of the illuminated object.
-
-On the choice of light for a picture (549-554).
-
-549.
-
-HOW THE PAINTER MUST PLACE HIMSELF WITH REFERENCE TO THE LIGHT, TO
-GIVE THE EFFECT OF RELIEF.
-
-Let _a b_ be the window, _m_ the point of light. I say that on
-whichever side the painter places himself he will be well placed if
-only his eye is between the shaded and the illuminated portions of
-the object he is drawing; and this place you will find by putting
-yourself between the point _m_ and the division between the shadow
-and the light on the object to be drawn.
-
-550.
-
-THAT SHADOWS CAST BY A PARTICULAR LIGHT SHOULD BE AVOIDED, BECAUSE
-THEY ARE EQUALLY STRONG AT THE ENDS AND AT THE BEGINNING.
-
-The shadows cast by the sun or any other particular light have not a
-pleasing effect on the body to which they belong, because the parts
-remain confuse, being divided by distinct outlines of light and
-shade. And the shadows are of equal strength at the end and at the
-beginning.
-
-551.
-
-HOW LIGHT SHOULD BE THROWN UPON FIGURES.
-
-The light must be arranged in accordance with the natural conditions
-under which you wish to represent your figures: that is, if you
-represent them in the sunshine make the shadows dark with large
-spaces of light, and mark their shadows and those of all the
-surrounding objects strongly on the ground. And if you represent
-them as in dull weather give little difference of light and shade,
-without any shadows at their feet. If you represent them as within
-doors, make a strong difference between the lights and shadows, with
-shadows on the ground. If the window is screened and the walls
-white, there will be little difference of light. If it is lighted by
-firelight make the high lights ruddy and strong, and the shadows
-dark, and those cast on the walls and on the floor will be clearly
-defined and the farther they are from the body the broader and
-longer will they be. If the light is partly from the fire and partly
-from the outer day, that of day will be the stronger and that of the
-fire almost as red as fire itself. Above all see that the figures
-you paint are broadly lighted and from above, that is to say all
-living persons that you paint; for you will see that all the people
-you meet out in the street are lighted from above, and you must know
-that if you saw your most intimate friend with a light [on his face]
-from below you would find it difficult to recognise him.
-
-552.
-
-OF HELPING THE APPARENT RELIEF OF A PICTURE BY GIVING IT ARTIFICIAL
-LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-To increase relief of a picture you may place, between your figure
-and the solid object on which its shadow falls, a line of bright
-light, dividing the figure from the object in shadow. And on the
-same object you shall represent two light parts which will surround
-the shadow cast upon the wall by the figure placed opposite [6]; and
-do this frequently with the limbs which you wish should stand out
-somewhat from the body they belong to; particularly when the arms
-cross the front of the breast show, between the shadow cast by the
-arms on the breast and the shadow on the arms themselves, a little
-light seeming to fall through a space between the breast and the
-arms; and the more you wish the arm to look detached from the breast
-the broader you must make the light; always contrive also to arrange
-the figures against the background in such a way as that the parts
-in shadow are against a light background and the illuminated
-portions against a dark background.
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare the two diagrams under No. 565.]
-
-553.
-
-OF SITUATION.
-
-Remember [to note] the situation of your figures; for the light and
-shade will be one thing if the object is in a dark place with a
-particular light, and another thing if it is in a light place with
-direct sunlight; one thing in a dark place with a diffused evening
-light or a cloudy sky, and another in the diffused light of the
-atmosphere lighted by the sun.
-
-554.
-
-OF THE JUDGMENT TO BE MADE OF A PAINTER'S WORK.
-
-First you must consider whether the figures have the relief required
-by their situation and the light which illuminates them; for the
-shadows should not be the same at the extreme ends of the
-composition as in the middle, because it is one thing when figures
-are surrounded by shadows and another when they have shadows only on
-one side. Those which are in the middle of the picture are
-surrounded by shadows, because they are shaded by the figures which
-stand between them and the light. And those are lighted on one side
-only which stand between the principal group and the light, because
-where they do not look towards the light they face the group and the
-darkness of the group is thrown on them: and where they do not face
-the group they face the brilliant light and it is their own darkness
-shadowing them, which appears there.
-
-In the second place observe the distribution or arrangement of
-figures, and whether they are distributed appropriately to the
-circumstances of the story. Thirdly, whether the figures are
-actively intent on their particular business.
-
-555.
-
-OF THE TREATMENT OF THE LIGHTS.
-
-First give a general shadow to the whole of that extended part which
-is away from the light. Then put in the half shadows and the strong
-shadows, comparing them with each other and, in the same way give
-the extended light in half tint, afterwards adding the half lights
-and the high lights, likewise comparing them together.
-
-The distribution of light and shade (556-559)
-
-556.
-
-OF SHADOWS ON BODIES.
-
-When you represent the dark shadows in bodies in light and shade,
-always show the cause of the shadow, and the same with reflections;
-because the dark shadows are produced by dark objects and the
-reflections by objects only moderately lighted, that is with
-diminished light. And there is the same proportion between the
-highly lighted part of a body and the part lighted by a reflection
-as between the origin of the lights on the body and the origin of
-the reflections.
-
-557.
-
-OF LIGHTS AND SHADOWS.
-
-I must remind you to take care that every portion of a body, and
-every smallest detail which is ever so little in relief, must be
-given its proper importance as to light and shade.
-
-558.
-
-OF THE WAY TO MAKE THE SHADOW ON FIGURES CORRESPOND TO THE LIGHT AND
-TO [THE COLOUR] OF THE BODY.
-
-When you draw a figure and you wish to see whether the shadow is the
-proper complement to the light, and neither redder nor yellower than
-is the nature of the colour you wish to represent in shade, proceed
-thus. Cast a shadow with your finger on the illuminated portion, and
-if the accidental shadow that you have made is like the natural
-shadow cast by your finger on your work, well and good; and by
-putting your finger nearer or farther off, you can make darker or
-lighter shadows, which you must compare with your own.
-
-559.
-
-OF SURROUNDING BODIES BY VARIOUS FORMS OF SHADOW.
-
-Take care that the shadows cast upon the surface of the bodies by
-different objects must undulate according to the various curves of
-the limbs which cast the shadows, and of the objects on which they
-are cast.
-
-The juxtaposition of light and shade (560, 561).
-
-560.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-The comparison of the various qualities of shadows and lights not
-infrequently seems ambiguous and confused to the painter who desires
-to imitate and copy the objects he sees. The reason is this: If you
-see a white drapery side by side with a black one, that part of the
-white drapery which lies against the black one will certainly look
-much whiter than the part which lies against something whiter than
-itself. [Footnote: It is evident from this that so early as in 1492
-Leonardo's writing in perspective was so far advanced that he could
-quote his own statements.--As bearing on this subject compare what
-is said in No. 280.] And the reason of this is shown in my [book on]
-perspective.
-
-561.
-
-OF SHADOWS.
-
-Where a shadow ends in the light, note carefully where it is paler
-or deeper and where it is more or less indistinct towards the light;
-and, above all, in [painting] youthful figures I remind you not to
-make the shadow end like a stone, because flesh has a certain
-transparency, as may be seen by looking at a hand held between the
-eye and the sun, which shines through it ruddy and bright. Place the
-most highly coloured part between the light and shadow. And to see
-what shadow tint is needed on the flesh, cast a shadow on it with
-your finger, and according as you wish to see it lighter or darker
-hold your finger nearer to or farther from your picture, and copy
-that [shadow].
-
-On the lighting of the background (562-565).
-
-562.
-
-OF THE BACKGROUNDS FOR PAINTED FIGURES.
-
-The ground which surrounds the forms of any object you paint should
-be darker than the high lights of those figures, and lighter than
-their shadowed part: &c.
-
-563.
-
-OF THE BACKGROUND THAT THE PAINTER SHOULD ADOPT IN HIS WORKS.
-
-Since experience shows us that all bodies are surrounded by light
-and shade it is necessary that you, O Painter, should so arrange
-that the side which is in light shall terminate against a dark body
-and likewise that the shadow side shall terminate against a light
-body. And by [following] this rule you will add greatly to the
-relief of your figures.
-
-564.
-
-A most important part of painting consists in the backgrounds of the
-objects represented; against these backgrounds the outlines of
-those natural objects which are convex are always visible, and also
-the forms of these bodies against the background, even though the
-colours of the bodies should be the same as that of the background.
-This is caused by the convex edges of the objects not being
-illuminated in the same way as, by the same light, the background is
-illuminated, since these edges will often be lighter or darker than
-the background. But if the edge is of the same colour as the
-background, beyond a doubt it will in that part of the picture
-interfere with your perception of the outline, and such a choice in
-a picture ought to be rejected by the judgment of good painters,
-inasmuch as the purpose of the painter is to make his figures appear
-detached from the background; while in the case here described the
-contrary occurs, not only in the picture, but in the objects
-themselves.
-
-565.
-
-That you ought, when representing objects above the eye and on one
-side--if you wish them to look detached from the wall--to show,
-between the shadow on the object and the shadow it casts a middle
-light, so that the body will appear to stand away from the wall.
-
-On the lighting of white objects.
-
-566.
-
-HOW WHITE BODIES SHOULD BE REPRESENTED.
-
-If you are representing a white body let it be surrounded by ample
-space, because as white has no colour of its own, it is tinged and
-altered in some degree by the colour of the objects surrounding it.
-If you see a woman dressed in white in the midst of a landscape,
-that side which is towards the sun is bright in colour, so much so
-that in some portions it will dazzle the eyes like the sun itself;
-and the side which is towards the atmosphere,--luminous through
-being interwoven with the sun's rays and penetrated by them--since
-the atmosphere itself is blue, that side of the woman's figure will
-appear steeped in blue. If the surface of the ground about her be
-meadows and if she be standing between a field lighted up by the sun
-and the sun itself, you will see every portion of those folds which
-are towards the meadow tinged by the reflected rays with the colour
-of that meadow. Thus the white is transmuted into the colours of the
-luminous and of the non-luminous objects near it.
-
-The methods of aerial (567--570).
-
-567.
-
-WHY FACES [SEEN] AT A DISTANCE LOOK DARK.
-
-We see quite plainly that all the images of visible objects that lie
-before us, whether large or small, reach our sense by the minute
-aperture of the eye; and if, through so small a passage the image
-can pass of the vast extent of sky and earth, the face of a
-man--being by comparison with such large images almost nothing by
-reason of the distance which diminishes it,--fills up so little of
-the eye that it is indistinguishable. Having, also, to be
-transmitted from the surface to the sense through a dark medium,
-that is to say the crystalline lens which looks dark, this image,
-not being strong in colour becomes affected by this darkness on its
-passage, and on reaching the sense it appears dark; no other reason
-can in any way be assigned. If the point in the eye is black, it is
-because it is full of a transparent humour as clear as air and acts
-like a perforation in a board; on looking into it it appears dark
-and the objects seen through the bright air and a dark one become
-confused in this darkness.
-
-WHY A MAN SEEN AT A CERTAIN DISTANCE IS NOT RECOGNISABLE.
-
-The perspective of diminution shows us that the farther away an
-object is the smaller it looks. If you look at a man at a distance
-from you of an arrow's flight, and hold the eye of a small needle
-close to your own eye, you can see through it several men whose
-images are transmitted to the eye and will all be comprised within
-the size of the needle's eye; hence, if the man who is at the
-distance of an arrow's flight can send his whole image to your eye,
-occupying only a small space in the needle's eye how can you
-[expect] in so small a figure to distinguish or see the nose or
-mouth or any detail of his person? and, not seeing these you cannot
-recognise the man, since these features, which he does not show, are
-what give men different aspects.
-
-568.
-
-THE REASON WHY SMALL FIGURES SHOULD NOT BE MADE FINISHED.
-
-I say that the reason that objects appear diminished in size is
-because they are remote from the eye; this being the case it is
-evident that there must be a great extent of atmosphere between the
-eye and the objects, and this air interferes with the distinctness
-of the forms of the object. Hence the minute details of these
-objects will be indistinguishable and unrecognisable. Therefore, O
-Painter, make your smaller figures merely indicated and not highly
-finished, otherwise you will produce effects the opposite to nature,
-your supreme guide. The object is small by reason of the great
-distance between it and the eye, this great distance is filled with
-air, that mass of air forms a dense body which intervenes and
-prevents the eye seeing the minute details of objects.
-
-569.
-
-Whenever a figure is placed at a considerable distance you lose
-first the distinctness of the smallest parts; while the larger parts
-are left to the last, losing all distinctness of detail and outline;
-and what remains is an oval or spherical figure with confused edges.
-
-570.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The density of a body of smoke looks white below the horizon while
-above the horizon it is dark, even if the smoke is in itself of a
-uniform colour, this uniformity will vary according to the variety
-in the ground on which it is seen.
-
-IV.
-
-OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.
-
-Of sketching figures and portraits (571-572).
-
-571.
-
-OF THE WAY TO LEARN TO COMPOSE FIGURES [IN GROUPS] IN HISTORICAL
-PICTURES.
-
-When you have well learnt perspective and have by heart the parts
-and forms of objects, you must go about, and constantly, as you go,
-observe, note and consider the circumstances and behaviour of men in
-talking, quarrelling or laughing or fighting together: the action of
-the men themselves and the actions of the bystanders, who separate
-them or who look on. And take a note of them with slight strokes
-thus, in a little book which you should always carry with you. And
-it should be of tinted paper, that it may not be rubbed out, but
-change the old [when full] for a new one; since these things should
-not be rubbed out but preserved with great care; for the forms, and
-positions of objects are so infinite that the memory is incapable of
-retaining them, wherefore keep these [sketches] as your guides and
-masters.
-
-[Footnote: Among Leonardo's numerous note books of pocket size not
-one has coloured paper, so no sketches answering to this description
-can be pointed out. The fact that most of the notes are written in
-ink, militates against the supposition that they were made in the
-open air.]
-
-572.
-
-OF A METHOD OF KEEPING IN MIND THE FORM OF A FACE.
-
-If you want to acquire facility for bearing in mind the expression
-of a face, first make yourself familiar with a variety of [forms of]
-several heads, eyes, noses, mouths, chins and cheeks and necks and
-shoulders: And to put a case: Noses are of 10 types: straight,
-bulbous, hollow, prominent above or below the middle, aquiline,
-regular, flat, round or pointed. These hold good as to profile. In
-full face they are of 11 types; these are equal thick in the middle,
-thin in the middle, with the tip thick and the root narrow, or
-narrow at the tip and wide at the root; with the nostrils wide or
-narrow, high or low, and the openings wide or hidden by the point;
-and you will find an equal variety in the other details; which
-things you must draw from nature and fix them in your mind. Or else,
-when you have to draw a face by heart, carry with you a little book
-in which you have noted such features; and when you have cast a
-glance at the face of the person you wish to draw, you can look, in
-private, which nose or mouth is most like, or there make a little
-mark to recognise it again at home. Of grotesque faces I need say
-nothing, because they are kept in mind without difficulty.
-
-The position of the head.
-
-573.
-
-HOW YOU SHOULD SET TO WORK TO DRAW A HEAD OF WHICH ALL THE PARTS
-SHALL AGREE WITH THE POSITION GIVEN TO IT.
-
-To draw a head in which the features shall agree with the turn and
-bend of the head, pursue this method. You know that the eyes,
-eyebrows, nostrils, corners of the mouth, and sides of the chin, the
-jaws, cheeks, ears and all the parts of a face are squarely and
-straightly set upon the face.
-
-[Footnote: Compare the drawings and the text belonging to them on
-Pl. IX. (No. 315), Pl. X (No. 316), Pl. XL (No. 318) and Pl. XII.
-(No. 319).]
-
-Therefore when you have sketched the face draw lines passing from
-one corner of the eye to the other; and so for the placing of each
-feature; and after having drawn the ends of the lines beyond the two
-sides of the face, look if the spaces inside the same parallel lines
-on the right and on the left are equal [12]. But be sure to remember
-to make these lines tend to the point of sight.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 4, the slight sketch on the left hand
-side. The text of this passage is written by the side of it. In this
-sketch the lines seem intentionally incorrect and converging to the
-right (compare I. 12) instead of parallel. Compare too with this
-text the drawing in red chalk from Windsor Castle which is
-reproduced on Pl. XL, No. 2.]
-
-Of the light on the face (574-576).
-
-574.
-
-HOW TO KNOW WHICH SIDE OF AN OBJECT IS TO BE MORE OR LESS LUMINOUS
-THAN THE OTHER.
-
-Let _f_ be the light, the head will be the object illuminated by it
-and that side of the head on which the rays fall most directly will
-be the most highly lighted, and those parts on which the rays fall
-most aslant will be less lighted. The light falls as a blow might,
-since a blow which falls perpendicularly falls with the greatest
-force, and when it falls obliquely it is less forcible than the
-former in proportion to the width of the angle. _Exempli gratia_ if
-you throw a ball at a wall of which the extremities are equally far
-from you the blow will fall straight, and if you throw the ball at
-the wall when standing at one end of it the ball will hit it
-obliquely and the blow will not tell.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. No. 4; the sketch on the right hand side.]
-
-575.
-
-THE PROOF AND REASON WHY AMONG THE ILLUMINATED PARTS CERTAIN
-PORTIONS ARE IN HIGHER LIGHT THAN OTHERS.
-
-Since it is proved that every definite light is, or seems to be,
-derived from one single point the side illuminated by it will have
-its highest light on the portion where the line of radiance falls
-perpendicularly; as is shown above in the lines _a g_, and also in
-_a h_ and in _l a_; and that portion of the illuminated side will be
-least luminous, where the line of incidence strikes it between two
-more dissimilar angles, as is seen at _b c d_. And by this means you
-may also know which parts are deprived of light as is seen at _m k_.
-
-Where the angles made by the lines of incidence are most equal there
-will be the highest light, and where they are most unequal it will
-be darkest.
-
-I will make further mention of the reason of reflections.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXII. The text, here given complete, is on the
-right hand side. The small circles above the beginning of lines 5
-and 11 as well as the circle above the text on Pl. XXXI, are in a
-paler ink and evidently added by a later hand in order to
-distinguish the text as belonging to the _Libro di Pittura_ (see
-Prolegomena. No. 12, p. 3). The text on the left hand side of this
-page is given as Nos. 577 and 137.]
-
-576.
-
-Where the shadow should be on the face.
-
-General suggestions for historical pictures (577-581).
-
-577.
-
-When you compose a historical picture take two points, one the point
-of sight, and the other the source of light; and make this as
-distant as possible.
-
-578.
-
-Historical pictures ought not to be crowded and confused with too
-many figures.
-
-579.
-
-PRECEPTS IN PAINTING.
-
-Let you sketches of historical pictures be swift and the working out
-of the limbs not be carried too far, but limited to the position of
-the limbs, which you can afterwards finish as you please and at your
-leisure.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXVIII, No. 2. The pen and ink drawing given
-there as No. 3 may also be compared with this passage. It is in the
-Windsor collection where it is numbered 101.]
-
-580.
-
-The sorest misfortune is when your views are in advance of your
-work.
-
-581.
-
-Of composing historical pictures. Of not considering the limbs in
-the figures in historical pictures; as many do who, in the wish to
-represent the whole of a figure, spoil their compositions. And when
-you place one figure behind another take care to draw the whole of
-it so that the limbs which come in front of the nearer figures may
-stand out in their natural size and place.
-
-How to represent the differences of age and sex (582-583).
-
-582.
-
-How the ages of man should be depicted: that is, Infancy, Childhood,
-Youth, Manhood, Old age, Decrepitude.
-
-[Footnote: No answer is here given to this question, in the original
-MS.]
-
-583.
-
-Old men ought to be represented with slow and heavy movements, their
-legs bent at the knees, when they stand still, and their feet placed
-parallel and apart; bending low with the head leaning forward, and
-their arms but little extended.
-
-Women must be represented in modest attitudes, their legs close
-together, their arms closely folded, their heads inclined and
-somewhat on one side.
-
-Old women should be represented with eager, swift and furious
-gestures, like infernal furies; but the action should be more
-violent in their arms and head than in their legs.
-
-Little children, with lively and contorted movements when sitting,
-and, when standing still, in shy and timid attitudes.
-
-[Footnote: _bracci raccolte_. Compare Pl. XXXIII. This drawing, in
-silver point on yellowish tinted paper, the lights heightened with
-white, represents two female hands laid together in a lap. Above is
-a third finished study of a right hand, apparently holding a veil
-from the head across the bosom. This drawing evidently dates from
-before 1500 and was very probably done at Florence, perhaps as a
-preparatory study for some picture. The type of hand with its
-slender thin forms is more like the style of the _Vierge aux
-Rochers_ in the Louvre than any later works--as the Mona Lisa for
-instance.]
-
-Of representing the emotions.
-
-584.
-
-THAT A FIGURE IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS IT EXPRESSES BY ITS ACTION THE
-PASSION OF ITS SENTIMENT.
-
-That figure is most admirable which by its actions best expresses
-the passion that animates it.
-
-HOW AN ANGRY MAN IS TO BE FIGURED.
-
-You must make an angry person holding someone by the hair, wrenching
-his head against the ground, and with one knee on his ribs; his
-right arm and fist raised on high. His hair must be thrown up, his
-brow downcast and knit, his teeth clenched and the two corners of
-his mouth grimly set; his neck swelled and bent forward as he leans
-over his foe, and full of furrows.
-
-HOW TO REPRESENT A MAN IN DESPAIR.
-
-You must show a man in despair with a knife, having already torn
-open his garments, and with one hand tearing open the wound. And
-make him standing on his feet and his legs somewhat bent and his
-whole person leaning towards the earth; his hair flying in disorder.
-
-Of representing imaginary animals.
-
-585.
-
-HOW YOU SHOULD MAKE AN IMAGINARY ANIMAL LOOK NATURAL.
-
-You know that you cannot invent animals without limbs, each of
-which, in itself, must resemble those of some other animal. Hence if
-you wish to make an animal, imagined by you, appear natural--let us
-say a Dragon, take for its head that of a mastiff or hound, with the
-eyes of a cat, the ears of a porcupine, the nose of a greyhound, the
-brow of a lion, the temples of an old cock, the neck of a water
-tortoise.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch here inserted of two men on horseback fighting
-a dragon is the facsimile of a pen and ink drawing belonging to
-BARON EDMOND DE ROTHSCHILD of Paris.]
-
-The selection of forms.
-
-586.
-
-OF THE DELUSIONS WHICH ARISE IN JUDGING OF THE LIMBS.
-
-A painter who has clumsy hands will paint similar hands in his
-works, and the same will occur with any limb, unless long study has
-taught him to avoid it. Therefore, O Painter, look carefully what
-part is most ill-favoured in your own person and take particular
-pains to correct it in your studies. For if you are coarse, your
-figures will seem the same and devoid of charm; and it is the same
-with any part that may be good or poor in yourself; it will be shown
-in some degree in your figures.
-
-587.
-
-OF THE SELECTION OF BEAUTIFUL FACES.
-
-It seems to me to be no small charm in a painter when he gives his
-figures a pleasing air, and this grace, if he have it not by nature,
-he may acquire by incidental study in this way: Look about you and
-take the best parts of many beautiful faces, of which the beauty is
-confirmed rather by public fame than by your own judgment; for you
-might be mistaken and choose faces which have some resemblance to
-your own. For it would seem that such resemblances often please us;
-and if you should be ugly, you would select faces that were not
-beautiful and you would then make ugly faces, as many painters do.
-For often a master's work resembles himself. So select beauties as I
-tell you, and fix them in your mind.
-
-588.
-
-Of the limbs, which ought to be carefully selected, and of all the
-other parts with regard to painting.
-
-589.
-
-When selecting figures you should choose slender ones rather than
-lean and wooden ones.
-
-590.
-
-OF THE MUSCLES OF ANIMALS.
-
-The hollow spaces interposed between the muscles must not be of such
-a character as that the skin should seem to cover two sticks laid
-side by side like _c_, nor should they seem like two sticks somewhat
-remote from such contact so that the skin hangs in an empty loose
-curve as at _f_; but it should be like _i_, laid over the spongy fat
-that lies in the angles as the angle _n m o_; which angle is formed
-by the contact of the ends of the muscles and as the skin cannot
-fold down into such an angle, nature has filled up such angles with
-a small quantity of spongy and, as I may say, vesicular fat, with
-minute bladders [in it] full of air, which is condensed or rarefied
-in them according to the increase or the diminution of the substance
-of the muscles; in which latter case the concavity _i_ always has a
-larger curve than the muscle.
-
-591.
-
-OF UNDULATING MOVEMENTS AND EQUIPOISE IN FIGURES AND OTHER ANIMALS.
-
-When representing a human figure or some graceful animal, be careful
-to avoid a wooden stiffness; that is to say make them move with
-equipoise and balance so as not to look like a piece of wood; but
-those you want to represent as strong you must not make so,
-excepting in the turn of the head.
-
-How to pose figures.
-
-592.
-
-OF GRACE IN THE LIMBS.
-
-The limbs should be adapted to the body with grace and with
-reference to the effect that you wish the figure to produce. And if
-you wish to produce a figure that shall of itself look light and
-graceful you must make the limbs elegant and extended, and without
-too much display of the muscles; and those few that are needed for
-your purpose you must indicate softly, that is, not very prominent
-and without strong shadows; the limbs, and particularly the arms
-easy; that is, none of the limbs should be in a straight line with
-the adjoining parts. And if the hips, which are the pole of a man,
-are by reason of his position, placed so, that the right is higher
-than the left, make the point of the higher shoulder in a
-perpendicular line above the highest prominence of the hip, and let
-this right shoulder be lower than the left. Let the pit of the
-throat always be over the centre of the joint of the foot on which
-the man is leaning. The leg which is free should have the knee lower
-than the other, and near the other leg. The positions of the head
-and arms are endless and I shall therefore not enlarge on any rules
-for them. Still, let them be easy and pleasing, with various turns
-and twists, and the joints gracefully bent, that they may not look
-like pieces of wood.
-
-Of appropriate gestures (593-600).
-
-593.
-
-A picture or representation of human figures, ought to be done in
-such a way as that the spectator may easily recognise, by means of
-their attitudes, the purpose in their minds. Thus, if you have to
-represent a man of noble character in the act of speaking, let his
-gestures be such as naturally accompany good words; and, in the same
-way, if you wish to depict a man of a brutal nature, give him fierce
-movements; as with his arms flung out towards the listener, and his
-head and breast thrust forward beyond his feet, as if following the
-speaker's hands. Thus it is with a deaf and dumb person who, when he
-sees two men in conversation--although he is deprived of
-hearing--can nevertheless understand, from the attitudes and
-gestures of the speakers, the nature of their discussion. I once saw
-in Florence a man who had become deaf who, when you spoke very loud
-did not understand you, but if you spoke gently and without making
-any sound, understood merely from the movement of the lips. Now
-perhaps you will say that the lips of a man who speaks loudly do not
-move like those of one speaking softly, and that if they were to
-move them alike they would be alike understood. As to this argument,
-I leave the decision to experiment; make a man speak to you gently
-and note [the motion of] his lips.
-
-[Footnote: The first ten lines of this text have already been
-published, but with a slightly different reading by Dr. M. JORDAN:
-_Das Malerbuch Leonardo da Vinci's_ p. 86.]
-
-594.
-
-OF REPRESENTING A MAN SPEAKING TO A MULTITUDE.
-
-When you wish to represent a man speaking to a number of people,
-consider the matter of which he has to treat and adapt his action to
-the subject. Thus, if he speaks persuasively, let his action be
-appropriate to it. If the matter in hand be to set forth an
-argument, let the speaker, with the fingers of the right hand hold
-one finger of the left hand, having the two smaller ones closed; and
-his face alert, and turned towards the people with mouth a little
-open, to look as though he spoke; and if he is sitting let him
-appear as though about to rise, with his head forward. If you
-represent him standing make him leaning slightly forward with body
-and head towards the people. These you must represent as silent and
-attentive, all looking at the orator's face with gestures of
-admiration; and make some old men in astonishment at the things they
-hear, with the corners of their mouths pulled down and drawn in,
-their cheeks full of furrows, and their eyebrows raised, and
-wrinkling the forehead where they meet. Again, some sitting with
-their fingers clasped holding their weary knees. Again, some bent
-old man, with one knee crossed over the other; on which let him hold
-his hand with his other elbow resting in it and the hand supporting
-his bearded chin.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches introduced here are a facsimile of a pen and
-ink drawing in the Louvre which Herr CARL BRUN considers as studies
-for the Last Supper in the church of _Santa Maria delle Grazie_ (see
-Leonardo da Vinci, LXI, pp. 21, 27 and 28 in DOHME'S _Kunst und
-Kunstler_, Leipzig, Seemann). I shall not here enter into any
-discussion of this suggestion; but as a justification for
-introducing the drawing in this place, I may point out that some of
-the figures illustrate this passage as perfectly as though they had
-been drawn for that express purpose. I have discussed the
-probability of a connection between this sketch and the picture of
-the Last Supper on p. 335. The original drawing is 27 3/4
-centimetres wide by 21 high.--The drawing in silver point on reddish
-paper given on Pl. LII. No. 1--the original at Windsor Castle--may
-also serve to illustrate the subject of appropriate gestures,
-treated in Nos. 593 and 594.]
-
-595.
-
-OF THE DISPOSITION OF LIMBS.
-
-As regards the disposition of limbs in movement you will have to
-consider that when you wish to represent a man who, by some chance,
-has to turn backwards or to one side, you must not make him move his
-feet and all his limbs towards the side to which he turns his head.
-Rather must you make the action proceed by degrees and through the
-different joints; that is, those of the foot, the knee and the hip
-and the neck. And if you set him on the right leg, you must make the
-left knee bend inwards, and let his foot be slightly raised on the
-outside, and the left shoulder be somewhat lower than the right,
-while the nape of the neck is in a line directly over the outer
-ancle of the left foot. And the left shoulder will be in a
-perpendicular line above the toes of the right foot. And always set
-your figures so that the side to which the head turns is not the
-side to which the breast faces, since nature for our convenience has
-made us with a neck which bends with ease in many directions, the
-eye wishing to turn to various points, the different joints. And if
-at any time you make a man sitting with his arms at work on
-something which is sideways to him, make the upper part of his body
-turn upon the hips.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Pl. VII, No. 5. The original drawing at Windsor
-Castle is numbered 104.]
-
-596.
-
-When you draw the nude always sketch the whole figure and then
-finish those limbs which seem to you the best, but make them act
-with the other limbs; otherwise you will get a habit of never
-putting the limbs well together on the body.
-
-Never make the head turn the same way as the torso, nor the arm and
-leg move together on the same side. And if the face is turned to the
-right shoulder, make all the parts lower on the left side than on
-the right; and when you turn the body with the breast outwards, if
-the head turns to the left side make the parts on the right side
-higher than those on the left.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. a much defaced sketch is to be seen
-by the side of the second part of this chapter; its faded condition
-has rendered reproduction impossible. In M. RAVAISSON'S facsimile
-the outlines of the head have probably been touched up. This passage
-however is fitly illustrated by the drawings on Pl. XXI.]
-
-597.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Of the nature of movements in man. Do not repeat the same gestures
-in the limbs of men unless you are compelled by the necessity of
-their action, as is shown in _a b_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. V, where part of the text is also reproduced. The
-effaced figure to the extreme left has evidently been cancelled by
-Leonardo himself as unsatisfactory.]
-
-598.
-
-The motions of men must be such as suggest their dignity or their
-baseness.
-
-599.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Make your work carry out your purpose and meaning. That is when you
-draw a figure consider well who it is and what you wish it to be
-doing.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-With regard to any action which you give in a picture to an old man
-or to a young one, you must make it more energetic in the young man
-in proportion as he is stronger than the old one; and in the same
-way with a young man and an infant.
-
-600.
-
-OF SETTING ON THE LIMBS.
-
-The limbs which are used for labour must be muscular and those which
-are not much used you must make without muscles and softly rounded.
-
-OF THE ACTION OF THE FIGURES.
-
-Represent your figures in such action as may be fitted to express
-what purpose is in the mind of each; otherwise your art will not be
-admirable.
-
-V.
-
-SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.
-
-Of painting battle pieces (601-603).
-
-601.
-
-OF THE WAY OF REPRESENTING A BATTLE.
-
-First you must represent the smoke of artillery mingling in the air
-with the dust and tossed up by the movement of horses and the
-combatants. And this mixture you must express thus: The dust, being
-a thing of earth, has weight; and although from its fineness it is
-easily tossed up and mingles with the air, it nevertheless readily
-falls again. It is the finest part that rises highest; hence that
-part will be least seen and will look almost of the same colour as
-the air. The higher the smoke mixed with the dust-laden air rises
-towards a certain level, the more it will look like a dark cloud;
-and it will be seen that at the top, where the smoke is more
-separate from the dust, the smoke will assume a bluish tinge and the
-dust will tend to its colour. This mixture of air, smoke and dust
-will look much lighter on the side whence the light comes than on
-the opposite side. The more the combatants are in this turmoil the
-less will they be seen, and the less contrast will there be in their
-lights and shadows. Their faces and figures and their appearance,
-and the musketeers as well as those near them you must make of a
-glowing red. And this glow will diminish in proportion as it is
-remote from its cause.
-
-The figures which are between you and the light, if they be at a
-distance, will appear dark on a light background, and the lower part
-of their legs near the ground will be least visible, because there
-the dust is coarsest and densest [19]. And if you introduce horses
-galloping outside the crowd, make the little clouds of dust distant
-from each other in proportion to the strides made by the horses; and
-the clouds which are furthest removed from the horses, should be
-least visible; make them high and spreading and thin, and the nearer
-ones will be more conspicuous and smaller and denser [23]. The air
-must be full of arrows in every direction, some shooting upwards,
-some falling, some flying level. The balls from the guns must have a
-train of smoke following their flight. The figures in the foreground
-you must make with dust on the hair and eyebrows and on other flat
-places likely to retain it. The conquerors you will make rushing
-onwards with their hair and other light things flying on the wind,
-with their brows bent down,
-
-[Footnote: 19--23. Compare 608. 57--75.]
-
-602.
-
-and with the opposite limbs thrust forward; that is where a man puts
-forward the right foot the left arm must be advanced. And if you
-make any one fallen, you must show the place where he has slipped
-and been dragged along the dust into blood stained mire; and in the
-half-liquid earth arround show the print of the tramping of men and
-horses who have passed that way. Make also a horse dragging the dead
-body of his master, and leaving behind him, in the dust and mud, the
-track where the body was dragged along. You must make the conquered
-and beaten pale, their brows raised and knit, and the skin above
-their brows furrowed with pain, the sides of the nose with wrinkles
-going in an arch from the nostrils to the eyes, and make the
-nostrils drawn up--which is the cause of the lines of which I
-speak--, and the lips arched upwards and discovering the upper
-teeth; and the teeth apart as with crying out and lamentation. And
-make some one shielding his terrified eyes with one hand, the palm
-towards the enemy, while the other rests on the ground to support
-his half raised body. Others represent shouting with their mouths
-open, and running away. You must scatter arms of all sorts among the
-feet of the combatants, as broken shields, lances, broken swords and
-other such objects. And you must make the dead partly or entirely
-covered with dust, which is changed into crimson mire where it has
-mingled with the flowing blood whose colour shows it issuing in a
-sinuous stream from the corpse. Others must be represented in the
-agonies of death grinding their teeth, rolling their eyes, with
-their fists clenched against their bodies and their legs contorted.
-Some might be shown disarmed and beaten down by the enemy, turning
-upon the foe, with teeth and nails, to take an inhuman and bitter
-revenge. You might see some riderless horse rushing among the enemy,
-with his mane flying in the wind, and doing no little mischief with
-his heels. Some maimed warrior may be seen fallen to the earth,
-covering himself with his shield, while the enemy, bending over him,
-tries to deal him a deathstroke. There again might be seen a number
-of men fallen in a heap over a dead horse. You would see some of the
-victors leaving the fight and issuing from the crowd, rubbing their
-eyes and cheeks with both hands to clean them of the dirt made by
-their watering eyes smarting from the dust and smoke. The reserves
-may be seen standing, hopeful but cautious; with watchful eyes,
-shading them with their hands and gazing through the dense and murky
-confusion, attentive to the commands of their captain. The captain
-himself, his staff raised, hurries towards these auxiliaries,
-pointing to the spot where they are most needed. And there may be a
-river into which horses are galloping, churning up the water all
-round them into turbulent waves of foam and water, tossed into the
-air and among the legs and bodies of the horses. And there must not
-be a level spot that is not trampled with gore.
-
-603.
-
-OF LIGHTING THE LOWER PARTS OF BODIES CLOSE TOGETHER, AS OF MEN IN
-BATTLE.
-
-As to men and horses represented in battle, their different parts
-will be dark in proportion as they are nearer to the ground on which
-they stand. And this is proved by the sides of wells which grow
-darker in proportion to their depth, the reason of which is that the
-deepest part of the well sees and receives a smaller amount of the
-luminous atmosphere than any other part.
-
-And the pavement, if it be of the same colour as the legs of these
-said men and horses, will always be more lighted and at a more
-direct angle than the said legs &c.
-
-604.
-
-OF THE WAY TO REPRESENT A NIGHT [SCENE].
-
-That which is entirely bereft of light is all darkness; given a
-night under these conditions and that you want to represent a night
-scene,--arrange that there shall be a great fire, then the objects
-which are nearest to this fire will be most tinged with its colour;
-for those objects which are nearest to a coloured light participate
-most in its nature; as therefore you give the fire a red colour, you
-must make all the objects illuminated by it ruddy; while those which
-are farther from the fire are more tinted by the black hue of night.
-The figures which are seen against the fire look dark in the glare
-of the firelight because that side of the objects which you see is
-tinged by the darkness of the night and not by the fire; and those
-who stand at the side are half dark and half red; while those who
-are visible beyond the edges of the flame will be fully lighted by
-the ruddy glow against a black background. As to their gestures,
-make those which are near it screen themselves with their hands and
-cloaks as a defence against the intense heat, and with their faces
-turned away as if about to retire. Of those farther off represent
-several as raising their hands to screen their eyes, hurt by the
-intolerable glare.
-
-Of depicting a tempest (605. 606).
-
-605.
-
-Describe a wind on land and at sea. Describe a storm of rain.
-
-606.
-
-HOW TO REPRESENT A TEMPEST.
-
-If you wish to represent a tempest consider and arrange well its
-effects as seen, when the wind, blowing over the face of the sea and
-earth, removes and carries with it such things as are not fixed to
-the general mass. And to represent the storm accurately you must
-first show the clouds scattered and torn, and flying with the wind,
-accompanied by clouds of sand blown up from the sea shore, and
-boughs and leaves swept along by the strength and fury of the blast
-and scattered with other light objects through the air. Trees and
-plants must be bent to the ground, almost as if they would follow
-the course of the gale, with their branches twisted out of their
-natural growth and their leaves tossed and turned about [Footnote
-11: See Pl. XL, No. 2.]. Of the men who are there some must have
-fallen to the ground and be entangled in their garments, and hardly
-to be recognized for the dust, while those who remain standing may
-be behind some tree, with their arms round it that the wind may not
-tear them away; others with their hands over their eyes for the
-dust, bending to the ground with their clothes and hair streaming in
-the wind. [Footnote 15: See Pl. XXXIV, the right hand lower sketch.]
-Let the sea be rough and tempestuous and full of foam whirled among
-the lofty waves, while the wind flings the lighter spray through the
-stormy air, till it resembles a dense and swathing mist. Of the
-ships that are therein some should be shown with rent sails and the
-tatters fluttering through the air, with ropes broken and masts
-split and fallen. And the ship itself lying in the trough of the sea
-and wrecked by the fury of the waves with the men shrieking and
-clinging to the fragments of the vessel. Make the clouds driven by
-the impetuosity of the wind and flung against the lofty mountain
-tops, and wreathed and torn like waves beating upon rocks; the air
-itself terrible from the deep darkness caused by the dust and fog
-and heavy clouds.
-
-Of representing the deluge (607-609).
-
-607.
-
-TO REPRESENT THE DELUGE.
-
-The air was darkened by the heavy rain whose oblique descent driven
-aslant by the rush of the winds, flew in drifts through the air not
-otherwise than as we see dust, varied only by the straight lines of
-the heavy drops of falling water. But it was tinged with the colour
-of the fire kindled by the thunder-bolts by which the clouds were
-rent and shattered; and whose flashes revealed the broad waters of
-the inundated valleys, above which was seen the verdure of the
-bending tree tops. Neptune will be seen in the midst of the water
-with his trident, and [15] let AEolus with his winds be shown
-entangling the trees floating uprooted, and whirling in the huge
-waves. The horizon and the whole hemisphere were obscure, but lurid
-from the flashes of the incessant lightning. Men and birds might be
-seen crowded on the tall trees which remained uncovered by the
-swelling waters, originators of the mountains which surround the
-great abysses [Footnote 23: Compare Vol. II. No. 979.].
-
-608.
-
-OF THE DELUGE AND HOW TO REPRESENT IT IN A PICTURE.
-
-Let the dark and gloomy air be seen buffeted by the rush of contrary
-winds and dense from the continued rain mingled with hail and
-bearing hither and thither an infinite number of branches torn from
-the trees and mixed with numberless leaves. All round may be seen
-venerable trees, uprooted and stripped by the fury of the winds; and
-fragments of mountains, already scoured bare by the torrents,
-falling into those torrents and choking their valleys till the
-swollen rivers overflow and submerge the wide lowlands and their
-inhabitants. Again, you might have seen on many of the hill-tops
-terrified animals of different kinds, collected together and subdued
-to tameness, in company with men and women who had fled there with
-their children. The waters which covered the fields, with their
-waves were in great part strewn with tables, bedsteads, boats and
-various other contrivances made from necessity and the fear of
-death, on which were men and women with their children amid sounds
-of lamentation and weeping, terrified by the fury of the winds which
-with their tempestuous violence rolled the waters under and over and
-about the bodies of the drowned. Nor was there any object lighter
-than the water which was not covered with a variety of animals
-which, having come to a truce, stood together in a frightened
-crowd--among them wolves, foxes, snakes and others--fleing from
-death. And all the waters dashing on their shores seemed to be
-battling them with the blows of drowned bodies, blows which killed
-those in whom any life remained [19]. You might have seen
-assemblages of men who, with weapons in their hands, defended the
-small spots that remained to them against lions, wolves and beasts
-of prey who sought safety there. Ah! what dreadful noises were heard
-in the air rent by the fury of the thunder and the lightnings it
-flashed forth, which darted from the clouds dealing ruin and
-striking all that opposed its course. Ah! how many you might have
-seen closing their ears with their hands to shut out the tremendous
-sounds made in the darkened air by the raging of the winds mingling
-with the rain, the thunders of heaven and the fury of the
-thunder-bolts. Others were not content with shutting their eyes, but
-laid their hands one over the other to cover them the closer that
-they might not see the cruel slaughter of the human race by the
-wrath of God. Ah! how many laments! and how many in their terror
-flung themselves from the rocks! Huge branches of great oaks loaded
-with men were seen borne through the air by the impetuous fury of
-the winds. How many were the boats upset, some entire, and some
-broken in pieces, on the top of people labouring to escape with
-gestures and actions of grief foretelling a fearful death. Others,
-with desperate act, took their own lives, hopeless of being able to
-endure such suffering; and of these, some flung themselves from
-lofty rocks, others strangled themselves with their own hands, other
-seized their own children and violently slew them at a blow; some
-wounded and killed themselves with their own weapons; others,
-falling on their knees recommended themselves to God. Ah! how many
-mothers wept over their drowned sons, holding them upon their knees,
-with arms raised spread out towards heaven and with words and
-various threatening gestures, upbraiding the wrath of the gods.
-Others with clasped hands and fingers clenched gnawed them and
-devoured them till they bled, crouching with their breast down on
-their knees in their intense and unbearable anguish. Herds of
-animals were to be seen, such as horses, oxen, goats and swine
-already environed by the waters and left isolated on the high peaks
-of the mountains, huddled together, those in the middle climbing to
-the top and treading on the others, and fighting fiercely
-themselves; and many would die for lack of food. Already had the
-birds begun to settle on men and on other animals, finding no land
-uncovered which was not occupied by living beings, and already had
-famine, the minister of death, taken the lives of the greater number
-of the animals, when the dead bodies, now fermented, where leaving
-the depth of the waters and were rising to the top. Among the
-buffeting waves, where they were beating one against the other, and,
-like as balls full of air, rebounded from the point of concussion,
-these found a resting place on the bodies of the dead. And above
-these judgements, the air was seen covered with dark clouds, riven
-by the forked flashes of the raging bolts of heaven, lighting up on
-all sides the depth of the gloom.
-
-The motion of the air is seen by the motion of the dust thrown up by
-the horse's running and this motion is as swift in again filling up
-the vacuum left in the air which enclosed the horse, as he is rapid
-in passing away from the air.
-
-Perhaps it will seem to you that you may reproach me with having
-represented the currents made through the air by the motion of the
-wind notwithstanding that the wind itself is not visible in the air.
-To this I must answer that it is not the motion of the wind but only
-the motion of the things carried along by it which is seen in the
-air.
-
-THE DIVISIONS. [Footnote 76: These observations, added at the bottom
-of the page containing the full description of the doluge seem to
-indicate that it was Leonardo's intention to elaborate the subject
-still farther in a separate treatise.]
-
-Darkness, wind, tempest at sea, floods of water, forests on fire,
-rain, bolts from heaven, earthquakes and ruins of mountains,
-overthrow of cities [Footnote 81: _Spianamenti di citta_ (overthrow
-of cities). A considerable number of drawings in black chalk, at
-Windsor, illustrate this catastrophe. Most of them are much rubbed;
-one of the least injured is reproduced at Pl. XXXIX. Compare also
-the pen and ink sketch Pl. XXXVI.].
-
-Whirlwinds which carry water [spouts] branches of trees, and men
-through the air.
-
-Boughs stripped off by the winds, mingling by the meeting of the
-winds, with people upon them.
-
-Broken trees loaded with people.
-
-Ships broken to pieces, beaten on rocks.
-
-Flocks of sheep. Hail stones, thunderbolts, whirlwinds.
-
-People on trees which are unable to to support them; trees and
-rocks, towers and hills covered with people, boats, tables, troughs,
-and other means of floating. Hills covered with men, women and
-animals; and lightning from the clouds illuminating every thing.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter, which, with the next one, is written on a
-loose sheet, seems to be the passage to which one of the compilers
-of the Vatican copy alluded when he wrote on the margin of fol. 36:
-"_Qua mi ricordo della mirabile discritione del Diluuio dello
-autore._" It is scarcely necessary to point out that these chapters
-are among those which have never before been published. The
-description in No. 607 may be regarded as a preliminary sketch for
-this one. As the MS. G. (in which it is to be found) must be
-attributed to the period of about 1515 we may deduce from it the
-approximate date of the drawings on Pl. XXXIV, XXXV, Nos. 2 and 3,
-XXXVI and XXXVII, since they obviously belong to this text. The
-drawings No. 2 on Pl. XXXV are, in the original, side by side with
-the text of No. 608; lines 57 to 76 are shown in the facsimile. In
-the drawing in Indian ink given on Pl. XXXIV we see Wind-gods in the
-sky, corresponding to the allusion to Aeolus in No. 607 1.
-15.-Plates XXXVI and XXXVII form one sheet in the original. The
-texts reproduced on these Plates have however no connection with the
-sketches, excepting the sketches of clouds on the right hand side.
-These texts are given as No. 477. The group of small figures on Pl.
-XXXVII, to the left, seems to be intended for a '_congregatione
-d'uomini._' See No. 608, 1. 19.]
-
-609.
-
-DESCRIPTION OF THE DELUGE.
-
-Let there be first represented the summit of a rugged mountain with
-valleys surrounding its base, and on its sides let the surface of
-the soil be seen to slide, together with the small roots of the
-bushes, denuding great portions of the surrounding rocks. And
-descending ruinous from these precipices in its boisterous course,
-let it dash along and lay bare the twisted and gnarled roots of
-large trees overthrowing their roots upwards; and let the mountains,
-as they are scoured bare, discover the profound fissures made in
-them by ancient earthquakes. The base of the mountains may be in
-great part clothed and covered with ruins of shrubs, hurled down
-from the sides of their lofty peaks, which will be mixed with mud,
-roots, boughs of trees, with all sorts of leaves thrust in with the
-mud and earth and stones. And into the depth of some valley may have
-fallen the fragments of a mountain forming a shore to the swollen
-waters of its river; which, having already burst its banks, will
-rush on in monstrous waves; and the greatest will strike upon and
-destroy the walls of the cities and farmhouses in the valley [14].
-Then the ruins of the high buildings in these cities will throw up a
-great dust, rising up in shape like smoke or wreathed clouds against
-the falling rain; But the swollen waters will sweep round the pool
-which contains them striking in eddying whirlpools against the
-different obstacles, and leaping into the air in muddy foam; then,
-falling back, the beaten water will again be dashed into the air.
-And the whirling waves which fly from the place of concussion, and
-whose impetus moves them across other eddies going in a contrary
-direction, after their recoil will be tossed up into the air but
-without dashing off from the surface. Where the water issues from
-the pool the spent waves will be seen spreading out towards the
-outlet; and there falling or pouring through the air and gaining
-weight and impetus they will strike on the water below piercing it
-and rushing furiously to reach its depth; from which being thrown
-back it returns to the surface of the lake, carrying up the air that
-was submerged with it; and this remains at the outlet in foam
-mingled with logs of wood and other matters lighter than water.
-Round these again are formed the beginnings of waves which increase
-the more in circumference as they acquire more movement; and this
-movement rises less high in proportion as they acquire a broader
-base and thus they are less conspicuous as they die away. But if
-these waves rebound from various objects they then return in direct
-opposition to the others following them, observing the same law of
-increase in their curve as they have already acquired in the
-movement they started with. The rain, as it falls from the clouds is
-of the same colour as those clouds, that is in its shaded side;
-unless indeed the sun's rays should break through them; in that case
-the rain will appear less dark than the clouds. And if the heavy
-masses of ruin of large mountains or of other grand buildings fall
-into the vast pools of water, a great quantity will be flung into
-the air and its movement will be in a contrary direction to that of
-the object which struck the water; that is to say: The angle of
-reflection will be equal to the angle of incidence. Of the objects
-carried down by the current, those which are heaviest or rather
-largest in mass will keep farthest from the two opposite shores. The
-water in the eddies revolves more swiftly in proportion as it is
-nearer to their centre. The crests of the waves of the sea tumble to
-their bases falling with friction on the bubbles of their sides; and
-this friction grinds the falling water into minute particles and
-this being converted into a dense mist, mingles with the gale in the
-manner of curling smoke and wreathing clouds, and at last it, rises
-into the air and is converted into clouds. But the rain which falls
-through the atmosphere being driven and tossed by the winds becomes
-rarer or denser according to the rarity or density of the winds that
-buffet it, and thus there is generated in the atmosphere a moisture
-formed of the transparent particles of the rain which is near to the
-eye of the spectator. The waves of the sea which break on the slope
-of the mountains which bound it, will foam from the velocity with
-which they fall against these hills; in rushing back they will meet
-the next wave as it comes and and after a loud noise return in a
-great flood to the sea whence they came. Let great numbers of
-inhabitants--men and animals of all kinds--be seen driven [54] by
-the rising of the deluge to the peaks of the mountains in the midst
-of the waters aforesaid.
-
-The wave of the sea at Piombino is all foaming water. [Footnote 55.
-56: These two lines are written below the bottom sketch on Pl. XXXV,
-3. The MS. Leic. being written about the year 1510 or later, it does
-not seem to me to follow that the sketches must have been made at
-Piombino, where Leonardo was in the year 1502 and possibly returned
-there subsequently (see Vol. II. Topographical notes).]
-
-Of the water which leaps up from the spot where great masses fall on
-its surface. Of the winds of Piombino at Piombino. Eddies of wind
-and rain with boughs and shrubs mixed in the air. Emptying the boats
-of the rain water.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches on Pl. XXXV 3 stand by the side of lines 14
-to 54.]
-
-Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).
-
-610.
-
-The tremendous fury of the wind driven by the falling in of the
-hills on the caves within--by the falling of the hills which served
-as roofs to these caverns.
-
-A stone flung through the air leaves on the eye which sees it the
-impression of its motion, and the same effect is produced by the
-drops of water which fall from the clouds when it [16] rains.
-
-[17] A mountain falling on a town, will fling up dust in the form of
-clouds; but the colour of this dust will differ from that of the
-clouds. Where the rain is thickest let the colour of the dust be
-less conspicuous and where the dust is thickest let the rain be less
-conspicuous. And where the rain is mingled with the wind and with
-the dust the clouds created by the rain must be more transparent
-than those of dust [alone]. And when flames of fire are mingled with
-clouds of smoke and water very opaque and dark clouds will be formed
-[Footnote 26-28: Compare Pl. XL, 1--the drawing in Indian ink on the
-left hand side, which seems to be a reminiscence of his observations
-of an eruption (see his remarks on Mount Etna in Vol II).]. And the
-rest of this subject will be treated in detail in the book on
-painting.
-
-[Footnote: See the sketches and text on Pl. XXXVIII, No. 1. Lines
-1-16 are there given on the left hand side, 17-30 on the right. The
-four lines at the bottom on the right are given as No. 472. Above
-these texts, which are written backwards, there are in the original
-sixteen lines in a larger writing from left to right, but only half
-of this is here visible. They treat of the physical laws of motion
-of air and water. It does not seem to me that there is any reason
-for concluding that this writing from left to right is spurious.
-Compare with it the facsimile of the rough copy of Leonardo's letter
-to Ludovico il Moro in Vol. II.]
-
-611.
-
-People were to be seen eagerly embarking victuals on various kinds
-of hastily made barks. But little of the waves were visible in those
-places where the dark clouds and rain were reflected.
-
-But where the flashes caused by the bolts of heaven were reflected,
-there were seen as many bright spots, caused by the image of the
-flashes, as there were waves to reflect them to the eye of the
-spectator.
-
-The number of the images produced by the flash of lightning on the
-waves of the water were multiplied in proportion to the distance of
-the spectator's eye.
-
-So also the number of the images was diminished in proportion as
-they were nearer the eye which saw them [Footnote 22. 23: _Com'e
-provato_. See Vol. II, Nos. 874-878 and 892-901], as it has been
-proved in the definition of the luminosity of the moon, and of our
-marine horizon when the sun's rays are reflected in it and the eye
-which receives the reflection is remote from the sea.
-
-VI.
-
-THE ARTIST'S MATERIALS.
-
-Of chalk and paper (612--617).
-
-612.
-
-To make points [crayons] for colouring dry. Temper with a little wax
-and do not dry it; which wax you must dissolve with water: so that
-when the white lead is thus tempered, the water being distilled, may
-go off in vapour and the wax may remain; you will thus make good
-crayons; but you must know that the colours must be ground with a
-hot stone.
-
-613.
-
-Chalk dissolves in wine and in vinegar or in aqua fortis and can be
-recombined with gum.
-
-614.
-
-PAPER FOR DRAWING UPON IN BLACK BY THE AID OF YOUR SPITTLE.
-
-Take powdered gall nuts and vitriol, powder them and spread them on
-paper like a varnish, then write on it with a pen wetted with
-spittle and it will turn as black as ink.
-
-615.
-
-If you want to make foreshortened letters stretch the paper in a
-drawing frame and then draw your letters and cut them out, and make
-the sunbeams pass through the holes on to another stretched paper,
-and then fill up the angles that are wanting.
-
-616.
-
-This paper should be painted over with candle soot tempered with
-thin glue, then smear the leaf thinly with white lead in oil as is
-done to the letters in printing, and then print in the ordinary way.
-Thus the leaf will appear shaded in the hollows and lighted on the
-parts in relief; which however comes out here just the contrary.
-
-[Footnote: This text, which accompanies a facsimile impression of a
-leaf of sage, has already been published in the _Saggio delle Opere
-di L. da Vinci_, Milano 1872, p. 11. G. GOVI observes on this
-passage: "_Forse aveva egli pensato ancora a farsi un erbario, od
-almeno a riprodurre facilmente su carta le forme e i particolari
-delle foglie di diverse piante; poiche (modificando un metodo che
-probabilmente gli eia stato insegnato da altri, e che piu tardi si
-legge ripetuto in molti ricettarii e libri di segreti), accanto a
-una foglia di Salvia impressa in nero su carta bianca, lascio
-scritto: Questa carta ...
-
-Erano i primi tentativi di quella riproduzione immediata delle parti
-vegetali, che poi sotto il nome d'Impressione Naturale, fu condotta
-a tanta perfezione in questi ultimi tempi dal signor de Hauer e da
-altri_."]
-
-617.
-
-Very excellent will be a stiff white paper, made of the usual
-mixture and filtered milk of an herb called calves foot; and when
-this paper is prepared and damped and folded and wrapped up it may
-be mixed with the mixture and thus left to dry; but if you break it
-before it is moistened it becomes somewhat like the thin paste
-called _lasagne_ and you may then damp it and wrap it up and put it
-in the mixture and leave it to dry; or again this paper may be
-covered with stiff transparent white and _sardonio_ and then damped
-so that it may not form angles and then covered up with strong
-transparent size and as soon as it is firm cut it two fingers, and
-leave it to dry; again you may make stiff cardboard of _sardonio_
-and dry it and then place it between two sheets of papyrus and break
-it inside with a wooden mallet with a handle and then open it with
-care holding the lower sheet of paper flat and firm so that the
-broken pieces be not separated; then have a sheet of paper covered
-with hot glue and apply it on the top of all these pieces and let
-them stick fast; then turn it upside down and apply transparent size
-several times in the spaces between the pieces, each time pouring in
-first some black and then some stiff white and each time leaving it
-to dry; then smooth it and polish it.
-
-On the preparation and use of colours (618-627).
-
-618.
-
-To make a fine green take green and mix it with bitumen and you will
-make the shadows darker. Then, for lighter [shades] green with
-yellow ochre, and for still lighter green with yellow, and for the
-high lights pure yellow; then mix green and turmeric together and
-glaze every thing with it. To make a fine red take cinnabar or red
-chalk or burnt ochre for the dark shadows and for the lighter ones
-red chalk and vermilion and for the lights pure vermilion and then
-glaze with fine lake. To make good oil for painting. One part of
-oil, one of the first refining and one of the second.
-
-619.
-
-Use black in the shadow, and in the lights white, yellow, green,
-vermilion and lake. Medium shadows; take the shadow as above and mix
-it with the flesh tints just alluded to, adding to it a little
-yellow and a little green and occasionally some lake; for the
-shadows take green and lake for the middle shades.
-
-[Footnote 618 and 619: If we may judge from the flourishes with
-which the writing is ornamented these passages must have been
-written in Leonardo's youth.]
-
-620.
-
-You can make a fine ochre by the same method as you use to make
-white.
-
-621.
-
-A FINE YELLOW.
-
-Dissolve realgar with one part of orpiment, with aqua fortis.
-
-WHITE.
-
-Put the white into an earthen pot, and lay it no thicker than a
-string, and let it stand in the sun undisturbed for 2 days; and in
-the morning when the sun has dried off the night dews.
-
-622.
-
-To make reddish black for flesh tints take red rock crystals from
-Rocca Nova or garnets and mix them a little; again armenian bole is
-good in part.
-
-623.
-
-The shadow will be burnt ,terra-verte'.
-
-624.
-
-THE PROPORTIONS OF COLOURS.
-
-If one ounce of black mixed with one ounce of white gives a certain
-shade of darkness, what shade of darkness will be produced by 2
-ounces of black to 1 ounce of white?
-
-625.
-
-Remix black, greenish yellow and at the end blue.
-
-626.
-
-Verdigris with aloes, or gall or turmeric makes a fine green and so
-it does with saffron or burnt orpiment; but I doubt whether in a
-short time they will not turn black. Ultramarine blue and glass
-yellow mixed together make a beautiful green for fresco, that is
-wall-painting. Lac and verdigris make a good shadow for blue in oil
-painting.
-
-627.
-
-Grind verdigris many times coloured with lemon juice and keep it
-away from yellow (?).
-
-Of preparing the panel.
-
-628.
-
-TO PREPARE A PANEL FOR PAINTING ON.
-
-The panel should be cypress or pear or service-tree or walnut. You
-must coat it over with mastic and turpentine twice distilled and
-white or, if you like, lime, and put it in a frame so that it may
-expand and shrink according to its moisture and dryness. Then give
-it [a coat] of aqua vitae in which you have dissolved arsenic or
-[corrosive] sublimate, 2 or 3 times. Then apply boiled linseed oil
-in such a way as that it may penetrate every part, and before it is
-cold rub it well with a cloth to dry it. Over this apply liquid
-varnish and white with a stick, then wash it with urine when it is
-dry, and dry it again. Then pounce and outline your drawing finely
-and over it lay a priming of 30 parts of verdigris with one of
-verdigris with two of yellow.
-
-[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON'S reading varies from mine in the following
-passages:
-
-1._opero allor [?] bo [alloro?]_ = "_ou bien de [laurier]_."
-
-6. _fregalo bene con un panno_. He reads _pane_ for _panno_ and
-renders it. "_Frotte le bien avec un pain de facon [jusqu'a ce]
-qu'il_" etc.
-
-7. _colla stecca po laua_. He reads "_polacca_" = "_avec le couteau
-de bois [?] polonais [?]_."]
-
-The preparation of oils (629--634).
-
-629.
-
-OIL.
-
-Make some oil of mustard seed; and if you wish to make it with
-greater ease mix the ground seeds with linseed oil and put it all
-under the press.
-
-630.
-
-TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF OIL.
-
-Take the rank oil and put ten pints into a jar and make a mark on
-the jar at the height of the oil; then add to it a pint of vinegar
-and make it boil till the oil has sunk to the level of the mark and
-thus you will be certain that the oil is returned to its original
-quantity and the vinegar will have gone off in vapour, carrying with
-it the evil smell; and I believe you may do the same with nut oil or
-any other oil that smells badly.
-
-631.
-
-Since walnuts are enveloped in a thin rind, which partakes of the
-nature of ..., if you do not remove it when you make the oil from
-them, this skin tinges the oil, and when you work with it this skin
-separates from the oil and rises to the surface of the painting, and
-this is what makes it change.
-
-632.
-
-TO RESTORE OIL COLOURS THAT HAVE BECOME DRY.
-
-If you want to restore oil colours that have become dry keep them
-soaking in soft soap for a night and, with your finger, mix them up
-with the soft soap; then pour them into a cup and wash them with
-water, and in this way you can restore colours that have got dry.
-But take care that each colour has its own vessel to itself adding
-the colour by degrees as you restore it and mind that they are
-thoroughly softened, and when you wish to use them for tempera wash
-them five and six times with spring water, and leave them to settle;
-if the soft soap should be thick with any of the colours pass it
-through a filter. [Footnote: The same remark applies to these
-sections as to No. 618 and 619.]
-
-633.
-
-OIL.
-
-Mustard seed pounded with linseed oil.
-
-634.
-
-... outside the bowl 2 fingers lower than the level of the oil, and
-pass it into the neck of a bottle and let it stand and thus all the
-oil will separate from this milky liquid; it will enter the bottle
-and be as clear as crystal; and grind your colours with this, and
-every coarse or viscid part will remain in the liquid. You must know
-that all the oils that have been created in seads or fruits are
-quite clear by nature, and the yellow colour you see in them only
-comes of your not knowing how to draw it out. Fire or heat by its
-nature has the power to make them acquire colour. See for example
-the exudation or gums of trees which partake of the nature of rosin;
-in a short time they harden because there is more heat in them than
-in oil; and after some time they acquire a certain yellow hue
-tending to black. But oil, not having so much heat does not do so;
-although it hardens to some extent into sediment it becomes finer.
-The change in oil which occurs in painting proceeds from a certain
-fungus of the nature of a husk which exists in the skin which covers
-the nut, and this being crushed along with the nuts and being of a
-nature much resembling oil mixes with it; it is of so subtle a
-nature that it combines with all colours and then comes to the
-surface, and this it is which makes them change. And if you want the
-oil to be good and not to thicken, put into it a little camphor
-melted over a slow fire and mix it well with the oil and it will
-never harden.
-
-[Footnote: The same remark applies to these sections as to No. 618
-and 619.]
-
-On varnishes [or powders] (635-637).
-
-635.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Take cypress [oil] and distil it and have a large pitcher, and put
-in the extract with so much water as may make it appear like amber,
-and cover it tightly so that none may evaporate. And when it is
-dissolved you may add in your pitcher as much of the said solution,
-as shall make it liquid to your taste. And you must know that amber
-is the gum of the cypress-tree.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-And since varnish [powder] is the resin of juniper, if you distil
-juniper you can dissolve the said varnish [powder] in the essence,
-as explained above.
-
-636.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Notch a juniper tree and give it water at the roots, mix the liquor
-which exudes with nut-oil and you will have a perfect varnish
-[powder], made like amber varnish [powder], fine and of the best
-quality make it in May or April.
-
-637.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Mercury with Jupiter and Venus,--a paste made of these must be
-corrected by the mould (?) continuously, until Mercury separates
-itself entirely from Jupiter and Venus. [Footnote: Here, and in No.
-641 _Mercurio_ seems to mean quicksilver, _Giove_ stands for iron,
-_Venere_ for copper and _Saturno_ for lead.]
-
-On chemical materials (638-650).
-
-638.
-
-Note how aqua vitae absorbs into itself all the colours and smells
-of flowers. If you want to make blue put iris flowers into it and
-for red solanum berries (?)
-
-639.
-
-Salt may be made from human excrement burnt and calcined and made
-into lees, and dried by a slow fire, and all dung in like manner
-yields salt, and these salts when distilled are very pungent.
-
-640.
-
-Sea water filtered through mud or clay, leaves all its saltness in
-it. Woollen stuffs placed on board ship absorb fresh water. If sea
-water is distilled under a retort it becomes of the first excellence
-and any one who has a little stove in his kitchen can, with the same
-wood as he cooks with, distil a great quantity of water if the
-retort is a large one.
-
-641.
-
-MOULD(?).
-
-The mould (?) may be of Venus, or of Jupiter and Saturn and placed
-frequently in the fire. And it should be worked with fine emery and
-the mould (?) should be of Venus and Jupiter impasted over (?)
-Venus. But first you will test Venus and Mercury mixed with Jove,
-and take means to cause Mercury to disperse; and then fold them well
-together so that Venus or Jupiter be connected as thinly as
-possible.
-
-[Footnote: See the note to 637.]
-
-642.
-
-Nitre, vitriol, cinnabar, alum, salt ammoniac, sublimated mercury,
-rock salt, alcali salt, common salt, rock alum, alum schist (?),
-arsenic, sublimate, realgar, tartar, orpiment, verdegris.
-
-643.
-
-Pitch four ounces virgin wax, four ounces incense, two ounces oil of
-roses one ounce.
-
-644.
-
-Four ounces virgin wax, four ounces Greek pitch, two ounces incense,
-one ounce oil of roses, first melt the wax and oil then the Greek
-pitch then the other things in powder.
-
-645.
-
-Very thin glass may be cut with scissors and when placed over inlaid
-work of bone, gilt, or stained of other colours you can saw it
-through together with the bone and then put it together and it will
-retain a lustre that will not be scratched nor worn away by rubbing
-with the hand.
-
-646.
-
-TO DILUTE WHITE WINE AND MAKE IT PURPLE.
-
-Powder gall nuts and let this stand 8 days in the white wine; and in
-the same way dissolve vitriol in water, and let the water stand and
-settle very clear, and the wine likewise, each by itself, and strain
-them well; and when you dilute the white wine with the water the
-wine will become red.
-
-647.
-
-Put marcasite into aqua fortis and if it turns green, know that it
-has copper in it. Take it out with saltpetre and soft soap.
-
-648.
-
-A white horse may have the spots removed with the Spanish haematite
-or with aqua fortis or with ... Removes the black hair on a white
-horse with the singeing iron. Force him to the ground.
-
-649.
-
-FIRE.
-
-If you want to make a fire which will set a hall in a blaze without
-injury do this: first perfume the hall with a dense smoke of incense
-or some other odoriferous substance: It is a good trick to play. Or
-boil ten pounds of brandy to evaporate, but see that the hall is
-completely closed and throw up some powdered varnish among the fumes
-and this powder will be supported by the smoke; then go into the
-room suddenly with a lighted torch and at once it will be in a
-blaze.
-
-650.
-
-FIRE.
-
-Take away that yellow surface which covers oranges and distill them
-in an alembic, until the distillation may be said to be perfect.
-
-FIRE.
-
-Close a room tightly and have a brasier of brass or iron with fire
-in it and sprinkle on it two pints of aqua vitae, a little at a
-time, so that it may be converted into smoke. Then make some one
-come in with a light and suddenly you will see the room in a blaze
-like a flash of lightning, and it will do no harm to any one.
-
-VII.
-
-PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.
-
-The relation of art and nature (651. 652).
-
-651.
-
-What is fair in men, passes away, but not so in art.
-
-652.
-
-HE WHO DESPISES PAINTING LOVES NEITHER PHILOSOPHY NOR NATURE.
-
-If you condemn painting, which is the only imitator of all visible
-works of nature, you will certainly despise a subtle invention which
-brings philosophy and subtle speculation to the consideration of the
-nature of all forms--seas and plains, trees, animals, plants and
-flowers--which are surrounded by shade and light. And this is true
-knowledge and the legitimate issue of nature; for painting is born
-of nature--or, to speak more correctly, we will say it is the
-grandchild of nature; for all visible things are produced by nature,
-and these her children have given birth to painting. Hence we may
-justly call it the grandchild of nature and related to God.
-
-Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).
-
-653.
-
-THAT PAINTING SURPASSES ALL HUMAN WORKS BY THE SUBTLE CONSIDERATIONS
-BELONGING TO IT.
-
-The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the principal
-means by which the central sense can most completely and abundantly
-appreciate the infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second,
-which acquires dignity by hearing of the things the eye has seen. If
-you, historians, or poets, or mathematicians had not seen things
-with your eyes you could not report of them in writing. And if you,
-0 poet, tell a story with your pen, the painter with his brush can
-tell it more easily, with simpler completeness and less tedious to
-be understood. And if you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may
-call poetry blind painting. Now which is the worse defect? to be
-blind or dumb? Though the poet is as free as the painter in the
-invention of his fictions they are not so satisfactory to men as
-paintings; for, though poetry is able to describe forms, actions and
-places in words, the painter deals with the actual similitude of the
-forms, in order to represent them. Now tell me which is the nearer
-to the actual man: the name of man or the image of the man. The name
-of man differs in different countries, but his form is never changed
-but by death.
-
-654.
-
-And if the poet gratifies the sense by means of the ear, the painter
-does so by the eye--the worthier sense; but I will say no more of
-this but that, if a good painter represents the fury of a battle,
-and if a poet describes one, and they are both together put before
-the public, you will see where most of the spectators will stop, to
-which they will pay most attention, on which they will bestow most
-praise, and which will satisfy them best. Undoubtedly painting being
-by a long way the more intelligible and beautiful, will please most.
-Write up the name of God [Christ] in some spot and setup His image
-opposite and you will see which will be most reverenced. Painting
-comprehends in itself all the forms of nature, while you have
-nothing but words, which are not universal as form is, and if you
-have the effects of the representation, we have the representation
-of the effects. Take a poet who describes the beauty of a lady to
-her lover and a painter who represents her and you will see to which
-nature guides the enamoured critic. Certainly the proof should be
-allowed to rest on the verdict of experience. You have ranked
-painting among the mechanical arts but, in truth, if painters were
-as apt at praising their own works in writing as you are, it would
-not lie under the stigma of so base a name. If you call it
-mechanical because it is, in the first place, manual, and that it is
-the hand which produces what is to be found in the imagination, you
-too writers, who set down manually with the pen what is devised in
-your mind. And if you say it is mechanical because it is done for
-money, who falls into this error--if error it can be called--more
-than you? If you lecture in the schools do you not go to whoever
-pays you most? Do you do any work without pay? Still, I do not say
-this as blaming such views, for every form of labour looks for its
-reward. And if a poet should say: "I will invent a fiction with a
-great purpose," the painter can do the same, as Apelles painted
-Calumny. If you were to say that poetry is more eternal, I say the
-works of a coppersmith are more eternal still, for time preserves
-them longer than your works or ours; nevertheless they have not much
-imagination [29]. And a picture, if painted on copper with enamel
-colours may be yet more permanent. We, by our arts may be called the
-grandsons of God. If poetry deals with moral philosophy, painting
-deals with natural philosophy. Poetry describes the action of the
-mind, painting considers what the mind may effect by the motions [of
-the body]. If poetry can terrify people by hideous fictions,
-painting can do as much by depicting the same things in action.
-Supposing that a poet applies himself to represent beauty, ferocity,
-or a base, a foul or a monstrous thing, as against a painter, he may
-in his ways bring forth a variety of forms; but will the painter not
-satisfy more? are there not pictures to be seen, so like the actual
-things, that they deceive men and animals?
-
-Painting is superior to sculpture (655. 656).
-
-655.
-
-THAT SCULPTURE IS LESS INTELLECTUAL THAN PAINTING, AND LACKS MANY
-CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURE.
-
-I myself, having exercised myself no less in sculpture than in
-painting and doing both one and the other in the same degree, it
-seems to me that I can, without invidiousness, pronounce an opinion
-as to which of the two is of the greatest merit and difficulty and
-perfection. In the first place sculpture requires a certain light,
-that is from above, a picture carries everywhere with it its own
-light and shade. Thus sculpture owes its importance to light and
-shade, and the sculptor is aided in this by the nature, of the
-relief which is inherent in it, while the painter whose art
-expresses the accidental aspects of nature, places his effects in
-the spots where nature must necessarily produce them. The sculptor
-cannot diversify his work by the various natural colours of objects;
-painting is not defective in any particular. The sculptor when he
-uses perspective cannot make it in any way appear true; that of the
-painter can appear like a hundred miles beyond the picture itself.
-Their works have no aerial perspective whatever, they cannot
-represent transparent bodies, they cannot represent luminous bodies,
-nor reflected lights, nor lustrous bodies--as mirrors and the like
-polished surfaces, nor mists, nor dark skies, nor an infinite number
-of things which need not be told for fear of tedium. As regards the
-power of resisting time, though they have this resistance [Footnote
-19: From what is here said as to painting on copper it is very
-evident that Leonardo was not acquainted with the method of painting
-in oil on thin copper plates, introduced by the Flemish painters of
-the XVIIth century. J. LERMOLIEFF has already pointed out that in
-the various collections containing pictures by the great masters of
-the Italian Renaissance, those painted on copper (for instance the
-famous reading Magdalen in the Dresden Gallery) are the works of a
-much later date (see _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_. Vol. X pg.
-333, and: _Werke italienischer Master in den Galerien von Munchen,
-Dresden und Berlin_. Leipzig 1880, pg. 158 and 159.)--Compare No.
-654, 29.], a picture painted on thick copper covered with white
-enamel on which it is painted with enamel colours and then put into
-the fire again and baked, far exceeds sculpture in permanence. It
-may be said that if a mistake is made it is not easy to remedy it;
-it is but a poor argument to try to prove that a work be the nobler
-because oversights are irremediable; I should rather say that it
-will be more difficult to improve the mind of the master who makes
-such mistakes than to repair the work he has spoilt.
-
-656.
-
-We know very well that a really experienced and good painter will
-not make such mistakes; on the contrary, with sound rules he will
-remove so little at a time that he will bring his work to a good
-issue. Again the sculptor if working in clay or wax, can add or
-reduce, and when his model is finished it can easily be cast in
-bronze, and this is the last operation and is the most permanent
-form of sculpture. Inasmuch as that which is merely of marble is
-liable to ruin, but not bronze. Hence a painting done on copper
-which as I said of painting may be added to or altered, resembles
-sculpture in bronze, which, having first been made in wax could then
-be altered or added to; and if sculpture in bronze is durable, this
-work in copper and enamel is absolutely imperishable. Bronze is but
-dark and rough after all, but this latter is covered with various
-and lovely colours in infinite variety, as has been said above; or
-if you will have me only speak of painting on panel, I am content to
-pronounce between it and sculpture; saying that painting is the more
-beautiful and the more imaginative and the more copious, while
-sculpture is the more durable but it has nothing else. Sculpture
-shows with little labour what in painting appears a miraculous thing
-to do; to make what is impalpable appear palpable, flat objects
-appear in relief, distant objects seem close. In fact painting is
-adorned with infinite possibilities which sculpture cannot command.
-
-Aphorisms (657-659).
-
-657.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Men and words are ready made, and you, O Painter, if you do not know
-how to make your figures move, are like an orator who knows not how
-to use his words.
-
-658.
-
-As soon as the poet ceases to represent in words what exists in
-nature, he in fact ceases to resemble the painter; for if the poet,
-leaving such representation, proceeds to describe the flowery and
-flattering speech of the figure, which he wishes to make the
-speaker, he then is an orator and no longer a poet nor a painter.
-And if he speaks of the heavens he becomes an astrologer, and
-philosopher; and a theologian, if he discourses of nature or God.
-But, if he restricts himself to the description of objects, he would
-enter the lists against the painter, if with words he could satisfy
-the eye as the painter does.
-
-659.
-
-Though you may be able to tell or write the exact description of
-forms, the painter can so depict them that they will appear alive,
-with the shadow and light which show the expression of a face; which
-you cannot accomplish with the pen though it can be achieved by the
-brush.
-
-On the history of painting (660. 661).
-
-660.
-
-THAT PAINTING DECLINES AND DETERIORATES FROM AGE TO AGE, WHEN
-PAINTERS HAVE NO OTHER STANDARD THAN PAINTING ALREADY DONE.
-
-Hence the painter will produce pictures of small merit if he takes
-for his standard the pictures of others. But if he will study from
-natural objects he will bear good fruit; as was seen in the painters
-after the Romans who always imitated each other and so their art
-constantly declined from age to age. After these came Giotto the
-Florentine who--not content with imitating the works of Cimabue his
-master--being born in the mountains and in a solitude inhabited only
-by goats and such beasts, and being guided by nature to his art,
-began by drawing on the rocks the movements of the goats of which he
-was keeper. And thus he began to draw all the animals which were to
-be found in the country, and in such wise that after much study he
-excelled not only all the masters of his time but all those of many
-bygone ages. Afterwards this art declined again, because everyone
-imitated the pictures that were already done; thus it went on from
-century to century until Tomaso, of Florence, nicknamed Masaccio,
-showed by his perfect works how those who take for their standard
-any one but nature--the mistress of all masters--weary themselves in
-vain. And, I would say about these mathematical studies that those
-who only study the authorities and not the works of nature are
-descendants but not sons of nature the mistress of all good authors.
-Oh! how great is the folly of those who blame those who learn from
-nature [Footnote 22: _lasciando stare li autori_. In this
-observation we may detect an indirect evidence that Leonardo
-regarded his knowledge of natural history as derived from his own
-investigations, as well as his theories of perspective and optics.
-Compare what he says in praise of experience (Vol II; _XIX_).],
-setting aside those authorities who themselves were the disciples of
-nature.
-
-661.
-
-That the first drawing was a simple line drawn round the shadow of a
-man cast by the sun on a wall.
-
-The painter's scope.
-
-662.
-
-The painter strives and competes with nature.
-
-_X.
-
-Studies and Sketches for Pictures and Decorations.
-
-An artist's manuscript notes can hardly be expected to contain any
-thing more than incidental references to those masterpieces of his
-work of which the fame, sounded in the writings of his
-contemporaries, has left a glorious echo to posterity. We need not
-therefore be surprised to find that the texts here reproduced do not
-afford us such comprehensive information as we could wish. On the
-other hand, the sketches and studies prepared by Leonardo for the
-two grandest compositions he ever executed: The Fresco of the Last
-Supper in the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and
-the Cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari, for the Palazzo della
-Signoria at Florence--have been preserved; and, though far from
-complete, are so much more numerous than the manuscript notes, that
-we are justified in asserting that in value and interest they amply
-compensate for the meagerness of the written suggestions.
-
-The notes for the composition of the Last Supper, which are given
-under nos._ 665 _and_ 666 _occur in a MS. at South Kensington, II2,
-written in the years_ 1494-1495. _This MS. sketch was noted down not
-more than three or four years before the painting was executed,
-which justifies the inference that at the time when it was written
-the painter had not made up his mind definitely even as to the
-general scheme of the work; and from this we may also conclude that
-the drawings of apostles' heads at Windsor, in red chalk, must be
-ascribed to a later date. They are studies for the head of St.
-Matthew, the fourth figure on Christ's left hand--see Pl. XL VII,
-the sketch (in black chalk) for the head of St. Philip, the third
-figure on the left hand--see Pl. XL VIII, for St. Peter's right
-arm--see Pl. XLIX, and for the expressive head of Judas which has
-unfortunately somewhat suffered by subsequent restoration of
-outlines,--see Pl. L. According to a tradition, as unfounded as it
-is improbable, Leonardo made use of the head of Padre Bandelli, the
-prior of the convent, as the prototype of his Judas; this however
-has already been contradicted by Amoretti "Memorie storiche" cap.
-XIV. The study of the head of a criminal on Pl. LI has, it seems to
-me, a better claim to be regarded as one of the preparatory sketches
-for the head of Judas. The Windsor collection contains two old
-copies of the head of St. Simon, the figure to the extreme left of
-Christ, both of about equal merit (they are marked as Nos._ 21 _and_
-36_)--the second was reproduced on Pl. VIII of the Grosvenor
-Gallery Publication in_ 1878. _There is also at Windsor a drawing in
-black chalk of folded hands (marked with the old No._ 212; _No. LXI
-of the Grosvenor Gallery Publication) which I believe to be a copy
-of the hands of St. John, by some unknown pupil. A reproduction of
-the excellent drawings of heads of Apostles in the possession of H.
-R. H. the Grand Duchess of Weimar would have been out of my province
-in this work, and, with regard to them, I must confine myself to
-pointing out that the difference in style does not allow of our
-placing the Weimar drawings in the same category as those here
-reproduced. The mode of grouping in the Weimar drawings is of itself
-sufficient to indicate that they were not executed before the
-picture was painted, but, on the contrary, afterwards, and it is, on
-the face of it, incredible that so great a master should thus have
-copied from his own work.
-
-The drawing of Christ's head, in the Brera palace at Milan was
-perhaps originally the work of Leonardo's hand; it has unfortunately
-been entirely retouched and re-drawn, so that no decisive opinion
-can be formed as to its genuineness.
-
-The red chalk drawing reproduced on Pl. XLVI is in the Accademia at
-Venice; it was probably made before the text, Nos._ 664 _and_ 665,
-_was written.
-
-The two pen and ink sketches on Pl. XLV seem to belong to an even
-earlier date; the more finished drawing of the two, on the right
-hand, represents Christ with only St. John and Judas and a third
-disciple whose action is precisely that described in No._ 666,
-_Pl._ 4. _It is hardly necessary to observe that the other sketches
-on this page and the lines of text below the circle (containing the
-solution of a geometrical problem) have no reference to the picture
-of the Last Supper. With this figure of Christ may be compared a
-similar pen and ink drawing reproduced on page_ 297 _below on the
-left hand; the original is in the Louvre. On this page again the
-rest of the sketches have no direct bearing on the composition of
-the Last Supper, not even, as it seems to me, the group of four men
-at the bottom to the right hand--who are listening to a fifth, in
-their midst addressing them. Moreover the writing on this page (an
-explanation of a disk shaped instrument) is certainly not in the
-same style as we find constantly used by Leonardo after the year_
-1489.
-
-_It may be incidentally remarked that no sketches are known for the
-portrait of "Mona Lisa", nor do the MS. notes ever allude to it,
-though according to Vasari the master had it in hand for fully four
-years.
-
-Leonardo's cartoon for the picture of the battle of Anghiari has
-shared the fate of the rival work, Michaelangelo's "Bathers summoned
-to Battle". Both have been lost in some wholly inexplicable manner.
-I cannot here enter into the remarkable history of this work; I can
-only give an account of what has been preserved to us of Leonardo's
-scheme and preparations for executing it. The extent of the material
-in studies and drawings was till now quite unknown. Their
-publication here may give some adequate idea of the grandeur of this
-famous work. The text given as No._ 669 _contains a description of
-the particulars of the battle, but for the reasons given in the note
-to this text, I must abandon the idea of taking this passage as the
-basis of my attempt to reconstruct the picture as the artist
-conceived and executed it.
-
-I may here remind the reader that Leonardo prepared the cartoon in
-the Sala del Papa of Santa Maria Novella at Florence and worked
-there from the end of October 1503 till February 1504, and then was
-busied with the painting in the Sala del Consiglio in the Palazzo
-della Signoria, till the work was interrupted at the end of May
-1506. (See Milanesi's note to Vasari pp. 43--45 Vol. IV ed. 1880.)
-Vasari, as is well known, describes only one scene or episode of the
-cartoon--the Battle for the Standard in the foreground of the
-composition, as it would seem; and this only was ever finished as a
-mural decoration in the Sala del Consiglio. This portion of the
-composition is familiar to all from the disfigured copy engraved by
-Edelinck. Mariette had already very acutely observed that Edelinck
-must surely have worked from a Flemish copy of the picture. There is
-in the Louvre a drawing by Rubens (No. 565) which also represents
-four horsemen fighting round a standard and which agrees with
-Edelinck's engraving, but the engraving reverses the drawing. An
-earlier Flemish drawing, such as may have served as the model for
-both Rubens and Edelinck, is in the Uffizi collection (see
-Philpots's Photograph, No. 732). It seems to be a work of the second
-half of the XVIth century, a time when both the picture and the
-cartoon had already been destroyed. It is apparently the production
-of a not very skilled hand. Raphael Trichet du Fresne, 1651,
-mentions that a small picture by Leonardo himself of the Battle of
-the Standard was then extant in the Tuileries; by this he probably
-means the painting on panel which is now in the possession of Madame
-Timbal in Paris, and which has lately been engraved by Haussoullier
-as a work by Leonardo. The picture, which is very carefully painted,
-seems to me however to be the work of some unknown Florentine
-painter, and probably executed within the first ten years of the
-XVIth century. At the same time, it would seem to be a copy not from
-Leonardo's cartoon, but from his picture in the Palazzo della
-Signoria; at any rate this little picture, and the small Flemish
-drawing in Florence are the oldest finished copies of this episode
-in the great composition of the Battle of Anghiari.
-
-In his Life of Raphael, Vasari tells us that Raphael copied certain
-works of Leonardo's during his stay in Florence. Raphael's first
-visit to Florence lasted from the middle of October 1504 till July
-1505, and he revisited it in the summer of 1506. The hasty sketch,
-now in the possession of the University of Oxford and reproduced on
-page 337 also represents the Battle of the Standard and seems to
-have been made during his first stay, and therefore not from the
-fresco but from the cartoon; for, on the same sheet we also find,
-besides an old man's head drawn in Leonardo's style, some studies
-for the figure of St. John the Martyr which Raphael used in 1505 in
-his great fresco in the Church of San Severo at Perugia.
-
-Of Leonardo's studies for the Battle of Anghiari I must in the first
-place point to five, on three of which--Pl. LII 2, Pl. LIII, Pl.
-LVI--we find studies for the episode of the Standard. The standard
-bearer, who, in the above named copies is seen stooping, holding on
-to the staff across his shoulder, is immediately recognisable as the
-left-hand figure in Raphael's sketch, and we find it in a similar
-attitude in Leonardo's pen and ink drawing in the British
-Museum--Pl. LII, 2--the lower figure to the right. It is not
-difficult to identify the same figure in two more complicated groups
-in the pen and ink drawings, now in the Accademia at Venice--Pl.
-LIII, and Pl. LIV--where we also find some studies of foot soldiers
-fighting. On the sheet in the British Museum--Pl. LII, 2--we find,
-among others, one group of three horses galloping forwards: one
-horseman is thrown and protects himself with his buckler against the
-lance thrusts of two others on horseback, who try to pierce him as
-they ride past. The same action is repeated, with some variation, in
-two sketches in pen and ink on a third sheet, in the Accademia at
-Venice, Pl. LV; a coincidence which suggests the probability of such
-an incident having actually been represented on the cartoon. We are
-not, it is true, in a position to declare with any certainty which
-of these three dissimilar sketches may have been the nearest to the
-group finally adopted in executing the cartoon.
-
-With regard, however, to one of the groups of horsemen it is
-possible to determine with perfect certainty not only which
-arrangement was preferred, but the position it occupied in the
-composition. The group of horsemen on Pl. LVII is a drawing in black
-chalk at Windsor, which is there attributed to Leonardo, but which
-appears to me to be the work of Cesare da Sesto, and the
-Commendatore Giov. Morelli supports me in this view. It can hardly
-be doubted that da Sesto, as a pupil of Leonardo's, made this
-drawing from his master's cartoon, if we compare it with the copy
-made by Raphael--here reproduced, for just above the fighting
-horseman in Raphael's copy it is possible to detect a horse which is
-seen from behind, going at a slower pace, with his tail flying out
-to the right and the same horse may be seen in the very same
-attitude carrying a dimly sketched rider, in the foreground of
-Cesare da Sesto's drawing._
-
-_If a very much rubbed drawing in black chalk at Windsor--Pl.
-LVI--is, as it appears to be, the reversed impression of an original
-drawing, it is not difficult to supplement from it the portions
-drawn by Cesare da Sesto. Nay, it may prove possible to reconstruct
-the whole of the lost cartoon from the mass of materials we now have
-at hand which we may regard as the nucleus of the composition. A
-large pen and ink drawing by Raphael in the Dresden collection,
-representing three horsemen fighting, and another, by Cesare da
-Sesto, in the Uffizi, of light horsemen fighting are a further
-contribution which will help us to reconstruct it._
-
-_The sketch reproduced on Pl. LV gives a suggestive example of the
-way in which foot-soldiers may have been introduced into the cartoon
-as fighting among the groups of horsemen; and I may here take the
-opportunity of mentioning that, for reasons which it would be out of
-place to enlarge upon here, I believe the two genuine drawings by
-Raphael's hand in his "Venetian sketch-book" as it is called--one of
-a standard bearer marching towards the left, and one of two
-foot-soldiers armed with spears and fighting with a horseman--to be
-undoubtedly copies from the cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari._
-
-_Leonardo's two drawings, preserved in the museum at Buda-Pesth and
-reproduced on pages 338 and 339 are preliminary studies for the
-heads of fighting warriors. The two heads drawn in black chalk (pg.
-338) and the one seen in profile, turned to the left, drawn in red
-chalk (pg. 339), correspond exactly with those of two horsemen in
-the scene of the fight round the standard as we see them in Madame
-Timbal's picture and in the other finished copies. An old copy of
-the last named drawing by a pupil of Leonardo is in MS. C. A. 187b;
-561b (See Saggio, Tav. XXII). Leonardo used to make such finished
-studies of heads as those, drawn on detached sheets, before
-beginning his pictures from his drawings--compare the preparatory
-studies for the fresco of the Last Supper, given on Pl. XLVII and
-Pl. L. Other drawings of heads, all characterised by the expression
-of vehement excitement that is appropriate to men fighting, are to
-be seen at Windsor (No. 44) and at the Accademia at Venice (IV, 13);
-at the back of one of the drawings at Buda-Pesth there is the bust
-of a warrior carrying a spear on his left shoulder, holding up the
-left arm (See Csatakepek a XVI--lk Szazadbol osszeallitotta Pvlszky
-Karoly). These drawings may have been made for other portions of the
-cartoon, of which no copies exist, and thus we are unable to
-identify these preparatory drawings. Finally I may add that a sketch
-of fighting horse and foot soldiers, formerly in the possession of
-M. Thiers and published by Charles Blanc in his "Vies des Peintres"
-can hardly be accepted as genuine. It is not to be found, as I am
-informed, among the late President's property, and no one appears to
-know where it now is._
-
-_An attempted reconstruction of the Cartoon, which is not only
-unsuccessful but perfectly unfounded, is to be seen in the
-lithograph by Bergeret, published in Charles Blanc's "Vies des
-peintres" and reprinted in "The great Artists. L. da Vinci", p. 80.
-This misleading pasticcio may now be rejected without hesitation._
-
-_There are yet a few original drawings by Leonardo which might be
-mentioned here as possibly belonging to the cartoon of the Battle;
-such as the pen and ink sketches on Pl. XXI and on Pl. XXXVIII, No.
-3, but we should risk too wide a departure from the domain of
-ascertained fact._
-
-_With regard to the colours and other materials used by Leonardo the
-reader may be referred to the quotations from the accounts for the
-picture in question given by Milanesi in his edition of Vasari (Vol.
-IV, p. 44, note) where we find entries of a similar character to
-those in Leonardo's note books for the year 1505; S. K. M. 12 (see
-No. 636)._
-
-_That Leonardo was employed in designing decorations and other
-preparations for high festivals, particularly for the court of
-Milan, we learn not only from the writings of his contemporaries but
-from his own incidental allusions; for instance in MS. C. l5b (1),
-l. 9. In the arrangement of the texts referring to this I have
-placed those first, in which historical personages are named--Nos.
-670-674. Among the descriptions of Allegorical subjects two texts
-lately found at Oxford have been included, Nos. 676 and 677. They
-are particularly interesting because they are accompanied by large
-sketches which render the meaning of the texts perfectly clear. It
-is very intelligible that in other cases, where there are no
-illustrative sketches, the notes must necessarily remain obscure or
-admit of various interpretations. The literature of the time affords
-ample evidence of the use of such allegorical representations,
-particularly during the Carnival and in Leonardo's notes we find the
-Carnival expressly mentioned--Nos. 685 and 704. Vasari in his Life
-of Pontormo, particularly describes that artist's various
-undertakings for Carnival festivities. These very graphic
-descriptions appear to me to throw great light in more ways than one
-on the meaning of Leonardo's various notes as to allegorical
-representations and also on mottoes and emblems--Nos. 681-702. In
-passing judgment on the allegorical sketches and emblems it must not
-be overlooked that even as pictures they were always accompanied by
-explanations in words. Several finished drawings of allegorical
-compositions or figures have been preserved, but as they have no
-corresponding explanation in the MSS. they had no claim to be
-reproduced here. The female figure on Pl. XXVI may perhaps be
-regarded as a study for such an allegorical painting, of which the
-purport would have been explained by an inscription._
-
-On Madonna pictures.
-
-663.
-
-[In the autumn of] 1478 I began the two Madonna [pictures].
-
-[Footnote: Photographs of this page have been published by BRAUN,
-No. 439, and PHILPOT, No. 718.
-
-1. _Incominciai_. We have no other information as to the two
-pictures of the Madonna here spoken of. As Leonardo here tells us
-that he had begun two Madonnas at the same time, the word
-'_incominciai_' may be understood to mean that he had begun at the
-same time preparatory studies for two pictures to be painted later.
-If this is so, the non-existence of the pictures may be explained by
-supposing that they were only planned and never executed. I may here
-mention a few studies for pictures of the Madonna which probably
-belong to this early time; particularly a drawing in silver-point on
-bluish tinted paper at Windsor--see Pl. XL, No. 3--, a drawing of
-which the details have almost disappeared in the original but have
-been rendered quite distinct in the reproduction; secondly a slight
-pen and ink sketch in, the Codex VALLARDI, in the Louvre, fol. 64,
-No. 2316; again a silver point drawing of a Virgin and child drawn
-over again with the pen in the His de la Salle collection also in
-the Louvre, No. 101. (See Vicomte BOTH DE TAUZIA, _Notice des
-dessins de la collection His de la Salle, exposes au Louvre_. Paris
-1881, pp. 80, 81.) This drawing is, it is true, traditionally
-ascribed to Raphael, but the author of the catalogue very justly
-points out its great resemblance with the sketches for Madonnas in
-the British Museum which are indisputably Leonardo's. Some of these
-have been published by Mr. HENRY WALLIS in the Art Journal, New Ser.
-No. 14, Feb. 1882. If the non-existence of the two pictures here
-alluded to justifies my hypothesis that only studies for such
-pictures are meant by the text, it may also be supposed that the
-drawings were made for some comrade in VERROCCHIO'S atelier. (See
-VASARI, Sansoni's ed. Florence 1880. Vol. IV, p. 564): "_E perche a
-Lerenzo piaceva fuor di modo la maniera di Lionardo, la seppe cosi
-bene imitare, che niuno fu che nella pulitezza e nel finir l'opere
-con diligenza l'imitasse piu di lui_." Leonardo's notes give me no
-opportunity of discussing the pictures executed by him in Florence,
-before he moved to Milan. So the studies for the unfinished picture
-of the Adoration of the Magi--in the Uffizi, Florence--cannot be
-described here, nor would any discussion about the picture in the
-Louvre "_La Vierge aux Rochers_" be appropriate in the absence of
-all allusion to it in the MSS. Therefore, when I presently add a few
-remarks on this painting in explanation of the Master's drawings for
-it, it will be not merely with a view to facilitate critical
-researches about the picture now in the National Gallery, London,
-which by some critics has been pronounced to be a replica of the
-Louvre picture, but also because I take this opportunity of
-publishing several finished studies of the Master's which, even if
-they were not made in Florence but later in Milan, must have been
-prior to the painting of the Last Supper. The original picture in
-Paris is at present so disfigured by dust and varnish that the
-current reproductions in photography actually give evidence more of
-the injuries to which the picture has been exposed than of the
-original work itself. The wood-cut given on p. 344, is only intended
-to give a general notion of the composition. It must be understood
-that the outline and expression of the heads, which in the picture
-is obscured but not destroyed, is here altogether missed. The
-facsimiles which follow are from drawings which appear to me to be
-studies for "_La Vierge aux Rochers_."
-
-1. A drawing in silver point on brown toned paper of a woman's head
-looking to the left. In the Royal Library at Turin, apparently a
-study from nature for the Angel's head (Pl. XLII).
-
-2. A study of drapery for the left leg of the same figure, done with
-the brush, Indian ink on greenish paper, the lights heightened with
-white.
-
-The original is at Windsor, No. 223. The reproduction Pl. XLIII is
-defective in the shadow on the upper part of the thigh, which is not
-so deep as in the original; it should also be observed that the
-folds of the drapery near the hips are somewhat altered in the
-finished work in the Louvre, while the London copy shows a greater
-resemblance to this study in that particular.
-
-3. A study in red chalk for the bust of the Infant Christ--No. 3 in
-the Windsor collection (Pl. XLIV). The well-known silver-point
-drawing on pale green paper, in the Louvre, of a boy's head (No. 363
-in REISET, _Notice des dessins, Ecoles d'Italie_) seems to me to be
-a slightly altered copy, either from the original picture or from
-this red chalk study.
-
-4. A silver-point study on greenish paper, for the head of John the
-Baptist, reproduced on p. 342. This was formerly in the Codex
-Vallardi and is now exhibited among the drawings in the Louvre. The
-lights are, in the original, heightened with white; the outlines,
-particularly round the head and ear, are visibly restored.
-
-There is a study of an outstretched hand--No. 288 in the Windsor
-collection--which was published in the Grosvenor Gallery
-Publication, 1878, simply under the title of: "No. 72 Study of a
-hand, pointing" which, on the other hand, I regard as a copy by a
-pupil. The action occurs in the kneeling angel of the Paris picture
-and not in the London copy.
-
-These four genuine studies form, I believe, a valuable substitute in
-the absence of any MS. notes referring to the celebrated Paris
-picture.]
-
-Bernardo di Bandino's Portrait.
-
-664.
-
-A tan-coloured small cap, A doublet of black serge, A black jerkin
-lined A blue coat lined, with fur of foxes' breasts, and the collar
-of the jerkin covered with black and white stippled velvet Bernardo
-di Bandino Baroncelli; black hose.
-
-[Footnote: These eleven lines of text are by the side of the pen and
-ink drawing of a man hanged--Pl. LXII, No. 1. This drawing was
-exhibited in 1879 at the _Ecole des Beaux-Arts_ in Paris and the
-compilers of the catalogue amused themselves by giving the victim's
-name as follows: "_Un pendu, vetu d'une longue robe, les mains liees
-sur le dos ... Bernardo di Bendino Barontigni, marchand de
-pantalons_" (see _Catalogue descriptif des Dessins de Mailres
-anciens exposes a l'Ecole des Beaux Arts_, Paris 1879; No. 83, pp.
-9-10). Now, the criminal represented here, is none other than
-Bernardino di Bandino Baroncelli the murderer of Giuliano de'Medici,
-whose name as a coadjutor in the conspiracy of the Pazzi has gained
-a melancholy notoriety by the tragedy of the 26th April 1478.
-Bernardo was descended from an ancient family and the son of the man
-who, under King Ferrante, was President of the High Court of Justice
-in Naples. His ruined fortunes, it would seem, induced him to join
-the Pazzi; he and Francesco Pazzi were entrusted with the task of
-murdering Giuliano de'Medici on the fixed day. Their victim not
-appearing in the cathedral at the hour when they expected him, the
-two conspirators ran to the palace of the Medici and induced him to
-accompany them. Giuliano then took his place in the chancel of the
-Cathedral, and as the officiating priest raised the Host--the sign
-agreed upon--Bernardo stabbed the unsuspecting Giuliano in the
-breast with a short sword; Giuliano stepped backwards and fell dead.
-The attempt on Lorenzo's life however, by the other conspirators at
-the same moment, failed of success. Bernardo no sooner saw that
-Lorenzo tried to make his escape towards the sacristy, than he
-rushed upon him, and struck down Francesco Nori who endeavoured to
-protect Lorenzo. How Lorenzo then took refuge behind the brazen
-doors of the sacristy, and how, as soon as Giuliano's death was made
-known, the further plans of the conspirators were defeated, while a
-terrible vengeance overtook all the perpetrators and accomplices,
-this is no place to tell. Bernardo Bandini alone seemed to be
-favoured by fortune; he hid first in the tower of the Cathedral, and
-then escaped undiscovered from Florence. Poliziano, who was with
-Lorenzo in the Cathedral, says in his 'Conjurationis Pactianae
-Commentarium': "_Bandinus fugitans in Tiphernatem incidit, a quo in
-aciem receptus Senas pervenit_." And Gino Capponi in summing up the
-reports of the numerous contemporary narrators of the event, says:
-"_Bernardo Bandini ricoverato in Costantinopoli, fu per ordine del
-Sultano preso e consegnato a un Antonio di Bernardino dei Medici,
-che Lorenzo aveva mandato apposta in Turchia: cosi era grande la
-potenza di quest' uomo e grande la voglia di farne mostra e che non
-restasse in vita chi aveagli ucciso il fratello, fu egli applicato
-appena giunto_" (_Storia della Republica di Firenze II_, 377, 378).
-Details about the dates may be found in the _Chronichetta di
-Belfredello Strinati Alfieri_: "_Bernardo di Bandino Bandini
-sopradetto ne venne preso da Gostantinopoti a di 14. Dicembre 1479 e
-disaminato, che fu al Bargello, fu impiccato alle finestre di detto
-Bargello allato alla Doana a di 29. Dicembre MCCCCLXXIX che pochi di
-stette_." It may however be mentioned with reference to the mode of
-writing the name of the assassin that, though most of his
-contemporaries wrote Bernardo Bandini, in the _Breve Chronicon
-Caroli Petri de Joanninis_ he is called Bernardo di Bandini
-Baroncelli; and, in the _Sententiae Domini Matthaei de Toscana_,
-Bernardus Joannis Bandini de Baroncellis, as is written on
-Leonardo's drawing of him when hanged. Now VASARI, in the life of
-_Andrea del Castagno_ (Vol. II, 680; ed. Milanesi 1878), tells us
-that in 1478 this painter was commissioned by order of the Signoria
-to represent the members of the Pazzi conspiracy as traitors, on the
-facade of the Palazzo del Podesta--the Bargello. This statement is
-obviously founded on a mistake, for Andrea del Castagno was already
-dead in 1457. He had however been commissioned to paint Rinaldo
-degli Albizzi, when declared a rebel and exiled in 1434, and his
-adherents, as hanging head downwards; and in consequence he had
-acquired the nickname of Andrea degl' Impiccati. On the 21st July
-1478 the Council of Eight came to the following resolution: "_item
-servatis etc. deliberaverunt et santiaverunt Sandro Botticelli pro
-ejus labore in pingendo proditores flor. quadraginta largos_" (see
-G. MILANESI, _Arch. star. VI_ (1862) p. 5 note.)
-
-As has been told, Giuliano de' Medici was murdered on the 26th April
-1478, and we see by this that only three months later Botticelli was
-paid for his painting of the "_proditores_". We can however hardly
-suppose that all the members of the conspiracy were depicted by him
-in fresco on the facade of the palace, since no fewer than eighty
-had been condemned to death. We have no means of knowing whether,
-besides Botticelli, any other painters, perhaps Leonardo, was
-commissioned, when the criminals had been hanged in person out of
-the windows of the Palazzo del Podesta to represent them there
-afterwards in effigy in memory of their disgrace. Nor do we know
-whether the assassin who had escaped may at first not have been
-provisionally represented as hanged in effigy. Now, when we try to
-connect the historical facts with this drawing by Leonardo
-reproduced on Pl. LXII, No. I, and the full description of the
-conspirator's dress and its colour on the same sheet, there seems to
-be no reasonable doubt that Bernardo Bandini is here represented as
-he was actually hanged on December 29th, 1479, after his capture at
-Constantinople. The dress is certainly not that in which he
-committed the murder. A long furred coat might very well be worn at
-Constantinople or at Florence in December, but hardly in April. The
-doubt remains whether Leonardo described Bernardo's dress so fully
-because it struck him as remarkable, or whether we may not rather
-suppose that this sketch was actually made from nature with the
-intention of using it as a study for a wall painting to be executed.
-It cannot be denied that the drawing has all the appearance of
-having been made for this purpose. Be this as it may, the sketch
-under discussion proves, at any rate, that Leonardo was in Florence
-in December 1479, and the note that accompanies it is valuable as
-adding one more characteristic specimen to the very small number of
-his MSS. that can be proved to have been written between 1470 and
-1480.]
-
-Notes on the Last Supper (665-668).
-
-665.
-
-One who was drinking and has left the glass in its position and
-turned his head towards the speaker.
-
-Another, twisting the fingers of his hands together turns with stern
-brows to his companion [6]. Another with his hands spread open shows
-the palms, and shrugs his shoulders up his ears making a mouth of
-astonishment [8].
-
-[9] Another speaks into his neighbour's ear and he, as he listens to
-him, turns towards him to lend an ear [10], while he holds a knife
-in one hand, and in the other the loaf half cut through by the
-knife. [13] Another who has turned, holding a knife in his hand,
-upsets with his hand a glass on the table [14].
-
-[Footnote 665, 666: In the original MS. there is no sketch to
-accompany these passages, and if we compare them with those drawings
-made by Leonardo in preparation for the composition of the
-picture--Pl. XLV, XLVI--, (compare also Pl. LII, 1 and the drawings
-on p. 297) it is impossible to recognise in them a faithful
-interpretation of the whole of this text; but, if we compare these
-passages with the finished picture (see p. 334) we shall see that in
-many places they coincide. For instance, compare No. 665, 1. 6--8,
-with the fourth figure on the right hand of Christ. The various
-actions described in lines 9--10, 13--14 are to be seen in the group
-of Peter, John and Judas; in the finished picture however it is not
-a glass but a salt cellar that Judas is upsetting.]
-
-666.
-
-Another lays his hand on the table and is looking. Another blows his
-mouthful. [3] Another leans forward to see the speaker shading his
-eyes with his hand. [5] Another draws back behind the one who leans
-forward, and sees the speaker between the wall and the man who is
-leaning [Footnote: 6. _chinato_. I have to express my regret for
-having misread this word, written _cinato_ in the original, and
-having altered it to _"ciclo"_ when I first published this text, in
-'The Academy' for Nov. 8, 1879 immediately after I had discovered
-it, and subsequently in the small biography of Leonardo da Vinci
-(Great Artists) p. 29.].
-
-[Footnote: In No. 666. Line I must refer to the furthest figure on
-the left; 3, 5 and 6 describe actions which are given to the group
-of disciples on the left hand of Christ.]
-
-667.
-
-CHRIST.
-
-Count Giovanni, the one with the Cardinal of Mortaro.
-
-[Footnote: As this note is in the same small Manuscript as the
-passage here immediately preceding it, I may be justified in
-assuming that Leonardo meant to use the features of the person here
-named as a suitable model for the figure of Christ. The celebrated
-drawing of the head of Christ, now hanging in the Brera Gallery at
-Milan, has obviously been so much restored that it is now impossible
-to say, whether it was ever genuine. We have only to compare it with
-the undoubtedly genuine drawings of heads of the disciples in PI.
-XLVII, XLVIII and L, to admit that not a single line of the Milan
-drawing in its present state can be by the same hand.]
-
-668.
-
-Philip, Simon, Matthew, Thomas, James the Greater, Peter, Philip,
-Andrew, Bartholomew.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. XLVI. The names of the disciples are given in the
-order in which they are written in the original, from right to left,
-above each head. The original drawing is here slightly reduced in
-scale; it measures 39 centimetres in length by 26 in breadth.]
-
-669.
-
-  On the battle of Anghiari.
-  Florentine
-  Neri di Gino Capponi
-  Bernardetto de' Medici
-  Micheletto,
-  Niccolo da Pisa
-  Conte Francesco
-                         Pietro Gian Paolo
-                         Guelfo Orsino,
-                         Messer  Rinaldo   degli
-                                      Albizzi
-
-Begin with the address of Niccolo Piccinino to the soldiers and the
-banished Florentines among whom are Messer Rinaldo degli Albizzi and
-other Florentines. Then let it be shown how he first mounted on
-horseback in armour; and the whole army came after him--40 squadrons
-of cavalry, and 2000 foot soldiers went with him. Very early in the
-morning the Patriarch went up a hill to reconnoitre the country,
-that is the hills, fields and the valley watered by a river; and
-from thence he beheld Niccolo Picinino coming from Borgo San
-Sepolcro with his people, and with a great dust; and perceiving them
-he returned to the camp of his own people and addressed them. Having
-spoken he prayed to God with clasped hands, when there appeared a
-cloud in which Saint Peter appeared and spoke to the Patriarch.--500
-cavalry were sent forward by the Patriarch to hinder or check the
-rush of the enemy. In the foremost troop Francesco the son of
-Niccolo Piccinino [24] was the first to attack the bridge which was
-held by the Patriarch and the Florentines. Beyond the bridge to his
-left he sent forward some infantry to engage ours, who drove them
-back, among whom was their captain Micheletto [29] whose lot it was
-to be that day at the head of the army. Here, at this bridge there
-is a severe struggle; our men conquer and the enemy is repulsed.
-Here Guido and Astorre, his brother, the Lord of Faenza with a great
-number of men, re-formed and renewed the fight, and rushed upon the
-Florentines with such force that they recovered the bridge and
-pushed forward as far as the tents. But Simonetto advanced with 600
-horse, and fell upon the enemy and drove them back once more from
-the place, and recaptured the bridge; and behind him came more men
-with 2000 horse soldiers. And thus for a long time they fought with
-varying fortune. But then the Patriarch, in order to divert the
-enemy, sent forward Niccolo da Pisa [44] and Napoleone Orsino, a
-beardless lad, followed by a great multitude of men, and then was
-done another great feat of arms. At the same time Niccolo Piccinino
-urged forward the remnant of his men, who once more made ours give
-way; and if it had not been that the Patriarch set himself at their
-head and, by his words and deeds controlled the captains, our
-soldiers would have taken to flight. The Patriarch had some
-artillery placed on the hill and with these he dispersed the enemy's
-infantry; and the disorder was so complete that Niccolo began to
-call back his son and all his men, and they took to flight towards
-Borgo. And then began a great slaughter of men; none escaped but the
-foremost of those who had fled or who hid themselves. The battle
-continued until sunset, when the Patriarch gave his mind to
-recalling his men and burying the dead, and afterwards a trophy was
-erected.
-
-[Footnote: 669. This passage does not seem to me to be in Leonardo's
-hand, though it has hitherto been generally accepted as genuine. Not
-only is the writing unlike his, but the spelling also is quite
-different. I would suggest that this passage is a description of the
-events of the battle drawn up for the Painter by order of the
-Signoria, perhaps by some historian commissioned by them, to serve
-as a scheme or programme of the work. The whole tenor of the style
-seems to me to argue in favour of this theory; and besides, it would
-be in no way surprising that such a document should have been
-preserved among Leonardo's autographs.]
-
-Allegorical representations referring to the duke of Milan
-(670-673).
-
-670.
-
-Ermine with blood Galeazzo, between calm weather and a
-representation of a tempest.
-
-[Footnote: 670. Only the beginning of this text is legible; the
-writing is much effaced and the sense is consequently obscure. It
-seems to refer like the following passage to an allegorical
-picture.]
-
-671.
-
-Il Moro with spectacles, and Envy depicted with False Report and
-Justice black for il Moro.
-
-Labour as having a branch of vine [_or_ a screw] in her hand.
-
-672.
-
-Il Moro as representing Good Fortune, with hair, and robes, and his
-hands in front, and Messer Gualtieri taking him by the robes with a
-respectful air from below, having come in from the front [5].
-
-Again, Poverty in a hideous form running behind a youth. Il Moro
-covers him with the skirt of his robe, and with his gilt sceptre he
-threatens the monster.
-
-A plant with its roots in the air to represent one who is at his
-last;--a robe and Favour.
-
-Of tricks [_or_ of magpies] and of burlesque poems [_or_ of
-starlings].
-
-Those who trust themselves to live near him, and who will be a large
-crowd, these shall all die cruel deaths; and fathers and mothers
-together with their families will be devoured and killed by cruel
-creatures.
-
-[Footnote: 1--10 have already been published by _Amoretti_ in
-_Memorie Storiche_ cap. XII. He adds this note with regard to
-Gualtieri: "_A questo M. Gualtieri come ad uomo generoso e benefico
-scrive il Bellincioni un Sonetto (pag, 174) per chiedergli un
-piacere; e 'l Tantio rendendo ragione a Lodovico il Moro, perche
-pubblicasse le Rime del Bellincioni; cio hammi imposto, gli dice:
-l'humano fidele, prudente e sollicito executore delli tuoi
-comandamenti Gualtero, che fa in tutte le cose ove tu possi far
-utile, ogni studio vi metti._" A somewhat mysterious and evidently
-allegorical composition--a pen and ink drawing--at Windsor, see PL
-LVIII, contains a group of figures in which perhaps the idea is
-worked out which is spoken of in the text, lines 1-5.]
-
-673.
-
-He was blacker than a hornet, his eyes were as red as a burning fire
-and he rode on a tall horse six spans across and more than 20 long
-with six giants tied up to his saddle-bow and one in his hand which
-he gnawed with his teeth. And behind him came boars with tusks
-sticking out of their mouths, perhaps ten spans.
-
-Allegorical representations (674--678).
-
-674.
-
-Above the helmet place a half globe, which is to signify our
-hemisphere, in the form of a world; on which let there be a peacock,
-richly decorated, and with his tail spread over the group; and every
-ornament belonging to the horse should be of peacock's feathers on a
-gold ground, to signify the beauty which comes of the grace bestowed
-on him who is a good servant.
-
-On the shield a large mirror to signify that he who truly desires
-favour must be mirrored in his virtues.
-
-On the opposite side will be represented Fortitude, in like manner
-in her place with her pillar in her hand, robed in white, to signify
-... And all crowned; and Prudence with 3 eyes. The housing of the
-horse should be of plain cloth of gold closely sprinkled with
-peacock's eyes, and this holds good for all the housings of the
-horse, and the man's dress. And the man's crest and his neck-chain
-are of peacock's feathers on golden ground.
-
-On the left side will be a wheel, the centre of which should be
-attached to the centre of the horse's hinder thigh piece, and in the
-centre Prudence is seen robed in red, Charity sitting in a fiery
-chariot and with a branch of laurel in her hand, to signify the hope
-which comes of good service.
-
-[21] Messer Antonio Grimani of Venice companion of Antonio Maria
-[23].
-
-[Footnote: _Messer Antonio Gri_. His name thus abbreviated is, there
-can be no doubt, Grimani. Antonio Grimani was the famous Doge who in
-1499 commanded the Venetian fleet in battle against the Turks. But
-after the abortive conclusion of the expedition--Ludovico being the
-ally of the Turks who took possession of Friuli--, Grimani was driven
-into exile; he went to live at Rome with his son Cardinal Domenico
-Grimani. On being recalled to Venice he filled the office of Doge
-from 1521 to 1523. _Antonio Maria_ probably means Antonio Maria
-Grimani, the Patriarch of Aquileia.]
-
-675.
-
-Fame should be depicted as covered all over with tongues instead of
-feathers, and in the figure of a bird.
-
-676.
-
-Pleasure and Pain represent as twins, since there never is one
-without the other; and as if they were united back to back, since
-they are contrary to each other.
-
-[6] Clay, gold.
-
-[Footnote: 7. _oro. fango_: gold, clay. These words stand below the
-allegorical figure.]
-
-If you take Pleasure know that he has behind him one who will deal
-you Tribulation and Repentance.
-
-[9] This represents Pleasure together with Pain, and show them as
-twins because one is never apart from the other. They are back to
-back because they are opposed to each other; and they exist as
-contraries in the same body, because they have the same basis,
-inasmuch as the origin of pleasure is labour and pain, and the
-various forms of evil pleasure are the origin of pain. Therefore it
-is here represented with a reed in his right hand which is useless
-and without strength, and the wounds it inflicts are poisoned. In
-Tuscany they are put to support beds, to signify that it is here
-that vain dreams come, and here a great part of life is consumed. It
-is here that much precious time is wasted, that is, in the morning,
-when the mind is composed and rested, and the body is made fit to
-begin new labours; there again many vain pleasures are enjoyed; both
-by the mind in imagining impossible things, and by the body in
-taking those pleasures that are often the cause of the failing of
-life. And for these reasons the reed is held as their support.
-
-[Footnote: 676. The pen and ink drawing on PI. LIX belongs to this
-passage.]
-
-[Footnote: 8. _tribolatione_. In the drawing caltrops may be seen
-lying in the old man's right hand, others are falling and others
-again are shewn on the ground. Similar caltrops are drawn in MS.
-Tri. p. 98 and underneath them, as well as on page 96 the words
-_triboli di ferro_ are written. From the accompanying text it
-appears that they were intended to be scattered on the ground at the
-bottom of ditches to hinder the advance of the enemy. Count Giulio
-Porro who published a short account of the Trivulzio MS. in the
-"_Archivio Storico Lombardo_", Anno VIII part IV (Dec. 31, 1881) has
-this note on the passages treating of "_triboli_": "_E qui
-aggiungero che anni sono quando venne fabbricata la nuova
-cavallerizza presso il castello di Milano, ne furono trovati due che
-io ho veduto ed erano precisamente quali si trovano descritti e
-disegnati da Leonardo in questo codice_".
-
-There can therefore be no doubt that this means of defence was in
-general use, whether it were originally Leonardo's invention or not.
-The play on the word "_tribolatione_", as it occurs in the drawing
-at Oxford, must then have been quite intelligible.]
-
-[Footnote: 9--22. These lines, in the original, are written on the
-left side of the page and refer to the figure shown on PI. LXI. Next
-to it is placed the group of three figures given in PI. LX No. I.
-Lines 21 and 22, which are written under it, are the only
-explanation given.]
-
-Evil-thinking is either Envy or Ingratitude.
-
-677.
-
-Envy must be represented with a contemptuous motion of the hand
-towards heaven, because if she could she would use her strength
-against God; make her with her face covered by a mask of fair
-seeming; show her as wounded in the eye by a palm branch and by an
-olive-branch, and wounded in the ear by laurel and myrtle, to
-signify that victory and truth are odious to her. Many thunderbolts
-should proceed from her to signify her evil speaking. Let her be
-lean and haggard because she is in perpetual torment. Make her heart
-gnawed by a swelling serpent, and make her with a quiver with
-tongues serving as arrows, because she often offends with it. Give
-her a leopard's skin, because this creature kills the lion out of
-envy and by deceit. Give her too a vase in her hand full of flowers
-and scorpions and toads and other venomous creatures; make her ride
-upon death, because Envy, never dying, never tires of ruling. Make
-her bridle, and load her with divers kinds of arms because all her
-weapons are deadly.
-
-Toleration.
-
-Intolerable.
-
-No sooner is Virtue born than Envy comes into the world to attack
-it; and sooner will there be a body without a shadow than Virtue
-without Envy.
-
-[Footnote: The larger of the two drawings on PI. LXI is explained by
-the first 21 lines of this passage. L. 22 and 23, which are written
-above the space between the two drawings, do not seem to have any
-reference to either. L. 24-27 are below the allegorical twin figure
-which they serve to explain.]
-
-678.
-
-When Pluto's Paradise is opened, then there may be devils placed in
-twelve pots like openings into hell. Here will be Death, the Furies,
-ashes, many naked children weeping; living fires made of various
-colours....
-
-679.
-
-  John the Baptist
-  Saint Augustin
-  Saint Peter
-  Paul
-  Elisabeth
-  Saint Clara.
-  Bernardino
-  Our Lady  Louis
-  Bonaventura
-  Anthony of Padua.
-  Saint Francis.
-  Francis,
-  Anthony, a lily and book;
-  Bernardino with the [monogram of] Jesus,
-  Louis with 3 fleur de lys on his breast and
-              the crown at his feet,
-  Bonaventura with Seraphim,
-  Saint Clara with the tabernacle,
-  Elisabeth with a Queen's crown.
-
-[Footnote: 679. The text of the first six lines is written within a
-square space of the same size as the copy here given. The names are
-written in the margin following the order in which they are here
-printed. In lines 7--12 the names of those saints are repeated of
-whom it seemed necessary to point out the emblems.]
-
-List of drawings.
-
-680.
-
-  A head, full face, of a young man
-  with fine flowing hair,
-  Many flowers drawn from nature,
-  A head, full face, with curly hair,
-  Certain figures of Saint Jerome,
-  [6] The measurements of a figure,
-  Drawings of furnaces.
-  A head of the Duke,
-  [9] many designs for knots,
-  4 studies for the panel of Saint Angelo
-  A small composition of Girolamo da Fegline,
-  A head of Christ done with the pen,
-  [13] 8 Saint Sebastians,
-  Several compositions of Angels,
-  A chalcedony,
-  A head in profile with fine hair,
-  Some pitchers seen in(?) perspective,
-  Some machines for ships,
-  Some machines for waterworks,
-  A head, a portrait of Atalanta raising her
-  face;
-  The head of Geronimo da Fegline,
-  The head of Gian Francisco Borso,
-  Several throats of old women,
-  Several heads of old men,
-  Several nude figures, complete,
-  Several arms, eyes, feet, and positions,
-  A Madonna, finished,
-  Another, nearly in profile,
-  Head of Our Lady ascending into Heaven,
-  A head of an old man with long chin,
-  A head of a gypsy girl,
-  A head with a hat on,
-  A representation of the Passion, a cast,
-  A head of a girl with her hair gathered in a knot,
-  A head, with the brown hair dressed.
-
-[Footnote: 680. This has already been published by AMORETTI _Memorie
-storiche_ cap. XVI. His reading varies somewhat from that here
-given, _e. g._ l. 5 and 6. _Certi Sangirolami in su d'una figura_;
-and instead of I. 13. _Un San Bastiano_.]
-
-[Footnote: 680. 9. _Molti disegni di gruppi_. VASARI in his life of
-Leonardo (IV, 21, ed. MILANESI 1880) says: "_Oltreche perse tempo
-fino a disegnare_ gruppi _di corde fatti con ordine, e che da un
-capo seguissi tutto il resto fino all' altro, tanto che s'empiessi
-un tondo; che se ne vede in istampa uno difficilissimo e molto
-bello, e nel mezzo vi sono queste parole: Leonardus Vinci
-Accademia_". _Gruppi_ must here be understood as a technical
-expression for those twisted ornaments which are well known through
-wood cuts. AMORETTI mentions six different ones in the Ambrosian
-Library. I am indebted to M. DELABORDE for kindly informing me that
-the original blocks of these are preserved in his department in the
-Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. On the cover of these volumes is a
-copy from one of them. The size of the original is 23 1/2
-centimetres by 26 1/4. The centre portion of another is given on p.
-361. G. Govi remarks on these ornaments (_Saggio_ p. 22): "_Codesti
-gruppi eran probabilmente destinati a servir di modello a ferri da
-rilegatori per adornar le cartelle degli scolari (?). Fregi
-somigliantissimi a questi troviamo infatti impressi in oro sui
-cartoni di vari volumi contemporanei, e li vediam pur figurare nelle
-lettere iniziali di alcune edizioni del tempo._"
-
-Durer who copied them, omitting the inscription, added to the second
-impressions his own monogram. In his diary he designates them simply
-as "_Die sechs Knoten_" (see THAUSING, Life of A. Durer I, 362,
-363). In Leonardo's MSS. we find here and there little sketches or
-suggestions for similar ornaments. Compare too G. MONGERI, _L'Arte
-in Milano_, p. 315 where an ornament of the same character is given
-from the old decorations of the vaulted ceiling of the Sacristy of
-S. Maria delle Grazie.]
-
-[Footnote: 680, 17. The meaning in which the word _coppi_, literally
-pitchers, is here used I am unable to determine; but a change to
-_copie_ seems to me too doubtful to be risked.]
-
-681.
-
-  Stubborn rigour.
-  Doomed rigour.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXII, No. 2, the two upper pen and ink drawings.
-The originals, in the Windsor collection are slightly washed with
-colour. The background is blue sky; the plough and the instrument
-with the compass are reddish brown, the sun is tinted yellow].
-
-682.
-
-  Obstacles cannot crush me
-  Every obstacle yields to stern resolve
-  He who is fixed to a star does not change
-  his mind.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written to elucidate two sketches which were
-obviously the first sketches for the drawings reproduced on PL LXII,
-No. 2.]
-
-683.
-
-Ivy is [a type] of longevity.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there is, near this text, a sketch of a
-coat wreathed above the waist with ivy.]
-
-684.
-
-  Truth      the sun.
-  falsehood   a mask.
-  innocence,
-  malignity.
-
-  Fire destroys falsehood,
-  that is sophistry, and
-  restores truth, driving out
-  darkness.
-
-  Fire may be represented as the destroy of
-  all sophistry, and as the
-  image and demonstration of truth;
-  because it is light and drives
-  out darkness which conceals
-  all essences [or subtle things].
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXIII. L. 1-8 are in the middle of the page; 1.
-9-14 to the right below; 1. 15-22 below in the middle column. The
-rest of the text is below the sketches on the left. There are some
-other passages on this page relating to geometry.]
-
-TRUTH.
-
-  Fire destroys all sophistry, that is deceit;
-  and maintains truth alone, that is gold.
-
-  Truth at last cannot be hidden.
-  Dissimulation  is of no avail. Dissimulation is
-  to no purpose before
-  so great a judge.
-  Falsehood puts on a mask.
-  Nothing is hidden under the sun.
-
-  Fire is to represent truth because it
-  destroys all sophistry and lies; and the
-  mask is for lying and falsehood
-  which conceal truth.
-
-685.
-
-  Movement will cease before we are
-  weary
-  of being useful.
-
-  Movement will fail sooner than usefulness.
-  Death sooner than        I am never weary   of
-  weariness.               being useful,
-  In serving others I      is a motto for carnval.
-  cannot do enough.        Without fatigue.
-
-  No labour is
-  sufficient to tire me.
-
-  Hands into which
-  ducats and precious
-  stones fall like snow; they
-  never become tired by serving,
-  but this  service is only for its
-  utility and not for our      I am never weary
-  own benefit.                 of being useful.
-
-  Naturally
-  nature has so disposed me.
-
-686.
-
-  This shall be placed in the
-  hand of Ingratitude.
-  Wood nourishes the fire that
-  consumes it.
-
-687.
-
-TO REPRESENT INGRATITUDE.
-
-  When the sun appears
-  which dispels darkness in
-  general, you put out the
-  light which dispelled it
-  for you in particular
-  for your need and convenience.
-
-688.
-
-  On this side Adam and Eve on the other;
-  O misery of mankind, of how many things do
-  you make yourself the slave for money!
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXIV. The figures of Adam and Eve in the clouds
-here alluded to would seem to symbolise their superiority to all
-earthly needs.]
-
-689.
-
-Thus are base unions sundered.
-
-[Footnote: A much blurred sketch is on the page by this text. It
-seems to represent an unravelled plait or tissue.]
-
-690.
-
-  Constancy does not begin, but is that
-  which perseveres.
-
-[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk, also rubbed, which stands in the
-original in the middle of this text, seems to me to be intended for
-a sword hilt, held in a fist.]
-
-691.
-
-  Love, Fear, and Esteem,--
-  Write these on three stones. Of servants.
-
-692.
-
-Prudence Strength.
-
-693.
-
-  Fame alone raises herself to Heaven,
-  because virtuous things are in favour with God.
-
-  Disgrace should be represented upside
-  down, because all her deeds are contrary to
-  God and tend to hell.
-
-694.
-
-Short liberty.
-
-695.
-
-  Nothing is so much to be feared as Evil
-  Report.
-  This Evil Report is born of life.
-
-696.
-
-Not to disobey.
-
-697.
-
-  A felled tree which is shooting
-  again.
-
-  I am still hopeful.
-  A falcon,
-  Time.
-
-[Footnote: I. _Albero tagliato_. This emblem was displayed during
-the Carnival at Florence in 1513. See VASARI VI, 251, ed. MILANESI
-1881. But the coincidence is probably accidental.]
-
-698.
-
-  Truth here makes Falsehood torment
-  lying tongues.
-
-699.
-
-  Such as harm is when it hurts me not,
-  is good which avails me not.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 2. Compare this sketch with that on PI.
-LXII, No. 2. Below the two lines of the text there are two more
-lines: _li guchi (giunchi) che ritego le paglucole (pagliucole)
-chelli (che li) anniegano_.]
-
-700.
-
-He who offends others, does not secure himself.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 3.]
-
-701.
-
-Ingratitude.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 4. Below the bottom sketches are the
-unintelligible words "_sta stilli_." For "_Ingratitudo_" compare
-also Nos. 686 and 687.]
-
-702.
-
-One's thoughts turn towards Hope.
-
-[Footnote: 702. By the side of this passage is a sketch of
-a cage with a bird sitting in it.]
-
-Ornaments and Decorations for feasts (703-705).
-
-703.
-
-A bird, for a comedy.
-
-[Footnote: The biographies say so much, and the author's notes say
-so little of the invention attributed to Leonardo of making
-artificial birds fly through the air, that the text here given is of
-exceptional interest from being accompanied by a sketch. It is a
-very slight drawing of a bird with outspread wings, which appears to
-be sliding down a stretched string. Leonardo's flying machines and
-his studies of the flight of birds will be referred to later.]
-
-704.
-
-A DRESS FOR THE CARNIVAL.
-
-To make a beautiful dress cut it in thin cloth and give it an
-odoriferous varnish, made of oil of turpentine and of varnish in
-grain, with a pierced stencil, which must be wetted, that it may not
-stick to the cloth; and this stencil may be made in a pattern of
-knots which afterwards may be filled up with black and the ground
-with white millet.[Footnote 7: The grains of black and white millet
-would stick to the varnish and look like embroidery.]
-
-[Footnote: Ser Giuliano, da Vinci the painter's brother, had been
-commissioned, with some others, to order and to execute the garments
-of the Allegorical figures for the Carnival at Florence in 1515--16;
-VASARI however is incorrect in saying of the Florentine Carnival of
-1513: "_equelli che feciono ed ordinarono gli abiti delle figure
-furono Ser Piero da Vinci, padre di Lonardo, e Bernardino di
-Giordano, bellissimi ingegni_" (See MILANESI'S ed. Voi. VI, pg.
-251.)]
-
-705.
-
-Snow taken from the high peaks of mountains might be carried to hot
-places and let to fall at festivals in open places at summer time.
-
-
-
-*** End of Volume 1
-
-
-The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Volume 2
-
-Translated by Jean Paul Richter
-
-1888
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-XI.
-
-The notes on Sculpture.
-
-Compared with the mass of manuscript treating of Painting, a very
-small number of passages bearing on the practice and methods of
-Sculpture are to be found scattered through the note books; these
-are here given at the beginning of this section (Nos. 706-709).
-There is less cause for surprise at finding that the equestrian
-statue of Francesco Sforza is only incidentally spoken of; for,
-although Leonardo must have worked at it for a long succession of
-years, it is not in the nature of the case that it could have given
-rise to much writing. We may therefore regard it as particularly
-fortunate that no fewer than thirteen notes in the master's
-handwriting can be brought together, which seem to throw light on
-the mysterious history of this famous work. Until now writers on
-Leonardo were acquainted only with the passages numbered 712, 719,
-720, 722 and 723.
-
-In arranging these notes on sculpture I have given the precedence to
-those which treat of the casting of the monument, not merely because
-they are the fullest, but more especially with a view to
-reconstructing the monument, an achievement which really almost lies
-within our reach by combining and comparing the whole of the
-materials now brought to light, alike in notes and in sketches.
-
-A good deal of the first two passages, Nos. 710 and 711, which refer
-to this subject seems obscure and incomprehensible; still, they
-supplement each other and one contributes in no small degree to the
-comprehension of the other. A very interesting and instructive
-commentary on these passages may be found in the fourth chapter of
-Vasari's Introduzione della Scultura under the title "Come si fanno
-i modelli per fare di bronzo le figure grandi e picciole, e come le
-forme per buttarle; come si armino di ferri, e come si gettino di
-metallo," &c. Among the drawings of models of the moulds for casting
-we find only one which seems to represent the horse in the act of
-galloping--No. 713. All the other designs show the horse as pacing
-quietly and as these studies of the horse are accompanied by copious
-notes as to the method of casting, the question as to the position
-of the horse in the model finally selected, seems to be decided by
-preponderating evidence. "Il cavallo dello Sforza"--C. Boito remarks
-very appositely in the Saggio on page 26, "doveva sembrare fratello
-al cavallo del Colleoni. E si direbbe che questo fosse figlio del
-cavallo del Gattamelata, il quale pare figlio di uno dei quattro
-cavalli che stavano forse sull' Arco di Nerone in Roma" (now at
-Venice). The publication of the Saggio also contains the
-reproduction of a drawing in red chalk, representing a horse walking
-to the left and supported by a scaffolding, given here on Pl. LXXVI,
-No. 1. It must remain uncertain whether this represents the model as
-it stood during the preparations for casting it, or whether--as
-seems to me highly improbable--this sketch shows the model as it was
-exhibited in 1493 on the Piazza del Castello in Milan under a
-triumphal arch, on the occasion of the marriage of the Emperor
-Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza. The only important point here is
-to prove that strong evidence seems to show that, of the numerous
-studies for the equestrian statue, only those which represent the
-horse pacing agree with the schemes of the final plans.
-
-The second group of preparatory sketches, representing the horse as
-galloping, must therefore be considered separately, a distinction
-which, in recapitulating the history of the origin of the monument
-seems justified by the note given under No. 720.
-
-Galeazza Maria Sforza was assassinated in 1476 before his scheme for
-erecting a monument to his father Francesco Sforza could be carried
-into effect. In the following year Ludovico il Moro the young
-aspirant to the throne was exiled to Pisa, and only returned to
-Milan in 1479 when he was Lord (Governatore) of the State of Milan,
-in 1480 after the minister Cecco Simonetta had been murdered. It may
-have been soon after this that Ludovico il Moro announced a
-competition for an equestrian statue, and it is tolerably certain
-that Antonio del Pollajuolo took part in it, from this passage in
-Vasari's Life of this artist: "E si trovo, dopo la morte sua, il
-disegno e modello che a Lodovico Sforza egli aveva fatto per la
-statua a cavallo di Francesco Sforza, duca di Milano; il quale
-disegno e nel nostro Libro, in due modi: in uno egli ha sotto
-Verona; nell'altro, egli tutto armato, e sopra un basamento pieno di
-battaglie, fa saltare il cavallo addosso a un armato; ma la cagione
-perche non mettesse questi disegni in opera, non ho gia potuto
-sapere." One of Pollajuolo's drawings, as here described, has lately
-been discovered by Senatore Giovanni Morelli in the Munich
-Pinacothek. Here the profile of the horseman is a portrait of
-Francesco Duke of Milan, and under the horse, who is galloping to
-the left, we see a warrior thrown and lying on the ground; precisely
-the same idea as we find in some of Leonardo's designs for the
-monument, as on Pl. LXVI, LXVII, LXVIII, LXIX and LXXII No. 1; and,
-as it is impossible to explain this remarkable coincidence by
-supposing that either artist borrowed it from the other, we can only
-conclude that in the terms of the competition the subject proposed
-was the Duke on a horse in full gallop, with a fallen foe under its
-hoofs.
-
-Leonardo may have been in the competition there and then, but the
-means for executing the monument do not seem to have been at once
-forthcoming. It was not perhaps until some years later that Leonardo
-in a letter to the Duke (No. 719) reminded him of the project for
-the monument. Then, after he had obeyed a summons to Milan, the plan
-seems to have been so far modified, perhaps in consequence of a
-remonstrance on the part of the artist, that a pacing horse was
-substituted for one galloping, and it may have been at the same time
-that the colossal dimensions of the statue were first decided on.
-The designs given on Pl. LXX, LXXI, LXXII, 2 and 3, LXXIII and LXXIV
-and on pp. 4 and 24, as well as three sketches on Pl. LXIX may be
-studied with reference to the project in its new form, though it is
-hardly possible to believe that in either of these we see the design
-as it was actually carried out. It is probable that in Milan
-Leonardo worked less on drawings, than in making small models of wax
-and clay as preparatory to his larger model. Among the drawings
-enumerated above, one in black chalk, Pl. LXXIII--the upper sketch
-on the right hand side, reminds us strongly of the antique statue of
-Marcus Aurelius. If, as it would seem, Leonardo had not until then
-visited Rome, he might easily have known this statue from drawings
-by his former master and friend Verrocchio, for Verrocchio had been
-in Rome for a long time between 1470 and 1480. In 1473 Pope Sixtus
-IV had this antique equestrian statue restored and placed on a new
-pedestal in front of the church of San Giovanni in Luterano.
-Leonardo, although he was painting independently as early as in 1472
-is still spoken of as working in Verrocchio's studio in 1477. Two
-years later the Venetian senate decided on erecting an equestrian
-statue to Colleoni; and as Verrocchio, to whom the work was
-entrusted, did not at once move from Florence to Venice--where he
-died in 1488 before the casting was completed--but on the contrary
-remained in Florence for some years, perhaps even till 1485,
-Leonardo probably had the opportunity of seeing all his designs for
-the equestrian statue at Venice and the red chalk drawing on Pl.
-LXXIV may be a reminiscence of it.
-
-The pen and ink drawing on Pl. LXXII, No. 3, reminds us of
-Donatello's statue of Gattamelata at Padua. However it does not
-appear that Leonardo was ever at Padua before 1499, but we may
-conclude that he took a special interest in this early bronze statue
-and the reports he could procure of it, form an incidental remark
-which is to be found in C. A. 145a; 432a, and which will be given in
-Vol. II under Ricordi or Memoranda. Among the studies--in the widest
-sense of the word--made in preparation statue we may include the
-Anatomy of the Horse which Lomazzo and Vas mention; the most
-important parts of this work still exist in the Queen's Li Windsor.
-It was beyond a doubt compiled by Leonardo when at Milan; only
-interesting records to be found among these designs are reproduced
-in Nos. 716a but it must be pointed out that out of 40 sheets of
-studies of the movements of the belonging to that treatise, a horse
-in full gallop occurs but once.
-
-If we may trust the account given by Paulus Jovius--about l527--
-Leonardo's horse was represented as "vehementer incitatus et
-anhelatus". Jovius had probably seen the model exhibited at Milan;
-but, need we, in fact, infer from this description that the horse
-was galloping? Compare Vasari's description of the Gattamelata
-monument at Padua: "Egli [Donatello] vi ando ben volentieri, e fece
-il cavallo di bronzo, che e in sulla piazza di Sant Antonio, nel
-quale si dimostra lo sbuffamento ed il fremito del cavallo, ed il
-grande animo e la fierezza vivacissimamente espressa dall'arte nella
-figura che lo cavalca".
-
-These descriptions, it seems to me, would only serve to mark the
-difference between the work of the middle ages and that of the
-renaissance.
-
-We learn from a statement of Sabba da Castiglione that, when Milan
-was taken by the French in 1499, the model sustained some injury;
-and this informant, who, however is not invariably trustworthy, adds
-that Leonardo had devoted fully sixteen years to this work (la forma
-del cavallo, intorno a cui Leonardo avea sedici anni continui
-consumati). This often-quoted passage has given ground for an
-assumption, which has no other evidence to support it, that Leonardo
-had lived in Milan ever since 1483. But I believe it is nearer the
-truth to suppose that this author's statement alludes to the fact
-that about sixteen years must have past since the competition in
-which Leonardo had taken part.
-
-I must in these remarks confine myself strictly to the task in hand
-and give no more of the history of the Sforza monument than is
-needed to explain the texts and drawings I have been able to
-reproduce. In the first place, with regard to the drawings, I may
-observe that they are all, with the following two exceptions, in the
-Queen's Library at Windsor Castle; the red chalk drawing on Pl.
-LXXVI No. 1 is in the MS. C. A. (see No. 7l2) and the fragmentary
-pen and ink drawing on page 4 is in the Ambrosian Library. The
-drawings from Windsor on Pl. LXVI have undergone a trifling
-reduction from the size of the originals.
-
-There can no longer be the slightest doubt that the well-known
-engraving of several horsemen (Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, Vol.
-V, p. 181, No. 3) is only a copy after original drawings by
-Leonardo, executed by some unknown engraver; we have only to compare
-the engraving with the facsimiles of drawings on Pl. LXV, No. 2, Pl.
-LXVII, LXVIII and LXIX which, it is quite evident, have served as
-models for the engraver.
-
-On Pl. LXV No. 1, in the larger sketch to the right hand, only the
-base is distinctly visible, the figure of the horseman is effaced.
-Leonardo evidently found it unsatisfactory and therefore rubbed it
-out.
-
-The base of the monument--the pedestal for the equestrian statue--is
-repeatedly sketched on a magnificent plan. In the sketch just
-mentioned it has the character of a shrine or aedicula to contain a
-sarcophagus. Captives in chains are here represented on the
-entablature with their backs turned to that portion of the monument
-which more
-
-strictly constitutes the pedestal of the horse. The lower portion of
-the aedicula is surrounded by columns. In the pen and ink drawing
-Pl. LXVI--the lower drawing on the right hand side--the sarcophagus
-is shown between the columns, and above the entablature is a plinth
-on which the horse stands. But this arrangement perhaps seemed to
-Leonardo to lack solidity, and in the little sketch on the left
-hand, below, the sarcophagus is shown as lying under an arched
-canopy. In this the trophies and the captive warriors are detached
-from the angles. In the first of these two sketches the place for
-the trophies is merely indicated by a few strokes; in the third
-sketch on the left the base is altogether broader, buttresses and
-pinnacles having been added so as to form three niches. The black
-chalk drawing on Pl. LXVIII shows a base in which the angles are
-formed by niches with pilasters. In the little sketch to the extreme
-left on Pl. LXV, No. 1, the equestrian statue serves to crown a
-circular temple somewhat resembling Bramante's tempietto of San
-Pietro in Montario at Rome, while the sketch above to the right
-displays an arrangement faintly reminding us of the tomb of the
-Scaligers in Verona. The base is thus constructed of two platforms
-or slabs, the upper one considerably smaller than the lower one
-which is supported on flying buttresses with pinnacles.
-
-On looking over the numerous studies in which the horse is not
-galloping but merely walking forward, we find only one drawing for
-the pedestal, and this, to accord with the altered character of the
-statue, is quieter and simpler in style (Pl. LXXIV). It rises almost
-vertically from the ground and is exactly as long as the pacing
-horse. The whole base is here arranged either as an independent
-baldaquin or else as a projecting canopy over a recess in which the
-figure of the deceased Duke is seen lying on his sarcophagus; in the
-latter case it was probably intended as a tomb inside a church.
-Here, too, it was intended to fill the angles with trophies or
-captive warriors. Probably only No. 724 in the text refers to the
-work for the base of the monument.
-
-If we compare the last mentioned sketch with the description of a
-plan for an equestrian monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (No. 725)
-it seems by no means impossible that this drawing is a preparatory
-study for the very monument concerning which the manuscript gives us
-detailed information. We have no historical record regarding this
-sketch nor do the archives in the Trivulzio Palace give us any
-information. The simple monument to the great general in San Nazaro
-Maggiore in Milan consists merely of a sarcophagus placed in recess
-high on the wall of an octagonal chapel. The figure of the warrior
-is lying on the sarcophagus, on which his name is inscribed; a piece
-of sculpture which is certainly not Leonardo's work. Gian Giacomo
-Trivulzio died at Chartres in 1518, only five months before
-Leonardo, and it seems to me highly improbable that this should have
-been the date of this sketch; under these circumstances it would
-have been done under the auspices of Francis I, but the Italian
-general was certainly not in favour with the French monarch at the
-time. Gian Giacomo Trivulzio was a sworn foe to Ludovico il Moro,
-whom he strove for years to overthrow. On the 6th September 1499 he
-marched victorious into Milan at the head of a French army. In a
-short time, however, he was forced to quit Milan again when Ludovico
-il Moro bore down upon the city with a force of Swiss troops. On the
-15th of April following, after defeating Lodovico at Novara,
-Trivulzio once more entered Milan as a Conqueror, but his hopes of
-becoming _Governatore_ of the place were soon wrecked by intrigue.
-This victory and triumph, historians tell us, were signalised by
-acts of vengeance against the dethroned Sforza, and it might have
-been particularly flattering to him that the casting and
-construction of the Sforza monument were suspended for the time.
-
-It must have been at this moment--as it seems to me--that he
-commissioned the artist to prepare designs for his own monument,
-which he probably intended should find a place in the Cathedral or
-in some other church. He, the husband of Margherita di Nicolino
-Colleoni, would have thought that he had a claim to the same
-distinction and public homage as his less illustrious connection had
-received at the hands of the Venetian republic. It was at this very
-time that Trivulzio had a medal struck with a bust portrait of
-himself and the following remarkable inscription on the reverse:_
-DEO FAVENTE--1499--DICTVS--10--IA--EXPVLIT--LVDOVICV--SF--
-(Sfortiam) DVC-- (ducem) MLI (Mediolani)--NOIE
-(nomine)--REGIS--FRANCORVM--EODEM--ANN --(anno) RED'T (redit)--LVS
-(Ludovicus)--SVPERATVS ET CAPTVS--EST--AB--EO. _In the Library of
-the Palazzo Trivulzio there is a MS. of Callimachus Siculus written
-at the end of the XVth or beginning of the XVIth century. At the
-beginning of this MS. there is an exquisite illuminated miniature of
-an equestrian statue with the name of the general on the base; it is
-however very doubtful whether this has any connection with
-Leonardo's design.
-
-Nos. 731-740, which treat of casting bronze, have probably a very
-indirect bearing on the arrangements made for casting the equestrian
-statue of Francesco Sforza. Some portions evidently relate to the
-casting of cannon. Still, in our researches about Leonardo's work on
-the monument, we may refer to them as giving us some clue to the
-process of bronze casting at that period.
-
-Some practical hints (706-709).
-
-7O6.
-
-OF A STATUE.
-
-If you wish to make a figure in marble, first make one of clay, and
-when you have finished it, let it dry and place it in a case which
-should be large enough, after the figure is taken out of it, to
-receive also the marble, from which you intend to reveal the figure
-in imitation of the one in clay. After you have put the clay figure
-into this said case, have little rods which will exactly slip in to
-the holes in it, and thrust them so far in at each hole that each
-white rod may touch the figure in different parts of it. And colour
-the portion of the rod that remains outside black, and mark each rod
-and each hole with a countersign so that each may fit into its
-place. Then take the clay figure out of this case and put in your
-piece of marble, taking off so much of the marble that all your rods
-may be hidden in the holes as far as their marks; and to be the
-better able to do this, make the case so that it can be lifted up;
-but the bottom of it will always remain under the marble and in this
-way it can be lifted with tools with great ease.
-
-707.
-
-Some have erred in teaching sculptors to measure the limbs of their
-figures with threads as if they thought that these limbs were
-equally round in every part where these threads were wound about
-them.
-
-708.
-
-MEASUREMENT AND DIVISION OF A STATUE.
-
-Divide the head into 12 degrees, and each degree divide into 12
-points, and each point into 12 minutes, and the minutes into minims
-and the minims into semi minims.
-
-Degree--point--minute--minim.
-
-709.
-
-Sculptured figures which appear in motion, will, in their standing
-position, actually look as if they were falling forward.
-
-[Footnote: _figure di rilievo_. Leonardo applies this term
-exclusively to wholly detached figures, especially to those standing
-free. This note apparently refers to some particular case, though we
-have no knowledge of what that may have been. If we suppose it to
-refer to the first model of the equestrian statue of Francesco
-Sforza (see the introduction to the notes on Sculpture) this
-observation may be regarded as one of his arguments for abandoning
-the first scheme of the Sforza Monument, in which the horse was to
-be galloping (see page 2). It is also in favour of this theory that
-the note is written in a manuscript volume already completed in
-1492. Leonardo's opinions as to the shortcomings of plastic works
-when compared with paintings are given under No. 655 and 656.]
-
-Notes on the casting of the Sforza monument (710-715).
-
-710.
-
-Three braces which bind the mould.
-
-[If you want to make simple casts quickly, make them in a box of
-river sand wetted with vinegar.]
-
-[When you shall have made the mould upon the horse you must make the
-thickness of the metal in clay.]
-
-Observe in alloying how many hours are wanted for each
-hundredweight. [In casting each one keep the furnace and its fire
-well stopped up.] [Let the inside of all the moulds be wetted with
-linseed oil or oil of turpentine, and then take a handful of
-powdered borax and Greek pitch with aqua vitae, and pitch the mould
-over outside so that being under ground the damp may not [damage
-it?]
-
-[To manage the large mould make a model of the small mould, make a
-small room in proportion.]
-
-[Make the vents in the mould while it is on the horse.]
-
-Hold the hoofs in the tongs, and cast them with fish glue. Weigh the
-parts of the mould and the quantity of metal it will take to fill
-them, and give so much to the furnace that it may afford to each
-part its amount of metal; and this you may know by weighing the clay
-of each part of the mould to which the quantity in the furnace must
-correspond. And this is done in order that the furnace for the legs
-when filled may not have to furnish metal from the legs to help out
-the head, which would be impossible. [Cast at the same casting as
-the horse the little door]
-
-[Footnote: The importance of the notes included under this number is
-not diminished by the fact that they have been lightly crossed out
-with red chalk. Possibly they were the first scheme for some fuller
-observations which no longer exist; or perhaps they were crossed out
-when Leonardo found himself obliged to give up the idea of casting
-the equestrian statue. In the original the first two sketches are
-above l. 1, and the third below l. 9.]
-
-711.
-
-THE MOULD FOR THE HORSE.
-
-Make the horse on legs of iron, strong and well set on a good
-foundation; then grease it and cover it with a coating, leaving each
-coat to dry thoroughly layer by layer; and this will thicken it by
-the breadth of three fingers. Now fix and bind it with iron as may
-be necessary. Moreover take off the mould and then make the
-thickness. Then fill the mould by degrees and make it good
-throughout; encircle and bind it with its irons and bake it inside
-where it has to touch the bronze.
-
-OF MAKING THE MOULD IN PIECES.
-
-Draw upon the horse, when finished, all the pieces of the mould with
-which you wish to cover the horse, and in laying on the clay cut it
-in every piece, so that when the mould is finished you can take it
-off, and then recompose it in its former position with its joins, by
-the countersigns.
-
-The square blocks _a b_ will be between the cover and the core, that
-is in the hollow where the melted bronze is to be; and these square
-blocks of bronze will support the intervals between the mould and
-the cover at an equal distance, and for this reason these squares
-are of great importance.
-
-The clay should be mixed with sand.
-
-Take wax, to return [what is not used] and to pay for what is used.
-
-Dry it in layers.
-
-Make the outside mould of plaster, to save time in drying and the
-expense in wood; and with this plaster enclose the irons [props]
-both outside and inside to a thickness of two fingers; make terra
-cotta. And this mould can be made in one day; half a boat load of
-plaster will serve you.
-
-Good.
-
-Dam it up again with glue and clay, or white of egg, and bricks and
-rubbish.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXV. The figure "40," close to the sketch in the
-middle of the page between lines 16 and 17 has been added by a
-collector's hand.
-
-In the original, below line 21, a square piece of the page has been
-cut out about 9 centimetres by 7 and a blank piece has been gummed
-into the place.
-
-Lines 22-24 are written on the margin. l. 27 and 28 are close to the
-second marginal sketch. l. 42 is a note written above the third
-marginal sketch and on the back of this sheet is the text given as
-No. 642. Compare also No. 802.]
-
-712.
-
-All the heads of the large nails.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI, No. i. This drawing has already been
-published in the "_Saggio delle Opere di L. da Vinci_." Milano 1872,
-Pl. XXIV, No. i. But, for various reasons I cannot regard the
-editor's suggestions as satisfactory. He says: "_Veggonsi le
-armature di legname colle quali forse venne sostenuto il modello,
-quando per le nozze di Bianca Maria Sforza con Massimiliano
-imperatore, esso fu collocato sotto un arco trionfale davanti al
-Castello_."
-
-713.
-
-These bindings go inside.
-
-714.
-
-Salt may be made from human excrements, burnt and calcined, made
-into lees and dried slowly at a fire, and all the excrements produce
-salt in a similar way and these salts when distilled, are very
-strong.
-
-[Footnote: VASARI repeatedly states, in the fourth chapter of his
-_Introduzione della Scultura_, that in preparing to cast bronze
-statues horse-dung was frequently used by sculptors. If,
-notwithstanding this, it remains doubtful whether I am justified in
-having introduced here this text of but little interest, no such
-doubt can be attached to the sketch which accompanies it.]
-
-715.
-
-METHOD OF FOUNDING AGAIN.
-
-This may be done when the furnace is made [Footnote: this note is
-written below the sketches.] strong and bruised.
-
-Models for the horse of the Sforza monument (716-718).
-
-7l6.
-
-Messer Galeazzo's big genet
-
-717.
-
-Messer Galeazzo's Sicilian horse.
-
-[Footnote: These notes are by the side of a drawing of a horse with
-figured measurements.]
-
-718.
-
-Measurement of the Sicilian horse the leg from behind, seen in
-front, lifted and extended.
-
-[Footnote: There is no sketch belonging to this passage. Galeazze
-here probably means Galeazze di San Severino, the famous captain who
-married Bianca the daughter of Ludovico il Moro.]
-
-Occasional references to the Sforza monument (719-724).
-
-719.
-
-Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to the
-immortal glory and eternal honour of the happy memory of the prince
-your father, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
-
-[Footnote: The letter from which this passage is here extracted will
-be found complete in section XXI. (see the explanation of it, on
-page 2).]
-
-720.
-
-On the 23rd of April 1490 I began this book, and recommenced the
-horse.
-
-721.
-
-There is to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and Piacenza, a
-multitude of shells and corals full of holes, still sticking to the
-rocks, and when I was at work on the great horse for Milan, a large
-sackful of them, which were found thereabout, was brought to me into
-my workshop, by certain peasants.
-
-722.
-
-Believe me, Leonardo the Florentine, who has to do the equestrian
-bronze statue of the Duke Francesco that he does not need to care
-about it, because he has work for all his life time, and, being so
-great a work, I doubt whether he can ever finish it. [Footnote: This
-passage is quoted from a letter to a committee at Piacenza for whom
-Leonardo seems to have undertaken to execute some work. The letter
-is given entire in section XXL; in it Leonardo remonstrates as to
-some unreasonable demands.]
-
-723.
-
-Of the horse I will say nothing because I know the times. [Footnote:
-This passage occurs in a rough copy of a letter to Ludovico il Moro,
-without date (see below among the letters).]
-
-724.
-
-During ten years the works on the marbles have been going on I will
-not wait for my payment beyond the time, when my works are finished.
-[Footnote: This possibly refers to the works for the pedestal of the
-equestrian statue concerning which we have no farther information in
-the MSS. See p. 6.]
-
-The project of the Trivulzio monument.
-
-725.
-
-THE MONUMENT TO MESSER GIOVANNI JACOMO DA TREVULZO.
-
-[2] Cost of the making and materials for the horse [5].
-
-[Footnote: In the original, lines 2-5, 12-14, 33-35, are written on
-the margin. This passage has been recently published by G. Govi in
-Vol. V, Ser. 3a, of _Transunti, Reale Accademia dei Linea, sed. del
-5 Giugno, 1881,_ with the following introductory note: _"Desidero
-intanto che siano stampati questi pochi frammenti perche so che sono
-stati trascritti ultimamente, e verranno messi in luce tra poco
-fuori d'Italia. Li ripubblichi pure chi vuole, ma si sappia almeno
-che anche tra noi si conoscevano, e s'eran raccolti da anni per
-comporne, quando che fosse, una edizione ordinata degli scritti di
-Leonardo."_
-
-The learned editor has left out line 22 and has written 3 _pie_ for
-8 _piedi_ in line 25. There are other deviations of less importance
-from the original.]
-
-A courser, as large as life, with the rider requires for the cost of
-the metal, duc. 500.
-
-And for cost of the iron work which is inside the model, and
-charcoal, and wood, and the pit to cast it in, and for binding the
-mould, and including the furnace where it is to be cast ... duc.
-200.
-
-To make the model in clay and then in wax......... duc. 432.
-
-To the labourers for polishing it when it is cast. ....... duc. 450.
-
-in all. . duc. 1582.
-
-[12] Cost of the marble of the monument [14].
-
-Cost of the marble according to the drawing. The piece of marble
-under the horse which is 4 braccia long, 2 braccia and 2 inches wide
-and 9 inches thick 58 hundredweight, at 4 Lire and 10 Soldi per
-hundredweight.. duc. 58.
-
-And for 13 braccia and 6 inches of cornice, 7 in. wide and 4 in.
-thick, 24 hundredweight....... duc. 24.
-
-And for the frieze and architrave, which is 4 br. and 6 in. long, 2
-br. wide and 6 in. thick, 29 hundredweight., duc. 20.
-
-And for the capitals made of metal, which are 8, 5 inches in. square
-and 2 in. thick, at the price of 15 ducats each, will come to......
-duc. 122.
-
-And for 8 columns of 2 br. 7 in., 4 1/2 in. thick, 20 hundredweight
-duc. 20.
-
-And for 8 bases which are 5 1/2 in. square and 2 in. high 5 hund'..
-duc. 5.
-
-And for the slab of the tombstone 4 br. io in. long, 2 br. 4 1/2 in.
-wide 36 hundredweight....... duc. 36.
-
-And for 8 pedestal feet each 8 br. long and 6 1/2 in. wide and 6 1/2
-in. thick, 20 hundredweight come to... duc. 20.
-
-And for the cornice below which is 4 br. and 10 in. long, and 2 br.
-and 5 in. wide, and 4 in. thick, 32 hund'.. duc. 32.
-
-And for the stone of which the figure of the deceased is to be made
-which is 3 br. and 8 in. long, and 1 br. and 6 in. wide, and 9 in.
-thick, 30 hund'.. duc. 30.
-
-And for the stone on which the figure lies which is 3 br. and 4 in.
-long and 1 br. and 2 in., wide and 4 1/2 in. thick duc. 16.
-
-And for the squares of marble placed between the pedestals which are
-8 and are 9 br. long and 9 in. wide, and 3 in. thick, 8
-hundredweight . . . duc. 8. in all. . duc. 389.
-
-[33]Cost of the work in marble[35].
-
-Round the base on which the horse stands there are 8 figures at 25
-ducats each ............ duc. 200.
-
-And on the same base there are 8 festoons with some other ornaments,
-and of these there are 4 at the price of 15 ducats each, and 4 at
-the price of 8 ducats each ....... duc. 92.
-
-And for squaring the stones duc. 6.
-
-Again, for the large cornice which goes below the base on which the
-horse stands, which is 13 br. and 6 in., at 2 due. per br. ......
-duc. 27.
-
-And for 12 br. of frieze at 5 due. per br. ........... duc. 60.
-
-And for 12 br. of architrave at 1 1/2 duc. per br. ....... duc. 18.
-
-And for 3 rosettes which will be the soffit of the monument, at 20
-ducats each .......... duc. 60.
-
-And for 8 fluted columns at 8 ducats each ......... duc. 64.
-
-And for 8 bases at 1 ducat each, duc. 8.
-
-And for 8 pedestals, of which 4 are at 10 duc. each, which go above
-the angles; and 4 at 6 duc. each .. duc. 64.
-
-And for squaring and carving the moulding of the pedestals at 2 duc.
-each, and there are 8 .... duc. 16.
-
-And for 6 square blocks with figures and trophies, at 25 duc. each
-.. duc. 150.
-
-And for carving the moulding of the stone under the figure of the
-deceased .......... duc. 40.
-
-For the statue of the deceased, to do it well .......... duc. 100.
-
-For 6 harpies with candelabra, at 25 ducats each ......... duc. 150.
-
-For squaring the stone on which the statue lies, and carving the
-moulding ............ duc. 20.
-
-in all .. duc. 1075.
-
-The sum total of every thing added together amount to ...... duc.
-3046.
-
-726.
-
-MINT AT ROME.
-
-It can also be made without a spring. But the screw above must
-always be joined to the part of the movable sheath: [Margin note:
-The mint of Rome.] [Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI. This passage is taken
-from a note book which can be proved to have been used in Rome.]
-
-All coins which do not have the rim complete, are not to be accepted
-as good; and to secure the perfection of their rim it is requisite
-that, in the first place, all the coins should be a perfect circle;
-and to do this a coin must before all be made perfect in weight, and
-size, and thickness. Therefore have several plates of metal made of
-the same size and thickness, all drawn through the same gauge so as
-to come out in strips. And out of [24] these strips you will stamp
-the coins, quite round, as sieves are made for sorting chestnuts
-[27]; and these coins can then be stamped in the way indicated
-above; &c.
-
-[31] The hollow of the die must be uniformly wider than the lower,
-but imperceptibly [35].
-
-This cuts the coins perfectly round and of the exact thickness, and
-weight; and saves the man who cuts and weighs, and the man who makes
-the coins round. Hence it passes only through the hands of the
-gauger and of the stamper, and the coins are very superior.
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI No. 2. The text of lines 31-35 stands
-parallel 1. 24-27.
-
-Farther evidence of Leonardo's occupations and engagements at Rome
-under Pope Leo X. may be gathered from some rough copies of letters
-which will be found in this volume. Hitherto nothing has been known
-of his work in Rome beyond some doubtful, and perhaps mythical,
-statements in Vasari.]
-
-727.
-
-POWDER FOR MEDALS.
-
-The incombustible growth of soot on wicks reduced to powder, burnt
-tin and all the metals, alum, isinglass, smoke from a brass forge,
-each ingredient to be moistened, with aqua vitae or malmsey or
-strong malt vinegar, white wine or distilled extract of turpentine,
-or oil; but there should be little moisture, and cast in moulds.
-[Margin note: On the coining of medals (727. 728).] [Footnote: The
-meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]
-
-728.
-
-OF TAKING CASTS OF MEDALS.
-
-A paste of emery mixed with aqua vitae, or iron filings with
-vinegar, or ashes of walnut leaves, or ashes of straw very finely
-powdered.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]
-
-The diameter is given in the lead enclosed; it is beaten with a
-hammer and several times extended; the lead is folded and kept
-wrapped up in parchment so that the powder may not be spilt; then
-melt the lead, and the powder will be on the top of the melted lead,
-which must then be rubbed between two plates of steel till it is
-thoroughly pulverised; then wash it with aqua fortis, and the
-blackness of the iron will be dissolved leaving the powder clean.
-
-Emery in large grains may be broken by putting it on a cloth many
-times doubled, and hit it sideways with the hammer, when it will
-break up; then mix it little by little and it can be founded with
-ease; but if you hold it on the anvil you will never break it, when
-it is large.
-
-Any one who grinds smalt should do it on plates of tempered steel
-with a cone shaped grinder; then put it in aqua fortis, which melts
-away the steel that may have been worked up and mixed with the
-smalt, and which makes it black; it then remains purified and clean;
-and if you grind it on porphyry the porphyry will work up and mix
-with the smalt and spoil it, and aqua fortis will never remove it
-because it cannot dissolve the porphyry.
-
-If you want a fine blue colour dissolve the smalt made with tartar,
-and then remove the salt.
-
-Vitrified brass makes a fine red.
-
-729.
-
-STUCCO.
-
-Place stucco over the prominence of the..... which may be composed
-of Venus and Mercury, and lay it well over that prominence of the
-thickness of the side of a knife, made with the ruler and cover this
-with the bell of a still, and you will have again the moisture with
-which you applied the paste. The rest you may dry [Margin note: On
-stucco (729. 730).] [Footnote: In this passage a few words have been
-written in a sort of cipher--that is to say backwards; as in l. 3
-_erenev_ for _Venere_, l. 4 _oirucrem_ for Mercurio, l. 12 _il
-orreve co ecarob_ for _il everro (?) co borace_. The meaning of the
-word before _"di giesso"_ in l. 1 is unknown; and the sense, in
-which _sagoma_ is used here and in other passages is obscure.--
-_Venere_ and _Mercurio_ may mean 'marble' and 'lime', of which
-stucco is composed.
-
-12. The meaning of _orreve_ is unknown.]
-
-well; afterwards fire it, and beat it or burnish it with a good
-burnisher, and make it thick towards the side.
-
-STUCCO.
-
-Powder ... with borax and water to a paste, and make stucco of it,
-and then heat it so that it may dry, and then varnish it, with fire,
-so that it shines well.
-
-730.
-
-STUCCO FOR MOULDING.
-
-Take of butter 6 parts, of wax 2 parts, and as much fine flour as
-when put with these 2 things melted, will make them as firm as wax
-or modelling clay.
-
-GLUE.
-
-Take mastic, distilled turpentine and white lead.
-
-On bronze casting generally (731-740).
-
-731.
-
-TO CAST.
-
-Tartar burnt and powdered with plaster and cast cause the plaster to
-hold together when it is mixed up again; and then it will dissolve
-in water.
-
-732.
-
-TO CAST BRONZE IN PLASTER.
-
-Take to every 2 cups of plaster 1 of ox-horns burnt, mix them
-together and make your cast with it.
-
-733.
-
-When you want to take a cast in wax, burn the scum with a candle,
-and the cast will come out without bubbles.
-
-734.
-
-2 ounces of plaster to a pound of metal;-- walnut, which makes it
-like the curve.
-
-[Footnote: The second part of this is quite obscure.]
-
-735.
-
-[Dried earth 16 pounds, 100 pounds of metal wet clay 20,--of wet
-100,-half,- which increases 4 Ibs. of water,--1 of wax, 1 Ib. of
-metal, a little less,-the scrapings of linen with earth, measure for
-measure.] [Footnote: The translation is given literally, but the
-meaning is quite obscure.]
-
-736.
-
-Such as the mould is, so will the cast be.
-
-737.
-
-HOW CASTS OUGHT TO BE POLISHED.
-
-Make a bunch of iron wire as thick as thread, and scrub them with
-[this and] water; hold a bowl underneath that it may not make a mud
-below.
-
-HOW TO REMOVE THE ROUGH EDGES FROM BRONZE.
-
-Make an iron rod, after the manner of a large chisel, and with this
-rub over those seams on the bronze which remain on the casts of the
-guns, and which are caused by the joins in the mould; but make the
-tool heavy enough, and let the strokes be long and broad.
-
-TO FACILITATE MELTING.
-
-First alloy part of the metal in the crucible, then put it in the
-furnace, and this being in a molten state will assist in beginning
-to melt the copper.
-
-TO PREVENT THE COPPER COOLING IN THE FURNACE.
-
-When the copper cools in the furnace, be ready, as soon as you
-perceive it, to cut it with a long stick while it is still in a
-paste; or if it is quite cold cut it as lead is cut with broad and
-large chisels.
-
-IF YOU HAVE TO MAKE A LARGE CAST.
-
-If you have to make a cast of a hundred thousand pounds do it with
-two furnaces and with 2000 pounds in each, or as much as 3000 pounds
-at most.
-
-738.
-
-HOW TO PROCEED TO BREAK A LARGE MASS OF BRONZE.
-
-If you want to break up a large mass of bronze, first suspend it,
-and then make round it a wall on the four sides, like a trough of
-bricks, and make a great fire therein. When it is quite red hot give
-it a blow with a heavy weight raised above it, and with great force.
-
-739.
-
-TO COMBINE LEAD WITH OTHER METAL.
-
-If you wish for economy in combining lead with the metal in order to
-lessen the amount of tin which is necessary in the metal, first
-alloy the lead with the tin and then add the molten copper.
-
-How TO MELT [METAL] IN A FURNACE.
-
-The furnace should be between four well founded pillars.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF THE COATING.
-
-The coating should not be more than two fingers thick, it should be
-laid on in four thicknesses over fine clay and then well fixed, and
-it should be fired only on the inside and then carefully covered
-with ashes and cow's dung.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF THE GUN.
-
-The gun being made to carry 600 Ibs. of ball and more, by this rule
-you will take the measure of the diameter of the ball and divide it
-into 6 parts and one of these parts will be its thickness at the
-muzzle; but at the breech it must always be half. And if the ball is
-to be 700 lbs., 1/7th of the diameter of the ball must be its
-thickness in front; and if the ball is to be 800, the eighth of its
-diameter in front; and if 900, 1/8th and 1/2 [3/16], and if 1000,
-1/9th.
-
-OF THE LENGTH OF THE BODY OF THE GUN.
-
-If you want it to throw a ball of stone, make the length of the gun
-to be 6, or as much as 7 diameters of the ball; and if the ball is
-to be of iron make it as much as 12 balls, and if the ball is to be
-of lead, make it as much as 18 balls. I mean when the gun is to have
-the mouth fitted to receive 600 lbs. of stone ball, and more.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF SMALL GUNS.
-
-The thickness at the muzzle of small guns should be from a half to
-one third of the diameter of the ball, and the length from 30 to 36
-balls.
-
-740.
-
-OF LUTING THE FURNACE WITHIN.
-
-The furnace must be luted before you put the metal in it, with earth
-from Valenza, and over that with ashes.
-
-[Footnote 1. 2.: _Terra di Valenza_.--Valenza is north of
-Alessandria on the Po.]
-
-OF RESTORING THE METAL WHEN IT IS BECOMING COOL.
-
-When you see that the bronze is congealing take some willow-wood cut
-in small chips and make up the fire with it.
-
-THE CAUSE OF ITS CURDLING.
-
-I say that the cause of this congealing often proceeds from too much
-fire, or from ill-dried wood.
-
-TO KNOW THE CONDITION OF THE FIRE.
-
-You may know when the fire is good and fit for your purpose by a
-clear flame, and if you see the tips of the flames dull and ending
-in much smoke do not trust it, and particularly when the flux metal
-is almost fluid.
-
-OF ALLOYING THE METAL.
-
-Metal for guns must invariably be made with 6 or even 8 per cent,
-that is 6 of tin to one hundred of copper, for the less you put in,
-the stronger will the gun be.
-
-WHEN THE TIN SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE COPPER.
-
-The tin should be put in with the copper when the copper is reduced
-to a fluid.
-
-HOW TO HASTEN THE MELTING.
-
-You can hasten the melting when 2/3ds of the copper is fluid; you
-can then, with a stick of chestnut-wood, repeatedly stir what of
-copper remains entire amidst what is melted.
-
-_Introductory Observations on the Architectural Designs (XII), and
-Writings on Architecture (XIII)._
-
-_Until now very little has been known regarding Leonardo's labours
-in the domain of Architecture. No building is known to have been
-planned and executed by him, though by some contemporary writers
-incidental allusion is made to his occupying himself with
-architecture, and his famous letter to Lodovico il Moro,--which has
-long been a well-known document,--in which he offers his service as
-an architect to that prince, tends to confirm the belief that he was
-something more than an amateur of the art. This hypothesis has
-lately been confirmed by the publication of certain documents,
-preserved at Milan, showing that Leonardo was not only employed in
-preparing plans but that he took an active part, with much credit,
-as member of a commission on public buildings; his name remains
-linked with the history of the building of the Cathedral at Pavia
-and that of the Cathedral at Milan._
-
-_Leonardo's writings on Architecture are dispersed among a large
-number of MSS., and it would be scarcely possible to master their
-contents without the opportunity of arranging, sorting and comparing
-the whole mass of materials, so as to have some comprehensive idea
-of the whole. The sketches, when isolated and considered by
-themselves, might appear to be of but little value; it is not till
-we understand their general purport, from comparing them with each
-other, that we can form any just estimate of their true worth._
-
-_Leonardo seems to have had a project for writing a complete and
-separate treatise on Architecture, such as his predecessors and
-contemporaries had composed--Leon Battista Alberti, Filarete,
-Francesco di Giorgio and perhaps also Bramante. But, on the other
-hand, it cannot be denied that possibly no such scheme was connected
-with the isolated notes and researches, treating on special
-questions, which are given in this work; that he was merely working
-at problems in which, for some reason or other he took a special
-interest._
-
-_A great number of important buildings were constructed in Lombardy
-during the period between 1472 and 1499, and among them there are
-several by unknown architects, of so high an artistic merit, that it
-is certainly not improbable that either Bramante or Leonardo da
-Vinci may have been, directly or indirectly, concerned in their
-erection._
-
-_Having been engaged, for now nearly twenty years, in a thorough
-study of Bramante's life and labours, I have taken a particular
-interest in detecting the distinguishing marks of his style as
-compared with Leonardo's. In 1869 I made researches about the
-architectural drawings of the latter in the Codex Atlanticus at
-Milan, for the purpose of finding out, if possible the original
-plans and sketches of the churches of Santa Maria delle Grazie at
-Milan, and of the Cathedral at Pavia, which buildings have been
-supposed to be the work both of Bramante and of Leonardo. Since 1876
-I have repeatedly examined Leonardo's architectural studies in the
-collection of his manuscripts in the Institut de France, and some of
-these I have already given to the public in my work on_ "Les Projets
-Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome", _P1. 43. In 1879
-I had the opportunity of examining the manuscript in the Palazzo
-Trivulzio at Milan, and in 1880 Dr Richter showed me in London the
-manuscripts in the possession of Lord Ashburnham, and those in the
-British Museum. I have thus had opportunities of seeing most of
-Leonardo's architectural drawings in the original, but of the
-manuscripts tliemselves I have deciphered only the notes which
-accompany the sketches. It is to Dr Richter's exertions that we owe
-the collected texts on Architecture which are now published, and
-while he has undertaken to be responsible for the correct reading of
-the original texts, he has also made it his task to extract the
-whole of the materials from the various MSS. It has been my task to
-arrange and elucidate the texts under the heads which have been
-adopted in this work. MS. B. at Paris and the Codex Atlanticus at
-Milan are the chief sources of our knowledge of Leonardo as an
-architect, and I have recently subjected these to a thorough
-re-investigation expressly with a view to this work._
-
-_A complete reproduction of all Leonardo's architectural sketches
-has not, indeed, been possible, but as far as the necessarily
-restricted limits of the work have allowed, the utmost completeness
-has been aimed at, and no efforts have been spared to include every
-thing that can contribute to a knowledge of Leonardo's style. It
-would have been very interesting, if it had been possible, to give
-some general account at least of Leonardo's work and studies in
-engineering, fortification, canal-making and the like, and it is
-only on mature reflection that we have reluctantly abandoned this
-idea. Leonardo's occupations in these departments have by no means
-so close a relation to literary work, in the strict sense of the
-word as we are fairly justified in attributing to his numerous notes
-on Architecture._
-
-_Leonardo's architectural studies fall naturally under two heads:_
-
-_I. Those drawings and sketches, often accompanied by short remarks
-and explanations, which may be regarded as designs for buildings or
-monuments intended to be built. With these there are occasionally
-explanatory texts._
-
-_II. Theoretical investigations and treatises. A special interest
-attaches to these because they discuss a variety of questions which
-are of practical importance to this day. Leonardo's theory as to the
-origin and progress of cracks in buildings is perhaps to be
-considered as unique in its way in the literature of Architecture._
-
-_HENRY DE GEYMULLER_
-
-_XII._
-
-_Architectural Designs._
-
-_I. Plans for towns._
-
-_A. Sketches for laying out a new town with a double system of high-
-level and low-level road-ways._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 15b). A general view of a town, with the
-roads outside it sloping up to the high-level ways within._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 3 (MS. B, 16b. see No. 741; and MS. B. 15b, see No.
-742) gives a partial view of the town, with its streets and houses,
-with explanatory references._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 2 (MS. B, 15b; see No. 743). View of a double
-staircaise with two opposite flights of steps._
-
-_Pl. LXXVIII, Nos. 2 and 3 (MS. B, 37a). Sketches illustrating the
-connection of the two levels of roads by means of steps. The lower
-galleries are lighted by openings in the upper roadway._
-
-_B. Notes on removing houses (MS. Br. M., 270b, see No. 744)._
-
-741.
-
-The roads _m_ are 6 braccia higher than the roads _p s_, and each
-road must be 20 braccia wide and have 1/2 braccio slope from the
-sides towards the middle; and in the middle let there be at every
-braccio an opening, one braccio long and one finger wide, where the
-rain water may run off into hollows made on the same level as _p s_.
-And on each side at the extremity of the width of the said road let
-there be an arcade, 6 braccia broad, on columns; and understand that
-he who would go through the whole place by the high level streets
-can use them for this purpose, and he who would go by the low level
-can do the same. By the high streets no vehicles and similar objects
-should circulate, but they are exclusively for the use of gentlemen.
-The carts and burdens for the use and convenience of the inhabitants
-have to go by the low ones. One house must turn its back to the
-other, leaving the lower streets between them. Provisions, such as
-wood, wine and such things are carried in by the doors _n_, and
-privies, stables and other fetid matter must be emptied away
-underground. From one arch to the next
-
-742.
-
-must be 300 braccia, each street receiving its light through the
-openings of the upper streets, and at each arch must be a winding
-stair on a circular plan because the corners of square ones are
-always fouled; they must be wide, and at the first vault there must
-be a door entering into public privies and the said stairs lead from
-the upper to the lower streets and the high level streets begin
-outside the city gates and slope up till at these gates they have
-attained the height of 6 braccia. Let such a city be built near the
-sea or a large river in order that the dirt of the city may be
-carried off by the water.
-
-743.
-
-The construction of the stairs: The stairs _c d_ go down to _f g_,
-and in the same way _f g_ goes down to _h k_.
-
-744.
-
-ON MOVING HOUSES.
-
-Let the houses be moved and arranged in order; and this will be done
-with facility because such houses are at first made in pieces on the
-open places, and can then be fitted together with their timbers in
-the site where they are to be permanent.
-
-[9] Let the men of the country [or the village] partly inhabit the
-new houses when the court is absent [12].
-
-[Footnote: On the same page we find notes referring to Romolontino
-and Villafranca with a sketch-map of the course of the "Sodro" and
-the "(Lo)cra" (both are given in the text farther on). There can
-hardly be a doubt that the last sentence of the passage given above,
-refers to the court of Francis I. King of France.--L.9-13 are
-written inside the larger sketch, which, in the original, is on the
-right hand side of the page by the side of lines 1-8. The three
-smaller sketches are below. J. P. R.]
-
-_II. Plans for canals and streets in a town.
-
-Pl. LXXIX, 1. and 2, (MS. B, 37b, see No. 745, and MS. B. 36a, see
-No. 746). A Plan for streets and canals inside a town, by which the
-cellars of the houses are made accessible in boats.
-
-The third text given under No. 747 refers to works executed by
-Leonardo in France._
-
-745.
-
-The front _a m_ will give light to the rooms; _a e_ will be 6
-braccia--_a b_ 8 braccia --_b e_ 30 braccia, in order that the rooms
-under the porticoes may be lighted; _c d f_ is the place where the
-boats come to the houses to be unloaded. In order to render this
-arrangement practicable, and in order that the inundation of the
-rivers may not penetrate into the cellars, it is necessary to chose
-an appropriate situation, such as a spot near a river which can be
-diverted into canals in which the level of the water will not vary
-either by inundations or drought. The construction is shown below;
-and make choice of a fine river, which the rains do not render
-muddy, such as the Ticino, the Adda and many others. [Footnote 12:
-_Tesino, Adda e molti altri, i.e._ rivers coming from the mountains
-and flowing through lakes.] The construction to oblige the waters to
-keep constantly at the same level will be a sort of dock, as shown
-below, situated at the entrance of the town; or better still, some
-way within, in order that the enemy may not destroy it [14].
-
-[Footnote: L. 1-4 are on the left hand side and within the sketch
-given on Pl. LXXIX, No. I. Then follows after line 14, the drawing
-of a sluicegate--_conca_--of which the use is explained in the text
-below it. On the page 38a, which comes next in the original MS. is
-the sketch of an oval plan of a town over which is written "_modo di
-canali per la citta_" and through the longer axis of it "_canale
-magior_" is written with "_Tesino_" on the prolongation of the
-canal. J. P. R.]
-
-746.
-
-Let the width of the streets be equal to the average height of the
-houses.
-
-747.
-
-The main underground channel does not receive turbid water, but that
-water runs in the ditches outside the town with four mills at the
-entrance and four at the outlet; and this may be done by damming the
-water above Romorantin.
-
-[11]There should be fountains made in each piazza[13].
-
-[Footnote: In the original this text comes immediately after the
-passage given as No. 744. The remainder of the writing on the same
-page refers to the construction of canals and is given later, in the
-"Topographical Notes".
-
-Lines 1-11 are written to the right of the plan lines 11-13
-underneath it. J. P. R.]
-
-[Footnote 10: _Romolontino_ is Romorantin, South of Orleans in
-France.]
-
-_III. Castles and Villas.
-
-A. Castles.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 1 (P. V. fol. 39b; No. d'ordre 2282). The fortified
-place here represented is said by Vallardi to be the_ "castello" _at
-Milan, but without any satisfactory reason. The high tower behind
-the_ "rivellino" _ravelin--seems to be intended as a watch-tower.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 2 (MS. B, 23b). A similarly constructed tower probably
-intended for the same use.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 3 (MS. B). Sketches for corner towers with steps for a
-citadel.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 4 (W. XVI). A cupola crowning a corner tower; an
-interesting example of decorative fortification. In this
-reproduction of the original pen and ink drawing it appears
-reversed.
-
-B. Projects for Palaces.
-
-Pl. LXXXI, No. 2 (MS. C. A, 75b; 221a, see No. 748). Project for a
-royal residence at Amboise in France.
-
-Pl. LXXXII, No. 1 (C. A 308a; 939a). A plan for a somewhat extensive
-residence, and various details; but there is no text to elucidate
-it; in courts are written the three names:
-
-Sam                   cosi                   giova
-       _(St. Mark)_           _(Cosmo)_               _(John)_,
-arch                   mo                     nino
-
-C. Plans for small castles or Villas.
-
-The three following sketches greatly resemble each other. Pl.
-LXXXII, No. 2 (MS. K3 36b; see No. 749)._
-
-_Pl. LXXXII, No. 3 (MS. B 60a; See No. 750).
-
-Pl. LXXXIII (W. XVII). The text on this sheet refers to Cyprus (see
-Topographical Notes No. 1103), but seems to have no direct
-connection with the sketches inserted between.
-
-Pl. LXXXVIII, Nos. 6 and 7 (MS. B, 12a; see No. 751). A section of a
-circular pavilion with the plan of a similar building by the side of
-it. These two drawings have a special historical interest because
-the text written below mentions the Duke and Duchess of Milan.
-
-The sketch of a villa on a terrace at the end of a garden occurs in
-C. A. 150; and in C. A. 77b; 225b is another sketch of a villa
-somewhat resembling the_ Belvedere _of Pope Innocent VIII, at Rome.
-In C. A. 62b; 193b there is a Loggia.
-
-Pl. LXXXII, No. 4 (C. A. 387a; 1198a) is a tower-shaped_ Loggia
-_above a fountain. The machinery is very ingeniously screened from
-view._
-
-748.
-
-The Palace of the prince must have a piazza in front of it.
-
-Houses intended for dancing or any kind of jumping or any other
-movements with a multitude of people, must be on the ground- floor;
-for I have already witnessed the destruction of some, causing death
-to many persons, and above all let every wall, be it ever so thin,
-rest on the ground or on arches with a good foundation.
-
-Let the mezzanines of the dwellings be divided by walls made of very
-thin bricks, and without wood on account of fire.
-
-Let all the privies have ventilation [by shafts] in the thickness of
-the walls, so as to exhale by the roofs.
-
-The mezzanines should be vaulted, and the vaults will be stronger in
-proportion as they are of small size.
-
-The ties of oak must be enclosed in the walls in order to be
-protected from fire.
-
-[Footnote: The remarks accompanying the plan reproduced on Pl.
-LXXXI, No. 2 are as follows: Above, to the left: "_in_ a _angholo
-stia la guardia de la sstalla_" (in the angle _a_ may be the keeper
-of the stable). Below are the words "_strada dabosa_" (road to
-Amboise), parallel with this "_fossa br 40_" (the moat 40 braccia)
-fixing the width of the moat. In the large court surrounded by a
-portico "_in terre No.--Largha br.80 e lugha br 120_." To the right
-of the castle is a large basin for aquatic sports with the words
-"_Giostre colle nave cioe li giostra li stieno sopra le na_"
-(Jousting in boats that is the men are to be in boats). J. P. R.]
-
-The privies must be numerous and going one into the other in order
-that the stench may not penetrate into the dwellings., and all their
-doors must shut off themselves with counterpoises.
-
-The main division of the facade of this palace is into two portions;
-that is to say the width of the court-yard must be half the whole
-facade; the 2nd ...
-
-749.
-
-30 braccia wide on each side; the lower entrance leads into a hall
-10 braccia wide and 30 braccia long with 4 recesses each with a
-chimney.
-
-[Footnote: On each side of the castle, Pl. LXXXII. No. 2 there are
-drawings of details, to the left "_Camino_" a chimney, to the right
-the central lantern, sketched in red "_8 lati_" _i.e._ an octagon.]
-
-750.
-
-The firststorey [or terrace] must be entirely solid.
-
-751.
-
-The pavilion in the garden of the Duchess of Milan.
-
-The plan of the pavilion which is in the middle of the labyrinth of
-the Duke of Milan.
-
-[Footnote: This passage was first published by AMORETTI in _Memorie
-Storiche_ Cap. X: Una sua opera da riportarsi a quest' anno fu il
-bagno fatto per la duchessa Beatrice nel parco o giardino del
-Castello. Lionardo non solo ne disegno il piccolo edifizio a foggia
-di padiglione, nel cod. segnato Q. 3, dandone anche separatamente la
-pianta; ma sotto vi scrisse: Padiglione del giardino della duchessa;
-e sotto la pianta: Fondamento del padiglione ch'e nel mezzo del
-labirinto del duca di Milano; nessuna data e presso il padiglione,
-disegnato nella pagina 12, ma poco sopra fra molti circoli
-intrecciati vedesi = 10 Luglio 1492 = e nella pagina 2 presso ad
-alcuni disegni di legumi qualcheduno ha letto Settembre 1482 in vece
-di 1492, come dovea scriverevi, e probabilmente scrisse Lionardo.
-
-The original text however hardly bears the interpretation put upon
-it by AMORETTI. He is mistaken as to the mark on the MS. as well as
-in his statements as to the date, for the MS. in question has no
-date; the date he gives occurs, on the contrary, in another
-note-book. Finally, it appears to me quite an open question whether
-Leonardo was the architect who carried out the construction of the
-dome-like Pavilion here shown in section, or of the ground plan of
-the Pavilion drawn by the side of it. Must we, in fact, suppose that
-"_il duca di Milano_" here mentioned was, as has been generally
-assumed, Ludovico il Moro? He did not hold this title from the
-Emperor before 1494; till that date he was only called _Governatore_
-and Leonardo in speaking of him, mentions him generally as "_il
-Moro_" even after 1494. On January 18, 1491, he married Beatrice
-d'Este the daughter of Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara. She died on the
-2nd January 1497, and for the reasons I have given it seems
-improbable that it should be this princess who is here spoken of as
-the "_Duchessa di Milano_". From the style of the handwriting it
-appears to me to be beyond all doubt that the MS. B, from which this
-passage is taken, is older than the dated MSS. of 1492 and 1493. In
-that case the Duke of Milan here mentioned would be Gian Galeazzo
-(1469-1494) and the Duchess would be his wife Isabella of Aragon, to
-whom he was married on the second February 1489. J. P. R.]
-
-752.
-
-The earth that is dug out from the cellars must be raised on one
-side so high as to make a terrace garden as high as the level of the
-hall; but between the earth of the terrace and the wall of the
-house, leave an interval in order that the damp may not spoil the
-principal walls.
-
-_IV. Ecclesiastical Architecture.
-
-A. General Observations._
-
-753.
-
-A building should always be detached on all sides so that its form
-may be seen.
-
-[Footnote: The original text is reproduced on Pl. XCII, No. 1 to the
-left hand at the bottom.]
-
-754.
-
-Here there cannot and ought not to be any _campanile_; on the
-contrary it must stand apart like that of the Cathedral and of San
-Giovanni at Florence, and of the Cathedral at Pisa, where the
-campanile is quite detached as well as the dome. Thus each can
-display its own perfection. If however you wish to join it to the
-church, make the lantern serve for the campanile as in the church at
-Chiaravalle.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written by the side of the plan given on Pl.
-XCI. No. 2.]
-
-[Footnote 12: The Abbey of Chiaravalle, a few miles from Milan, has
-a central tower on the intersection of the cross in the style of
-that of the Certosa of Pavia, but the style is mediaeval (A. D.
-1330). Leonardo seems here to mean, that in a building, in which the
-circular form is strongly conspicuous, the campanile must either be
-separated, or rise from the centre of the building and therefore
-take the form of a lantern.]
-
-755.
-
-It never looks well to see the roofs of a church; they should rather
-be flat and the water should run off by gutters made in the frieze.
-
-[Footnote: This text is to the left of the domed church reproduced
-on Pl. LXXXVII, No. 2.]
-
-_B. The theory of Dome Architecture.
-
-This subject has been more extensively treated by Leonardo in
-drawings than in writing. Still we may fairly assume that it was his
-purpose, ultimately to embody the results of his investigation in a_
-"Trattato delle Cupole." _The amount of materials is remarkably
-extensive. MS. B is particularly rich in plans and elevations of
-churches with one or more domes--from the simplest form to the most
-complicated that can be imagined. Considering the evident connexion
-between a great number of these sketches, as well as the
-impossibility of seeing in them designs or preparatory sketches for
-any building intended to be erected, the conclusion is obvious that
-they were not designed for any particular monument, but were
-theoretical and ideal researches, made in order to obtain a clear
-understanding of the laws which must govern the construction of a
-great central dome, with smaller ones grouped round it; and with or
-without the addition of spires, so that each of these parts by
-itself and in its juxtaposition to the other parts should produce
-the grandest possible effect.
-
-In these sketches Leonardo seems to have exhausted every imaginable
-combination. [Footnote 1: In MS. B, 32b (see Pl. C III, No. 2) we
-find eight geometrical patterns, each drawn in a square; and in MS.
-C.A., fol. 87 to 98 form a whole series of patterns done with the
-same intention.] The results of some of these problems are perhaps
-not quite satisfactory; still they cannot be considered to give
-evidence of a want of taste or of any other defect in Leonardo s
-architectural capacity. They were no doubt intended exclusively for
-his own instruction, and, before all, as it seems, to illustrate the
-features or consequences resulting from a given principle._
-
-_I have already, in another place,_ [Footnote 1: Les Projets
-Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome, par Bramante,
-Raphael etc.,Vol. I, p. 2.] _pointed out the law of construction for
-buildings crowned by a large dome: namely, that such a dome, to
-produce the greatest effect possible, should rise either from the
-centre of a Greek cross, or from the centre of a structure of which
-the plan has some symmetrical affinity to a circle, this circle
-being at the same time the centre of the whole plan of the building.
-
-Leonardo's sketches show that he was fully aware, as was to be
-expected, of this truth. Few of them exhibit the form of a Latin
-cross, and when this is met with, it generally gives evidence of the
-determination to assign as prominent a part as possible to the dome
-in the general effect of the building.
-
-While it is evident, on the one hand, that the greater number of
-these domes had no particular purpose, not being designed for
-execution, on the other hand several reasons may be found for
-Leonardo's perseverance in his studies of the subject.
-
-Besides the theoretical interest of the question for Leonardo and
-his_ Trattato _and besides the taste for domes prevailing at that
-time, it seems likely that the intended erection of some building of
-the first importance like the Duomos of Pavia and Como, the church
-of Sta. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and the construction of a Dome
-or central Tower_ (Tiburio) _on the cathedral of Milan, may have
-stimulated Leonardo to undertake a general and thorough
-investigation of the subject; whilst Leonardo's intercourse with
-Bramante for ten years or more, can hardly have remained without
-influence in this matter. In fact now that some of this great
-Architect's studies for S. Peter's at Rome have at last become
-known, he must be considered henceforth as the greatest master of
-Dome-Architecture that ever existed. His influence, direct or
-indirect even on a genius like Leonardo seems the more likely, since
-Leonardo's sketches reveal a style most similar to that of Bramante,
-whose name indeed, occurs twice in Leonardo's manuscript notes. It
-must not be forgotten that Leonardo was a Florentine; the
-characteristic form of the two principal domes of Florence, Sta.
-Maria del Fiore and the Battisterio, constantly appear as leading
-features in his sketches.
-
-The church of San Lorenzo at Milan, was at that time still intact.
-The dome is to this day one of the most wonderful cupolas ever
-constructed, and with its two smaller domes might well attract the
-attention and study of a never resting genius such as Leonardo. A
-whole class of these sketches betray in fact the direct influence of
-the church of S. Lorenzo, and this also seems to have suggested the
-plan of Bramante's dome of St. Peter's at Rome.
-
-In the following pages the various sketches for the construction of
-domes have been classified and discussed from a general point of
-view. On two sheets: Pl. LXXXIV (C.A. 354b; 118a) and Pl. LXXXV,
-Nos. 1-11 (Ash. II, 6b) we see various dissimilar types, grouped
-together; thus these two sheets may be regarded as a sort of
-nomenclature of the different types, on which we shall now have to
-treat._
-
-_1. Churches formed on the plan of a Greek cross.
-
-Group I.
-
-Domes rising from a circular base.
-
-The simplest type of central building is a circular edifice.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 9. Plan of a circular building surrounded by a
-colonnade.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 8. Elevation of the former, with a conical roof.
-
-Pl. XC. No. 5. A dodecagon, as most nearly approaching the circle.
-
-Pl. LXXXVI, No. 1, 2, 3. Four round chapels are added at the
-extremities of the two principal axes;--compare this plan with fig.
-1 on p. 44 and fig. 3 on p. 47 (W. P. 5b) where the outer wall is
-octagonal.
-
-Group II.
-
-Domes rising from a square base.
-
-The plan is a square surrounded by a colonnade, and the dome seems
-to be octagonal.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV. The square plan below the circular building No. 8, and
-its elevation to the left, above the plan: here the ground-plan is
-square, the upper storey octagonal. A further development of this
-type is shown in two sketches C. A. 3a (not reproduced here), and in
-
-Pl. LXXXVI, No. 5 (which possibly belongs to No. 7 on Pl. LXXXIV).
-
-Pl, LXXXV, No. 4, and p. 45, Fig. 3, a Greek cross, repeated p. 45,
-Fig. 3, is another development of the square central plan.
-
-The remainder of these studies show two different systems; in the
-first the dome rises from a square plan,--in the second from an
-octagonal base._
-
-_Group III.
-
-Domes rising from a square base and four pillars. [Footnote 1: The
-ancient chapel San Satiro, via del Falcone, Milan, is a specimen of
-this type.]_
-
-a) First type. _A Dome resting on four pillars in the centre of a
-square edifice, with an apse in the middle, of each of the four
-sides. We have eleven variations of this type.
-
-aa) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
-
-bb) Pl. LXXX, No. 5.
-
-cc) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 2, 3, 5.
-
-dd) Pl. LXXXIV, No. 1 and 4 beneath.
-
-ee) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 1, 7, 10, 11._
-
-b) Second type. _This consists in adding aisles to the whole plan of
-the first type; columns are placed between the apses and the aisles;
-the plan thus obtained is very nearly identical with that of S.
-Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-Fig. 1 on p. 56. (MS. B, 75a) shows the result of this treatment
-adapted to a peculiar purpose about which we shall have to say a few
-words later on.
-
-Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows the same plan but with the addition of a short
-nave. This plan seems to have been suggested by the general
-arrangement of S. Sepolcro at Milan.
-
-MS. B. 57b (see the sketch reproduced on p.51). By adding towers in
-the four outer angles to the last named plan, we obtain a plan which
-bears the general features of Bramante's plans for S. Peter's at
-Rome. [Footnote 2: See_ Les projets primitifs _etc., Pl. 9-12.] (See
-p. 51 Fig. 1.)
-
-Group IV.
-
-Domes rising from an octagonal base.
-
-This system, developed according to two different schemes, has given
-rise to two classes with many varieties.
-
-In a) On each side of the octagon chapels of equal form are added.
-
-In b) The chapels are dissimilar; those which terminate the
-principal axes being different in form from those which are added on
-the diagonal sides of the octagon.
-
-a. First Class.
-
-The Chapel_ "degli Angeli," _at Florence, built only to a height of
-about 20 feet by Brunellesco, may be considered as the prototype of
-this group; and, indeed it probably suggested it. The fact that we
-see in MS. B. 11b (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) by the side of Brunellesco's
-plan for the Basilica of Sto. Spirito at Florence, a plan almost
-identical with that of the_ Capella degli Angeli, _confirms this
-supposition. Only two small differences, or we may say improvements,
-have been introduced by Leonardo. Firstly the back of the chapels
-contains a third niche, and each angle of the Octagon a folded
-pilaster like those in Bramante's_ Sagrestia di S. M. presso San
-Satiro _at Milan, instead of an interval between the two pilasters
-as seen in the Battistero at Florence and in the Sacristy of Sto.
-Spirito in the same town and also in the above named chapel by
-Brunellesco.
-
-The first set of sketches which come under consideration have at
-first sight the appearance of mere geometrical studies. They seem to
-have been suggested by the plan given on page 44 Fig. 2 (MS. B, 55a)
-in the centre of which is written_ "Santa Maria in perticha da
-Pavia", _at the place marked A on the reproduction.
-
-a) (MS. B, 34b, page 44 Fig. 3). In the middle of each side a column
-is added, and in the axes of the intercolumnar spaces a second row
-of columns forms an aisle round the octagon. These are placed at the
-intersection of a system of semicircles, of which the sixteen
-columns on the sides of the octagon are the centres.
-
-b) The preceding diagram is completed and becomes more monumental in
-style in the sketch next to it (MS. B, 35a, see p. 45 Fig. 1). An
-outer aisle is added by circles, having for radius the distance
-between the columns in the middle sides of the octagon.
-
-c) (MS. B. 96b, see p. 45 Fig. 2). Octagon with an aisle round it;
-the angles of both are formed by columns. The outer sides are formed
-by 8 niches forming chapels. The exterior is likewise octagonal,
-with the angles corresponding to the centre of each of the interior
-chapels.
-
-Pl. XCII, No. 2 (MS. B. 96b). Detail and modification of the
-preceding plan--half columns against piers--an arrangement by which
-the chapels of the aisle have the same width of opening as the inner
-arches between the half columns. Underneath this sketch the
-following note occurs:_ questo vole - avere 12 facce - co 12
-tabernaculi - come - _a_ - _b_. _(This will have twelve sides with
-twelve tabernacles as_ a b._) In the remaining sketches of this
-class the octagon is not formed by columns at the angles.
-
-The simplest type shows a niche in the middle of each side and is
-repeated on several sheets, viz: MS. B 3; MS. C.A. 354b (see Pl.
-LXXXIV, No. 11) and MS. Ash II 6b; (see Pl. LXXXV, No. 9 and the
-elevations No. 8; Pl. XCII, No. 3; MS. B. 4b [not reproduced here]
-and Pl. LXXXIV, No. 2)._
-
-_Pl. XCII, 3 (MS. B, 56b) corresponds to a plan like the one in MS.
-B 35a, in which the niches would be visible outside or, as in the
-following sketch, with the addition of a niche in the middle of each
-chapel.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 6. The niches themselves are surrounded by smaller
-niches (see also No. 1 on the same plate).
-
-Octagon expanded on each side.
-
-A. by a square chapel:
-
-MS. B. 34b (not reproduced here).
-
-B. by a square with 3 niches:
-
-MS. B. 11b (see Pl. XCIV, No. 3).
-
-C. by octagonal chapels:
-
-a) MS. B, 21a; Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 4.
-
-b) No. 2 on the same plate. Underneath there is the remark:_
-"quest'e come le 8 cappele ano a essere facte" _(this is how the
-eight chapels are to be executed).
-
-c) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 5. Elevation to the plans on the same sheet, it
-is accompanied by the note:_ "ciasscuno de' 9 tiburi no'uole -
-passare l'alteza - di - 2 - quadri" _(neither of the 9 domes must
-exceed the height of two squares).
-
-d) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 1. Inside of the same octagon. MS. B, 30a, and
-34b; these are three repetitions of parts of the same plan with very
-slight variations.
-
-D. by a circular chapel:
-
-MS. B, 18a (see Fig. 1 on page 47) gives the plan of this
-arrangement in which the exterior is square on the ground floor with
-only four of the chapels projecting, as is explained in the next
-sketch.
-
-Pl. LXXXIX, MS. B, 17b. Elevation to the preceding plan sketched on
-the opposite side of the sheet, and also marked A. It is accompanied
-by the following remark, indicating the theoretical character of
-these studies:_ questo - edifitio - anchora - starebbe - bene
-affarlo dalla linja - _a_ - _b_ - _c_ - _d_ - insu. _("This edifice
-would also produce a good effect if only the part above the lines_ a
-b, c d, _were executed").
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11. The exterior has the form of an octagon, but the
-chapels project partly beyond it. On the left side of the sketch
-they appear larger than on the right side.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 1, (MS. B, 25b); Repetition of Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 2. Elevation to the plan No. 1, and also to No. 6 of the
-same sheet._
-
-_E. By chapels formed by four niches:
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 7 (the circular plan on the left below) shows this
-arrangement in which the central dome has become circular inside and
-might therefore be classed after this group. [Footnote 1: This plan
-and some others of this class remind us of the plan of the Mausoleum
-of Augustus as it is represented for instance by Durand. See_ Cab.
-des Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Topographie de Rome, V,
-6, 82._]
-
-The sketch on the right hand side gives most likely the elevation
-for the last named plan.
-
-F. By chapels of still richer combinations, which necessitate an
-octagon of larger dimensions:
-
-Pl. XCI, No. 2 (MS. Ash. 11. 8b) [Footnote 2: The note accompanying
-this plan is given under No. 754.]; on this plan the chapels
-themselves appear to be central buildings formed like the first type
-of the third group. Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
-
-Pl. XCI, No. 2 above; the exterior of the preceding figure,
-particularly interesting on account of the alternation of apses and
-niches, the latter containing statues of a gigantic size, in
-proportion to the dimension of the niches.
-
-b. Second Class.
-
-Composite plans of this class are generally obtained by combining
-two types of the first class--the one worked out on the principal
-axes, the other on the diagonal ones.
-
-MS. B. 22 shows an elementary combination, without any additions on
-the diagonal axes, but with the dimensions of the squares on the two
-principal axes exceeding those of the sides of the octagon.
-
-In the drawing W. P. 5b (see page 44 Fig. 1) the exterior only of
-the edifice is octagonal, the interior being formed by a circular
-colonnade; round chapels are placed against the four sides of the
-principal axes.
-
-The elevation, drawn on the same sheet (see page 47 Fig. 3), shows
-the whole arrangement which is closely related with the one on Pl.
-LXXXVI No. 1, 2.
-
-MS. B. 21a shows:
-
-a) four sides with rectangular chapels crowned by pediments Pl.
-LXXXVII No. 3 (plan and elevation);
-
-b) four sides with square chapels crowned by octagonal domes. Pl.
-LXXXVII No. 4; the plan underneath.
-
-MS. B. 18a shows a variation obtained by replacing the round chapels
-in the principal axes of the sketch MS. B. l8a by square ones, with
-an apse. Leonardo repeated both ideas for better comparison side by
-side, see page 47. Fig. 2.
-
-Pl. LXXXIX (MS. B. 17b). Elevation for the preceding figure. The
-comparison of the drawing marked M with the plan on page 47 Fig. 2,
-bearing the same mark, and of the elevation on Pl. LXXXIX below
-(marked A) with the corresponding plan on page 47 is highly
-instructive, as illustrating the spirit in which Leonardo pursued
-these studies.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 12 shows the design Pl. LXXXVII No. 3 combined with
-apses, with the addition of round chapels on the diagonal sides.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 13 is a variation of the preceding sketch.
-
-Pl. XC No. 3. MS. B. 25b. The round chapels of the preceding sketch
-are replaced by octagonal chapels, above which rise campaniles.
-
-Pl. XC No. 4 is the elevation for the preceding plan.
-
-Pl. XCII No. 1. (MS. B. 39b.); the plan below. On the principal as
-well as on the diagonal axes are diagonal chapels, but the latter
-are separated from the dome by semicircular recesses. The
-communication between these eight chapels forms a square aisle round
-the central dome.
-
-Above this figure is the elevation, showing four campaniles on the
-angles. [Footnote 1: The note accompanying this drawing is
-reproduced under No. 753.]
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 3. On the principal axes are square chapels with
-three niches; on the diagonals octagonal chapels with niches. Cod.
-Atl. 340b gives a somewhat similar arrangement.
-
-MS. B. 30. The principal development is thrown on the diagonal axes
-by square chapels with three niches; on the principal axes are inner
-recesses communicating with outer ones.
-
-The plan Pl. XCIII No. 2 (MS. B. 22) differs from this only in so
-far as the outer semicircles have become circular chapels,
-projecting from the external square as apses; one of them serves as
-the entrance by a semicircular portico.
-
-The elevation is drawn on the left side of the plan.
-
-MS. B. 19. A further development of MS. B. 18, by employing for the
-four principal chapels the type Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, as we have
-already seen in Pl. XCI No. 2; the exterior presents two varieties.
-
-a) The outer contour follows the inner. [Footnote 2: These chapels
-are here sketched in two different sizes; it is the smaller type
-which is thus formed.]
-
-b) It is semicircular.
-
-Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 (MS. B. 18b) Elevation to the first variation MS.
-B. 19. If we were not certain that this sketch was by Leonardo, we
-might feel tempted to take it as a study by Bramante for St. Peter's
-at Rome. [Footnote 3: See_ Les projets primitifs Pl. 43._]_
-
-_MS. P. V. 39b. In the principal axes the chapels of MS. B. 19, and
-semicircular niches on the diagonals. The exterior of the whole
-edifice is also an octagon, concealing the form of the interior
-chapels, but with its angles on their axes.
-
-Group V.
-
-Suggested by San Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-In MS. C. A. 266 IIb, 8l2b there is a plan almost identical with
-that of San Lorenzo. The diagonal sides of the irregular octagon are
-not indicated.
-
-If it could be proved that the arches which, in the actual church,
-exist on these sides in the first story, were added in 1574 by
-Martimo Bassi, then this plan and the following section would be
-still nearer the original state of San Lorenzo than at present. A
-reproduction of this slightly sketched plan has not been possible.
-It may however be understood from Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, by suppressing
-the four pillars corresponding to the apses.
-
-Pl. LXXXVII No. 1 shows the section in elevation corresponding with
-the above-named plan. The recessed chapels are decorated with large
-shells in the halfdomes like the arrangement in San Lorenzo, but
-with proportions like those of Bramante's Sacristy of Santa Maria
-presso S. Satiro.
-
-MS. C. A. 266; a sheet containing three views of exteriors of Domes.
-On the same sheet there is a plan similar to the one above-named but
-with uninterrupted aisles and with the addition of round chapels in
-the axes (compare Pl. XCVII No. 3 and page 44 Fig. 1), perhaps a
-reminiscence of the two chapels annexed to San Lorenzo.--Leonardo
-has here sketched the way of transforming this plan into a Latin
-cross by means of a nave with side aisles.
-
-Pl. XCI No. 1. Plan showing a type deprived of aisles and comprised
-in a square building which is surrounded by a portico. It is
-accompanied by the following text:_
-
-756.
-
-This edifice is inhabited [accessible] below and above, like San
-Sepolcro, and it is the same above as below, except that the upper
-story has the dome _c d_; and the [Footnote: The church of San
-Sepolcro at Milan, founded in 1030 and repeatedly rebuilt after the
-middle of the XVIth century, still stands over the crypt of the
-original structure.] lower has the dome _a b_, and when you enter
-into the crypt, you descend 10 steps, and when you mount into the
-upper you ascend 20 steps, which, with 1/3 braccio for each, make 10
-braccia, and this is the height between one floor of the church and
-the other.
-
-_Above the plan on the same sheet is a view of the exterior. By the
-aid of these two figures and the description, sections of the
-edifice may easily be reconstructed. But the section drawn on the
-left side of the building seems not to be in keeping with the same
-plan, notwithstanding the explanatory note written underneath it:
-"dentro il difitio di sopra" (interior of the edifice
-above)[Footnote 1: _The small inner dome corresponds to_ a b _on the
-plan--it rises from the lower church into the upper-- above, and
-larger, rises the dome_ c d. _The aisles above and below thus
-correspond_ (e di sopra come di sotto, salvoche etc.). _The only
-difference is, that in the section Leonardo has not taken the
-trouble to make the form octagonal, but has merely sketched circular
-lines in perspective._ J. P. R._].
-
-_Before leaving this group, it is well to remark that the germ of it
-seems already indicated by the diagonal lines in the plans Pl. LXXXV
-No. 11 and No. 7. We shall find another application of the same type
-to the Latin cross in Pl. XCVII No. 3.
-
-_2. Churches formed on the plan of a Latin cross.
-
-We find among Leonardo's studies several sketches for churches on
-the plan of the Latin cross; we shall begin by describing them, and
-shall add a few observations.
-
-A. Studies after existing Monuments.
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 2. (MS. B. 11b.) Plan of Santo Spirito at Florence, a
-basilica built after the designs of Brunellesco.--Leonardo has added
-the indication of a portico in front, either his own invention or
-the reproduction of a now lost design.
-
-Pl. XCV No. 2. Plan accompanied by the words: "A_ e santo sepolcro
-di milano di sopra"(A _is the upper church of S. Sepolcro at Milan);
-although since Leonardo's time considerably spoilt, it is still the
-same in plan.
-
-The second plan with its note: "B_ e la sua parte socto tera" (B _is
-its subterranean part [the crypt]) still corresponds with the
-present state of this part of the church as I have ascertained by
-visiting the crypt with this plan. Excepting the addition of a few
-insignificant walls, the state of this interesting part of the
-church still conforms to Leonardo's sketch; but in the Vestibolo the
-two columns near the entrance of the winding stairs are absent.
-
-B. Designs or Studies.
-
-PL. XCV No. 1. Plan of a church evidently suggested by that of San
-Sepolcro at Milan. The central part has been added to on the
-principle of the second type of Group III. Leonardo has placed the_
-"coro" _(choir) in the centre._
-
-_Pl. XCVI No. 2. In the plan the dome, as regards its interior,
-belongs to the First Class of Group IV, and may be grouped with the
-one in MS. B. 35a. The nave seems to be a development of the type
-represented in Pl. XCV No. 2, B. by adding towers and two lateral
-porticos[Footnote 1: Already published in Les projets primitifs Pl.
-XLIII.].
-
-On the left is a view of the exterior of the preceding plan. It is
-accompanied by the following note:_
-
-757.
-
-This building is inhabited below and above; the way up is by the
-campaniles, and in going up one has to use the platform, where the
-drums of the four domes are, and this platform has a parapet in
-front, and none of these domes communicate with the church, but they
-are quite separate.
-
-_Pl. XCVI No. 1 (MS. C. A. 16b; 65a). Perspective view of a church
-seen from behind; this recalls the Duomo at Florence, but with two
-campaniles[Footnote 2: Already published in the Saggio Pl. IX.].
-
-Pl. XCVII No. 3 (MS. B. 52a). The central part is a development of
-S. Lorenzo at Milan, such as was executed at the Duomo of Pavia.
-There is sufficient analogy between the building actually executed
-and this sketch to suggest a direct connection between them.
-Leonardo accompanied Francesco di Giorgio[Footnote 3: See MALASPINA,
-il Duomo di Pavia. Documents.] when the latter was consulted on June
-21st, 1490 as to this church; the fact that the only word
-accompanying the plan is:_ "sagrestia", _seems to confirm our
-supposition, for the sacristies were added only in 1492, i. e. four
-years after the beginning of the Cathedral, which at that time was
-most likely still sufficiently unfinished to be capable of receiving
-the form of the present sketch.
-
-Pl. XCVII No. 2 shows the exterior of this design. Below is the
-note:_ edifitio al proposito del fodameto figurato di socto
-_(edifice proper for the ground plan figured below).
-
-Here we may also mention the plan of a Latin cross drawn in MS. C.
-A. fol. 266 (see p. 50).
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 1 (MS. L. 15b). External side view of Brunellesco's
-Florentine basilica San Lorenzo, seen from the North.
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 4 (V. A. V, 1). Principal front of a nave, most likely
-of a church on the plan of a Latin cross. We notice here not only
-the principal features which were employed afterwards in Alberti's
-front of S. Maria Novella, but even details of a more advanced
-style, such as we are accustomed to meet with only after the year
-1520.
-
-In the background of Leonardo's unfinished picture of St. Jerome
-(Vatican Gallery) a somewhat similar church front is indicated (see
-the accompanying sketch).
-
-[Illustration with caption: The view of the front of a temple,
-apparently a dome in the centre of four corinthian porticos bearing
-pediments (published by Amoretti Tav. II. B as being by Leonardo),
-is taken from a drawing, now at the Ambrosian Gallery. We cannot
-consider this to be by the hand of the master.]_
-
-_C. Studies for a form of a Church most proper for preaching.
-
-The problem as to what form of church might answer the requirements
-of acoustics seems to have engaged Leonardo's very particular
-attention. The designation of_ "teatro" _given to some of these
-sketches, clearly shows which plan seemed to him most favourable for
-hearing the preacher's voice.
-
-Pl. XCVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 52). Rectangular edifice divided into three
-naves with an apse on either side, terminated by a semicircular
-theatre with rising seats, as in antique buildings. The pulpit is in
-the centre. Leonardo has written on the left side of the sketch_:
-"teatro da predicare" _(Theatre for preaching).
-
-MS. B, 55a (see page 56, Fig. 1). A domed church after the type of
-Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows four theatres occupying the apses and facing
-the square_ "coro" _(choir), which is in the centre between the four
-pillars of the dome.[Footnote 1: The note_ teatro de predicar, _on
-the right side is, I believe, in the handwriting of Pompeo Leoni. J.
-P. R.] The rising arrangement of the seats is shown in the sketch
-above. At the place marked_ B _Leonardo wrote_ teatri per uldire
-messa _(rows of seats to hear mass), at_ T teatri,_ and at_ C coro
-_(choir).
-
-In MS. C.A. 260, are slight sketches of two plans for rectangular
-choirs and two elevations of the altar and pulpit which seem to be
-in connection with these plans.
-
-In MS. Ash II, 8a (see p. 56 and 57. Fig. 2 and 3)._ "Locho dove si
-predica" _(Place for preaching). A most singular plan for a
-building. The interior is a portion of a sphere, the centre of which
-is the summit of a column destined to serve as the preacher's
-pulpit. The inside is somewhat like a modern theatre, whilst the
-exterior and the galleries and stairs recall the ancient
-amphitheatres.
-
-[Illustration with caption: Page 57, Fig. 4. A plan accompanying the
-two preceding drawings. If this gives the complete form Leonardo
-intended for the edifice, it would have comprised only about two
-thirds of the circle. Leonardo wrote in the centre_ "fondamento", _a
-word he often employed for plans, and on the left side of the view
-of the exterior:_ locho dove si predicha _(a place for preaching
-in)._]
-
-_D. Design for a Mausoleum.
-
-Pl. XCVIII (P. V., 182._ No. d'ordre 2386). In the midst of a hilly
-landscape rises an artificial mountain in the form of a gigantic
-cone, crowned by an imposing temple. At two thirds of the height a
-terrace is cut out with six doorways forming entrances to galleries,
-each leading to three sepulchral halls, so constructed as to contain
-about five hundred funeral urns, disposed in the customary antique
-style. From two opposite sides steps ascend to the terrace in a
-single flight and beyond it to the temple above. A large circular
-opening, like that in the Pantheon, is in the dome above what may be
-the altar, or perhaps the central monument on the level of the
-terrace below.
-
-The section of a gallery given in the sketch to the right below
-shows the roof to be constructed on the principle of superimposed
-horizontal layers, projecting one beyond the other, and each
-furnished with a sort of heel, which appears to be undercut, so as
-to give the appearance of a beam from within. Granite alone would be
-adequate to the dimensions here given to the key stone, as the
-thickness of the layers can hardly be considered to be less than a
-foot. In taking this as the basis of our calculation for the
-dimensions of the whole construction, the width of the chamber would
-be about 25 feet but, judging from the number of urns it
-contains--and there is no reason to suppose that these urns were
-larger than usual--it would seem to be no more than about 8 or 10
-feet.
-
-The construction of the vaults resembles those in the galleries of
-some etruscan tumuli, for instance the Regulini Galeassi tomb at
-Cervetri (lately discovered) and also that of the chamber and
-passages of the pyramid of Cheops and of the treasury of Atreus at
-Mycenae.
-
-The upper cone displays not only analogies with the monuments
-mentioned in the note, but also with Etruscan tumuli, such as the
-Cocumella tomb at Vulci, and the Regulini Galeassi tomb_[Footnote 1:
-_See_ FERSGUSON, _Handbook of Architecture, I,_ 291.]. _The whole
-scheme is one of the most magnificent in the history of
-Architecture.
-
-It would be difficult to decide as to whether any monument he had
-seen suggested this idea to Leonardo, but it is worth while to
-enquire, if any monument, or group of monuments of an earlier date
-may be supposed to have done so._[Footnote 2: _There are, in
-Algiers, two Monuments, commonly called_ "Le Madracen" _and_ "Le
-tombeau de la Chretienne," _which somewhat resemble Leonardo's
-design. They are known to have served as the Mausolea of the Kings
-of Mauritania. Pomponius Mela, the geographer of the time of the
-Emperor Claudius, describes them as having been_ "Monumentum commune
-regiae gentis." _See_ Le Madracen, Rapport fait par M. le Grand
-Rabbin AB. CAHEN, Constantine 1873--Memoire sur les fouilles
-executees au Madras'en .. par le Colonel BRUNON, Constantine
-l873.--Deux Mausolees Africains, le Madracen et le tombeau de la
-Chretienne par M. J. DE LAURIERE, Tours l874.--Le tombeau de la
-Chretienne, Mausolee des rois Mauritaniens par M. BERBRUGGER, Alger
-1867.--_I am indebted to M. LE BLANC, of the Institut, and M. LUD,
-LALANNE, Bibliothecaire of the Institut for having first pointed out
-to me the resemblance between these monuments; while M. ANT. HERON
-DE VlLLEFOSSE of the Louvre was kind enough to place the
-abovementioned rare works at my disposal. Leonardo's observations on
-the coast of Africa are given later in this work. The Herodium near
-Bethlehem in Palestine_ (Jebel el Fureidis, _the Frank Mountain)
-was, according to the latest researches, constructed on a very
-similar plan. See_ Der Frankenberg, von Baurath C. SCHICK in
-Jerusalem, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins, _Leipzag_
-1880, _Vol. III, pages_ 88-99 _and Plates IV and V._ J. P. R.]
-
-_E. Studies for the Central Tower, or Tiburio of Milan Cathedral.
-
-Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Fabbricceria del Duomo
-had to settle on the choice of a model for the crowning and central
-part of this vast building. We learn from a notice published by G.
-L. Calvi [Footnote: G. L. CALVI, Notizie sulla vita e sulle opere
-dei principali architetti scultori e pittori che fiorirono in
-Milano, Part III, 20. See also: H. DE GEYMULLER, Les projets
-primitifs etc. I, 37 and 116-119.--The Fabbricceria of the Duomo has
-lately begun the publication of the archives, which may possibly
-tell us more about the part taken by Leonardo, than has hitherto
-been known.] that among the artists who presented models in the year
-1488 were: Bramante, Pietro da Gorgonzola, Luca Paperio (Fancelli),
-and Leonardo da Vinci.--
-
-Several sketches by Leonardo refer to this important project:
-
-Pl. XCIX, No. 2 (MS. S. K. III, No. 36a) a small plan of the whole
-edifice.--The projecting chapels in the middle of the transept are
-wanting here. The nave appears to be shortened and seems to be
-approached by an inner "vestibolo".--
-
-Pl. C, No. 2 (Tr. 21). Plan of the octagon tower, giving the
-disposition of the buttresses; starting from the eight pillars
-adjoining the four principal piers and intended to support the eight
-angles of the Tiburio. These buttresses correspond exactly with
-those described by Bramante as existing in the model presented by
-Omodeo. [Footnote: Bramante's opinion was first published by G.
-MONGERl, Arch. stor. Lomb. V, fasc. 3 and afterwards by me in the
-publication mentioned in the preceding note.]
-
-Pl. C, 3 (MS. Tr. 16). Two plans showing different arrangements of
-the buttresses, which seem to be formed partly by the intersection
-of a system of pointed arches such as that seen in **
-
-Pl. C, No. 5 (MS. B, 27a) destined to give a broader base to the
-drum. The text underneath is given under No. 788.
-
-MS. B, 3--three slight sketches of plans in connexion with the
-preceding ones._
-
-_Pl. XCIX, No.1 (MS. Tr. 15) contains several small sketches of
-sections and exterior views of the Dome; some of them show
-buttress-walls shaped as inverted arches. Respecting these Leonardo
-notes:_
-
-758.
-
-L'arco rivescio e migliore per fare spalla che l'ordinario, perche
-il rovescio trova sotto se muro resistete alla sua debolezza, e
-l'ordinario no trova nel suo debole se non aria
-
-The inverted arch is better for giving a shoulder than the ordinary
-one, because the former finds below it a wall resisting its
-weakness, whilst the latter finds in its weak part nothing but air.
-
-[Footnote: _Three slight sketches of sections on the same
-leaf--above those reproduced here--are more closely connected with
-the large drawing in the centre of Pl. C, No. 4 (M.S, Tr. 41) which
-shows a section of a very elevated dome, with double vaults,
-connected by ribs and buttresses ingeniously disposed, so as to
-bring the weight of the lantern to bear on the base of the dome.
-
-A sketch underneath it shows a round pillar on which is indicated
-which part of its summit is to bear the weight: "il pilastro sara
-charicho in . a . b." (The column will bear the weight at a b.)
-Another note is above on the right side:_ Larcho regiera tanto sotto
-asse chome di sopra se _(The arch supports as much below it [i. e. a
-hanging weight] as above it).
-
-Pl. C, No. 1 (C. A. 303a). Larger sketch of half section of the
-Dome, with a very complicated system of arches, and a double vault.
-Each stone is shaped so as to be knit or dovetailed to its
-neighbours. Thus the inside of the Dome cannot be seen from below.
-
-MS. C. A. 303b. A repetition of the preceding sketch with very
-slight modifications._]
-
-[Figs. 1. and Fig. 2. two sketeches of the dome]
-
-MS. Tr. 9 (see Fig. 1 and 2). Section of the Dome with reverted
-buttresses between the windows, above which iron anchors or chains
-seem to be intended. Below is the sketch of the outside._
-
-_PI. XCIX, No. 3 (C. A., 262a) four sketches of the exterior of the
-Dome.
-
-C. A. 12. Section, showing the points of rupture of a gothic vault,
-in evident connection with the sketches described above.
-
-It deserves to be noticed how easily and apparently without effort,
-Leonardo manages to combine gothic details and structure with the
-more modern shape of the Dome.
-
-The following notes are on the same leaf,_ oni cosa poderosa, _and_
-oni cosa poderosa desidera de(scendere); _farther below, several
-multiplications most likely intended to calculate the weight of some
-parts of the Dome, thus 16 x 47 = 720; 720 x 800 = 176000, next to
-which is written:_ peso del pilastro di 9 teste _(weight of the
-pillar 9 diameters high).
-
-Below:_ 176000 x 8 = 1408000; _and below:_
-
-Semjlio e se ce 80 (?) il peso del tiburio _(six millions six
-hundred (?) 80 the weight of the Dome).
-
-Bossi hazarded the theory that Leonardo might have been the
-architect who built the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, but there
-is no evidence to support this, either in documents or in the
-materials supplied by Leonardos manuscripts and drawings. The sketch
-given at the side shows the arrangement of the second and third
-socle on the apses of the choir of that church; and it is remarkable
-that those sketches, in MS. S. K. M. II2, 2a and Ib, occur with the
-passage given in Volume I as No. 665 and 666 referring to the
-composition of the Last Supper in the Refectory of that church._]
-
-_F. The Project for lifting up the Battistero of Florence and
-setting it on a basement._
-
-_Among the very few details Vasari gives as to the architectural
-studies of Leonardo, we read: "And among these models and designs
-there was one by way of which he showed several times to many
-ingenious citizens who then governed Florence, his readiness to lift
-up without ruining it, the church of San Giovanni in Florence (the
-Battistero, opposite the Duomo) in order to place under it the
-missing basement with steps; he supported his assertions with
-reasons so persuasive, that while he spoke the undertaking seemed
-feasable, although every one of his hearers, when he had departed,
-could see by himself the impossibility of so vast an undertaking."_
-
-[Footnote: _This latter statement of Vasari's must be considered to
-be exaggerated. I may refer here to some data given by_ LIBRI,
-Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie (II, 216, 217): "On a
-cru dans ces derniers temps faire un miracle en mecanique en
-effectuant ce transport, et cependant des l'annee 1455, Gaspard Nadi
-et Aristote de Fioravantio avaient transporte, a une distance
-considerable, la tour de la Magione de Bologne, avec ses fondements,
-qui avait presque quatre-vingts pieds de haut. Le continuateur de la
-chronique de Pugliola dit que le trajet fut de 35 pieds et que
-durant le transport auquel le chroniqueur affirme avoir assiste, il
-arriva un accident grave qui fit pencher de trois pieds la tour
-pendant qu'elle etait suspendue, mais que cet accident fut
-promptement repare (Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital. Tom. XVIII, col.
-717, 718). Alidosi a rapporte une note ou Nadi rend compte de ce
-transport avec une rare simplicite. D'apres cette note, on voit que
-les operations de ce genre n'etaient pas nouvelles. Celle-ci ne
-couta que 150 livres (monnaie d'alors) y compris le cadeau que le
-Legat fit aux deux mecaniciens. Dans la meme annee, Aristote
-redressa le clocher de Cento, qui penchait de plus de cinq pieds
-(Alidosi, instruttione p. 188-- Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital.,
-tom. XXIII, col. 888.--Bossii, chronica Mediol., 1492, in-fol. ad
-ann. 1455). On ne concoit pas comment les historiens des beaux-arts
-ont pu negliger de tels hommes." J. P. R.]
-
-_In the MS. C. A. fol. 293, there are two sketches which possibly
-might have a bearing on this bold enterprise. We find there a plan
-of a circular or polygonal edifice surrounded by semicircular arches
-in an oblique position. These may be taken for the foundation of the
-steps and of the new platform. In the perspective elevation the same
-edifice, forming a polygon, is shown as lifted up and resting on a
-circle of inverted arches which rest on an other circle of arches in
-the ordinary position, but so placed that the inverted arches above
-rest on the spandrels of the lower range._
-
-_What seems to confirm the supposition that the lifting up of a
-building is here in question, is the indication of engines for
-winding up, such as jacks, and a rack and wheel. As the lifting
-apparatus represented on this sheet does not seem particularly
-applicable to an undertaking of such magnitude, we may consider it
-to be a first sketch or scheme for the engines to be used._
-
-_G. Description of an unknown Temple._
-
-759.
-
-Twelve flights of steps led up to the great temple, which was eight
-hundred braccia in circumference and built on an octagonal plan. At
-the eight corners were eight large plinths, one braccia and a half
-high, and three wide, and six long at the bottom, with an angle in
-the middle; on these were eight great pillars, standing on the
-plinths as a foundation, and twenty four braccia high. And on the
-top of these were eight capitals three braccia long and six wide,
-above which were the architrave frieze and cornice, four braccia and
-a half high, and this was carried on in a straight line from one
-pillar to the next and so, continuing for eight hundred braccia,
-surrounded the whole temple, from pillar to pillar. To support this
-entablature there were ten large columns of the same height as the
-pillars, three braccia thick above their bases which were one
-braccia and a half high.
-
-The ascent to this temple was by twelve flights of steps, and the
-temple was on the twelfth, of an octagonal form, and at each angle
-rose a large pillar; and between the pillars were placed ten columns
-of the same height as the pillars, rising at once from the pavement
-to a height of twenty eight braccia and a half; and at this height
-the architrave, frieze and cornice were placed which surrounded the
-temple having a length of eight hundred braccia. At the same height,
-and within the temple at the same level, and all round the centre of
-the temple at a distance of 24 braccia farther in, are pillars
-corresponding to the eight pillars in the angles, and columns
-corresponding to those placed in the outer spaces. These rise to the
-same height as the former ones, and over these the continuous
-architrave returns towards the outer row of pillars and columns.
-
-[Footnote: Either this description is incomplete, or, as seems to me
-highly probable, it refers to some ruin. The enormous dimensions
-forbid our supposing this to be any temple in Italy or Greece. Syria
-was the native land of colossal octagonal buildings, in the early
-centuries A. D. The Temple of Baalbek, and others are even larger
-than that here described. J. P. R.]
-
-_V. Palace architecture.
-
-But a small number of Leonardo's drawings refer to the architecture
-of palaces, and our knowledge is small as to what style Leonardo
-might have adopted for such buildings.
-
-Pl. CII No. 1 (W. XVIII). A small portion of a facade of a palace
-in two stories, somewhat resembling Alberti's Palazzo
-Rucellai.--Compare with this Bramante's painted front of the Casa
-Silvestri, and a painting by Montorfano in San Pietro in Gessate at
-Milan, third chapel on the left hand side and also with Bramante's
-palaces at Rome. The pilasters with arabesques, the rustica between
-them, and the figures over the window may be painted or in
-sgraffito. The original is drawn in red chalk.
-
-Pl. LXXXI No. 1 (MS. Tr. 42). Sketch of a palace with battlements
-and decorations, most likely graffiti; the details remind us of
-those in the Castello at Vigevano._ [Footnote 1: _Count GIULIO
-PORRO, in his valuable contribution to the_ Archivio Storico
-Lombardo, Anno VIII, Fasc. IV (31 Dec. 1881): Leonardo da Vinci,
-Libro di Annotazioni e Memorie, _refers to this in the following
-note:_ "Alla pag. 41 vi e uno schizzo di volta ed accanto scrisse:
-'il pilastro sara charicho in su 6' e potrebbe darsi che si
-riferisse alla cupola della chiesa delle Grazie tanto piu che a
-pag. 42 vi e un disegno che rassomiglia assai al basamento che oggi
-si vede nella parte esterna del coro di quella chiesa." _This may
-however be doubted. The drawing, here referred to, on page 41 of the
-same manuscript, is reproduced on Pl. C No. 4 and described on page
-61 as being a study for the cupola of the Duomo of Milan._ J. P. R.]
-
-_MS. Mz. 0", contains a design for a palace or house with a loggia
-in the middle of the first story, over which rises an attic with a
-Pediment reproduced on page 67. The details drawn close by on the
-left seem to indicate an arrangement of coupled columns against the
-wall of a first story.
-
-Pl. LXXXV No. 14 (MS. S. K. M. Ill 79a) contains a very slight
-sketch in red chalk, which most probably is intended to represent
-the facade of a palace. Inside is the short note 7 he 7 (7 and 7)._
-
-_MS. J2 8a (see pages 68 Fig. 1 and 2) contains a view of an unknown
-palace. Its plan is indicated at the side._
-
-_In MS. Br. M. 126a(see Fig. 3 on page 68) there is a sketch of a
-house, on which Leonardo notes; casa con tre terrazi (house with
-three terraces)._
-
-_Pl. CX, No. 4 (MS. L. 36b) represents the front of a fortified
-building drawn at Cesena in 1502 (see No. 1040)._
-
-_Here we may also mention the singular building in the allegorical
-composition represented on Pl. LVIII in Vol. I. In front of it
-appears the head of a sphinx or of a dragon which seems to be
-carrying the palace away._
-
-_The following texts refer to the construction of palaces and other
-buildings destined for private use:_
-
-760.
-
-In the courtyard the walls must be half the height of its width,
-that is if the court be 40 braccia, the house must be 20 high as
-regards the walls of the said courtyard; and this courtyard must be
-half as wide as the whole front.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CI, no. 1, and compare the dimensions here given,
-with No. 748 lines 26-29; and the drawing belonging to it Pl. LXXXI,
-no. 2.]
-
-On the dispositions of a stable.
-
-761.
-
-FOR MAKING A CLEAN STABLE.
-
-The manner in which one must arrange a stable. You must first divide
-its width in 3 parts, its depth matters not; and let these 3
-divisions be equal and 6 braccia broad for each part and 10 high,
-and the middle part shall be for the use of the stablemasters; the 2
-side ones for the horses, each of which must be 6 braccia in width
-and 6 in length, and be half a braccio higher at the head than
-behind. Let the manger be at 2 braccia from the ground, to the
-bottom of the rack, 3 braccia, and the top of it 4 braccia. Now, in
-order to attain to what I promise, that is to make this place,
-contrary to the general custom, clean and neat: as to the upper part
-of the stable, i. e. where the hay is, that part must have at its
-outer end a window 6 braccia high and 6 broad, through which by
-simple means the hay is brought up to the loft, as is shown by the
-machine _E_; and let this be erected in a place 6 braccia wide, and
-as long as the stable, as seen at _k p_. The other two parts, which
-are on either side of this, are again divided; those nearest to the
-hay-loft are 4 braccia, _p s_, and only for the use and circulation
-of the servants belonging to the stable; the other two which reach
-to the outer walls are 2 braccia, as seen at _s k_, and these are
-made for the purpose of giving hay to the mangers, by means of
-funnels, narrow at the top and wide over the manger, in order that
-the hay should not choke them. They must be well plastered and clean
-and are represented at 4 _f s_. As to the giving the horses water,
-the troughs must be of stone and above them [cisterns of] water. The
-mangers may be opened as boxes are uncovered by raising the lids.
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVIII, No.1.]
-
-Decorations for feasts.
-
-762.
-
-THE WAY TO CONSTRUCT A FRAME-WORK FOR DECORATING BUILDINGS.
-
-The way in which the poles ought to be placed for tying bunches of
-juniper on to them. These poles must lie close to the framework of
-the vaulting and tie the bunches on with osier withes, so as to clip
-them even afterwards with shears.
-
-Let the distance from one circle to another be half a braccia; and
-the juniper [sprigs] must lie top downwards, beginning from below.
-
-Round this column tie four poles to which willows about as thick as
-a finger must be nailed and then begin from the bottom and work
-upwards with bunches of juniper sprigs, the tops downwards, that is
-upside down. [Footnote: See Pl. CII, No. 3. The words here given as
-the title line, lines 1--4, are the last in the original MS.--Lines
-5--16 are written under fig. 4.]
-
-763.
-
-The water should be allowed to fall from the whole circle _a b_.
-[Footnote: Other drawings of fountains are given on Pl. CI (W. XX);
-the original is a pen and ink drawing on blue paper; on Pl. CIII
-(MS. B.) and Pl. LXXXII.]
-
-_VI. Studies of architectural details._
-
-_Several of Leonardo's drawings of architectural details prove that,
-like other great masters of that period, he had devoted his
-attention to the study of the proportion of such details. As every
-organic being in nature has its law of construction and growth,
-these masters endeavoured, each in his way, to discover and prove a
-law of proportion in architecture. The following notes in Leonardo's
-manuscripts refer to this subject._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. Ill, 47b (see Fig. 1). A diagram, indicating the rules
-as given by Vitruvius and by Leon Battista Alberti for the
-proportions of the Attic base of a column._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. Ill 55a (see Fig. 2). Diagram showing the same rules._
-
-764.
-
-B toro superiore  .  .  .  .  .    toro superiore
-2B nestroli    .  .  .  .  .  .  astragali quadre
-3B orbiculo    .  .  .  .  .  .   .   .   troclea
-4B nestroli    .  .  .  .  .  .  astragali quadre
-5B toro iferiore  .  .  .  .  .  .  toro iferiore
-6B latastro    .  .  .  .  .  .  .   .    plintho
-
-[Footnote: No explanation can be offered of the meaning of the
-letter B, which precedes each name. It may be meant for _basa_
-(base). Perhaps it refers to some author on architecture or an
-architect (Bramante?) who employed the designations, thus marked for
-the mouldings. 3. _troclea._ Philander: _Trochlea sive trochalia aut
-rechanum._ 6. _Laterculus_ or _latastrum_ is the Latin name for
-_Plinthus_ (pi lambda Xiv) but Vitruvius adopted this Greek name
-and "latastro" seems to have been little in use. It is to be found
-besides the text given above, as far as I am aware, only two
-drawings of the Uffizi Collection, where in one instance, it
-indicates the _abacus_ of a Doric capital.]
-
-765.
-
-STEPS OF URRBINO.
-
-The plinth must be as broad as the thickness of the wall against
-which the plinth is built. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3. The hasty
-sketch on the right hand side illustrates the unsatisfactory effect
-produced when the plinth is narrower than the wall.]
-
-766.
-
-The ancient architects ...... beginning with the Egyptians (?) who,
-as Diodorus Siculus writes, were the first to build and construct
-large cities and castles, public and private buildings of fine form,
-large and well proportioned .....
-
-The column, which has its thickness at the third part .... The one
-which would be thinnest in the middle, would break ...; the one
-which is of equal thickness and of equal strength, is better for the
-edifice. The second best as to the usefulness will be the one whose
-greatest thickness is where it joins with the base.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIII, No. 3, where the sketches belonging to
-lines 10--16 are reproduced, but reversed. The sketch of columns,
-here reproduced by a wood cut, stands in the original close to lines
-5--8.]
-
-The capital must be formed in this way. Divide its thickness at the
-top into 8; at the foot make it 5/7, and let it be 5/7 high and you
-will have a square; afterwards divide the height into 8 parts as you
-did for the column, and then take 1/8 for the echinus and another
-eighth for the thickness of the abacus on the top of the capital.
-The horns of the abacus of the capital have to project beyond the
-greatest width of the bell 2/7, i. e. sevenths of the top of the
-bell, so 1/7 falls to the projection of each horn. The truncated
-part of the horns must be as broad as it is high. I leave the rest,
-that is the ornaments, to the taste of the sculptors. But to return
-to the columns and in order to prove the reason of their strength or
-weakness according to their shape, I say that when the lines
-starting from the summit of the column and ending at its base and
-their direction and length ..., their distance apart or width may be
-equal; I say that this column ...
-
-767.
-
-The cylinder of a body columnar in shape and its two opposite ends
-are two circles enclosed between parallel lines, and through the
-centre of the cylinder is a straight line, ending at the centre of
-these circles, and called by the ancients the axis.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo wrote these lines on the margin of a page of the
-Trattato di Francesco di Giorgio, where there are several drawings
-of columns, as well as a head drawn in profile inside an outline
-sketch of a capital.]
-
-768.
-
-_a b_ is 1/3 of _n m_; _m o_ is 1/6 of _r o_. The ovolo projects 1/6
-of _r o_; _s_ 7 1/5 of _r o_, _a b_ is divided into 9 1/2; the
-abacus is 3/9 the ovolo 4/9, the bead-moulding and the fillet 2/9
-and 1/2.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXV, No. 16. In the original the drawing and
-writing are both in red chalk.]
-
-_Pl. LXXXV No. 6 (MS. Ash. II 6b) contains a small sketch of a
-capital with the following note, written in three lines:_ I chorni
-del capitelo deono essere la quarta parte d'uno quadro _(The horns
-of a capital must measure the fourth part of a square)._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. III 72b contains two sketches of ornamentations of
-windows._
-
-_In MS. C. A. 308a; 938a (see Pl. LXXXII No. 1) there are several
-sketches of columns. One of the two columns on the right is similar
-to those employed by Bramante at the Canonica di S. Ambrogio. The
-same columns appear in the sketch underneath the plan of a castle.
-There they appear coupled, and in two stories one above the other.
-The archivolls which seem to spring out of the columns, are shaped
-like twisted cords, meant perhaps to be twisted branches. The walls
-between the columns seem to be formed out of blocks of wood, the
-pedestals are ornamented with a reticulated pattern. From all this
-we may suppose that Leonardo here had in mind either some festive
-decoration, or perhaps a pavilion for some hunting place or park.
-The sketch of columns marked "35" gives an example of columns shaped
-like candelabra, a form often employed at that time, particularly in
-Milan, and the surrounding districts for instance in the Cortile di
-Casa Castiglione now Silvestre, in the cathedral of Como, at Porta
-della Rana &c._
-
-769.
-
-CONCERNING ARCHITRAVES OF ONE OR SEVERAL PIECES.
-
-An architrave of several pieces is stronger than that of one single
-piece, if those pieces are placed with their length in the direction
-of the centre of the world. This is proved because stones have their
-grain or fibre generated in the contrary direction i. e. in the
-direction of the opposite horizons of the hemisphere, and this is
-contrary to fibres of the plants which have ...
-
-[Footnote: The text is incomplete in the original.]
-
-_The Proportions of the stories of a building are indicated by a
-sketch in MS. S. K. M. II2 11b (see Pl. LXXXV No. 15). The measures
-are written on the left side, as follows: br 1 1/2--6 3/4--br
-1/12--2 br--9 e 1/2--1 1/2--br 5--o 9--o 3 [br=braccia; o=oncie].
-
-Pl. LXXXV No. 13 (MS. B. 62a) and Pl. XCIII No. 1. (MS. B. 15a) give
-a few examples of arches supported on piers._
-
-_XIII.
-
-Theoretical writings on Architecture.
-
-Leonardo's original writings on the theory of Architecture have come
-down to us only in a fragmentary state; still, there seems to be no
-doubt that he himself did not complete them. It would seem that
-Leonardo entertained the idea of writing a large and connected book
-on Architecture; and it is quite evident that the materials we
-possess, which can be proved to have been written at different
-periods, were noted down with a more or less definite aim and
-purpose. They might all be collected under the one title: "Studies
-on the Strength of Materials". Among them the investigations on the
-subject of fissures in walls are particularly thorough, and very
-fully reported; these passages are also especially interesting,
-because Leonardo was certainly the first writer on architecture who
-ever treated the subject at all. Here, as in all other cases
-Leonardo carefully avoids all abstract argument. His data are not
-derived from the principles of algebra, but from the laws of
-mechanics, and his method throughout is strictly experimental.
-
-Though the conclusions drawn from his investigations may not have
-that precision which we are accustomed to find in Leonardo's
-scientific labours, their interest is not lessened. They prove at
-any rate his deep sagacity and wonderfully clear mind. No one
-perhaps, who has studied these questions since Leonardo, has
-combined with a scientific mind anything like the artistic delicacy
-of perception which gives interest and lucidity to his observations.
-
-I do not assert that the arrangement here adopted for the passages
-in question is that originally intended by Leonardo; but their
-distribution into five groups was suggested by the titles, or
-headings, which Leonardo himself prefixed to most of these notes.
-Some of the longer sections perhaps should not, to be in strict
-agreement with this division, have been reproduced in their entirety
-in the place where they occur. But the comparatively small amount of
-the materials we possess will render them, even so, sufficiently
-intelligible to the reader; it did not therefore seem necessary or
-desirable to subdivide the passages merely for the sake of strict
-classification._
-
-_The small number of chapters given under the fifth class, treating
-on the centre of gravity in roof-beams, bears no proportion to the
-number of drawings and studies which refer to the same subject. Only
-a small selection of these are reproduced in this work since the
-majority have no explanatory text._
-
-I.
-
-ON FISSURES IN WALLS.
-
-770.
-
-First write the treatise on the causes of the giving way of walls
-and then, separately, treat of the remedies.
-
-Parallel fissures constantly occur in buildings which are erected on
-a hill side, when the hill is composed of stratified rocks with an
-oblique stratification, because water and other moisture often
-penetrates these oblique seams carrying in greasy and slippery soil;
-and as the strata are not continuous down to the bottom of the
-valley, the rocks slide in the direction of the slope, and the
-motion does not cease till they have reached the bottom of the
-valley, carrying with them, as though in a boat, that portion of the
-building which is separated by them from the rest. The remedy for
-this is always to build thick piers under the wall which is
-slipping, with arches from one to another, and with a good scarp and
-let the piers have a firm foundation in the strata so that they may
-not break away from them.
-
-In order to find the solid part of these strata, it is necessary to
-make a shaft at the foot of the wall of great depth through the
-strata; and in this shaft, on the side from which the hill slopes,
-smooth and flatten a space one palm wide from the top to the bottom;
-and after some time this smooth portion made on the side of the
-shaft, will show plainly which part of the hill is moving.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIV.]
-
-771.
-
-The cracks in walls will never be parallel unless the part of the
-wall that separates from the remainder does not slip down.
-
-WHAT IS THE LAW BY WHICH BUILDINGS HAVE STABILITY.
-
-The stability of buildings is the result of the contrary law to the
-two former cases. That is to say that the walls must be all built up
-equally, and by degrees, to equal heights all round the building,
-and the whole thickness at once, whatever kind of walls they may be.
-And although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one it will
-not necessarily give way under the added weight day by day and thus,
-[16] although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one, it
-will not give way under the weight which the latter may acquire from
-day to day. Because if double the amount of it dries in one day, one
-of double the thickness will dry in two days or thereabouts; thus
-the small addition of weight will be balanced by the smaller
-difference of time [18].
-
-The adversary says that _a_ which projects, slips down.
-
-And here the adversary says that _r_ slips and not _c_.
-
-HOW TO PROGNOSTICATE THE CAUSES OF CRACKS IN ANY SORT OF WALL.
-
-The part of the wall which does not slip is that in which the
-obliquity projects and overhangs the portion which has parted from
-it and slipped down.
-
-ON THE SITUATION OF FOUNDATIONS AND IN WHAT PLACES THEY ARE A CAUSE
-OF RUIN.
-
-When the crevice in the wall is wider at the top than at the bottom,
-it is a manifest sign, that the cause of the fissure in the wall is
-remote from the perpendicular line through the crevice.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-5 refer to Pl. CV, No. 2. Line 9 _alle due
-anteciedete_, see on the same page.
-
-Lines 16-18. The translation of this is doubtful, and the meaning in
-any case very obscure.
-
-Lines 19-23 are on the right hand margin close to the two sketches
-on Pl. CII, No. 3.]
-
-772.
-
-OF CRACKS IN WALLS, WHICH ARE WIDE AT THE BOTTOM AND NARROW AT THE
-TOP AND OF THEIR CAUSES.
-
-That wall which does not dry uniformly in an equal time, always
-cracks.
-
-A wall though of equal thickness will not dry with equal quickness
-if it is not everywhere in contact with the same medium. Thus, if
-one side of a wall were in contact with a damp slope and the other
-were in contact with the air, then this latter side would remain of
-the same size as before; that side which dries in the air will
-shrink or diminish and the side which is kept damp will not dry. And
-the dry portion will break away readily from the damp portion
-because the damp part not shrinking in the same proportion does not
-cohere and follow the movement of the part which dries continuously.
-
-OF ARCHED CRACKS, WIDE AT THE TOP, AND NARROW BELOW.
-
-Arched cracks, wide at the top and narrow below are found in
-walled-up doors, which shrink more in their height than in their
-breadth, and in proportion as their height is greater than their
-width, and as the joints of the mortar are more numerous in the
-height than in the width.
-
-The crack diminishes less in _r o_ than in _m n_, in proportion as
-there is less material between _r_ and _o_ than between _n_ and _m_.
-
-Any crack made in a concave wall is wide below and narrow at the
-top; and this originates, as is here shown at _b c d_, in the side
-figure.
-
-1. That which gets wet increases in proportion to the moisture it
-imbibes.
-
-2. And a wet object shrinks, while drying, in proportion to the
-amount of moisture which evaporates from it.
-
-[Footnote: The text of this passage is reproduced in facsimile on
-Pl. CVI to the left. L. 36-40 are written inside the sketch No. 2.
-L. 41-46 are partly written over the sketch No. 3 to which they
-refer.]
-
-773.
-
-OF THE CAUSES OF FISSURES IN [THE WALLS OF] PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
-BUILDINGS.
-
-The walls give way in cracks, some of which are more or less
-vertical and others are oblique. The cracks which are in a vertical
-direction are caused by the joining of new walls, with old walls,
-whether straight or with indentations fitting on to those of the old
-wall; for, as these indentations cannot bear the too great weight of
-the wall added on to them, it is inevitable that they should break,
-and give way to the settling of the new wall, which will shrink one
-braccia in every ten, more or less, according to the greater or
-smaller quantity of mortar used between the stones of the masonry,
-and whether this mortar is more or less liquid. And observe, that
-the walls should always be built first and then faced with the
-stones intended to face them. For, if you do not proceed thus, since
-the wall settles more than the stone facing, the projections left on
-the sides of the wall must inevitably give way; because the stones
-used for facing the wall being larger than those over which they are
-laid, they will necessarily have less mortar laid between the
-joints, and consequently they settle less; and this cannot happen if
-the facing is added after the wall is dry.
-
-_a b_ the new wall, _c_ the old wall, which has already settled; and
-the part _a b_ settles afterwards, although _a_, being founded on
-_c_, the old wall, cannot possibly break, having a stable foundation
-on the old wall. But only the remainder _b_ of the new wall will
-break away, because it is built from top to bottom of the building;
-and the remainder of the new wall will overhang the gap above the
-wall that has sunk.
-
-774.
-
-A new tower founded partly on old masonry.
-
-775.
-
-OF STONES WHICH DISJOIN THEMSELVES FROM THEIR MORTAR.
-
-Stones laid in regular courses from bottom to top and built up with
-an equal quantity of mortar settle equally throughout, when the
-moisture that made the mortar soft evaporates.
-
-By what is said above it is proved that the small extent of the new
-wall between _A_ and _n_ will settle but little, in proportion to
-the extent of the same wall between _c_ and _d_. The proportion will
-in fact be that of the thinness of the mortar in relation to the
-number of courses or to the quantity of mortar laid between the
-stones above the different levels of the old wall.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CV, No. 1. The top of the tower is wanting in
-this reproduction, and with it the letter _n_ which, in the
-original, stands above the letter _A_ over the top of the tower,
-while _c_ stands perpendicularly over _d_.]
-
-776.
-
-This wall will break under the arch _e f_, because the seven whole
-square bricks are not sufficient to sustain the spring of the arch
-placed on them. And these seven bricks will give way in their middle
-exactly as appears in _a b_. The reason is, that the brick _a_ has
-above it only the weight _a k_, whilst the last brick under the arch
-has above it the weight _c d x a_.
-
-_c d_ seems to press on the arch towards the abutment at the point
-_p_ but the weight _p o_ opposes resistence to it, whence the whole
-pressure is transmitted to the root of the arch. Therefore the foot
-of the arch acts like 7 6, which is more than double of _x z_.
-
-II.
-
-ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
-
-777.
-
-ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
-
-An arch constructed on a semicircle and bearing weights on the two
-opposite thirds of its curve will give way at five points of the
-curve. To prove this let the weights be at _n m_ which will break
-the arch _a_, _b_, _f_. I say that, by the foregoing, as the
-extremities _c_ and _a_ are equally pressed upon by the thrust _n_,
-it follows, by the 5th, that the arch will give way at the point
-which is furthest from the two forces acting on them and that is the
-middle _e_. The same is to be understood of the opposite curve, _d g
-b_; hence the weights _n m_ must sink, but they cannot sink by the
-7th, without coming closer together, and they cannot come together
-unless the extremities of the arch between them come closer, and if
-these draw together the crown of the arch must break; and thus the
-arch will give way in two places as was at first said &c.
-
-I ask, given a weight at _a_ what counteracts it in the direction
-_n_ _f_ and by what weight must the weight at _f_ be counteracted.
-
-778.
-
-ON THE SHRINKING OF DAMP BODIES OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS AND WIDTH.
-
-The window _a_ is the cause of the crack at _b_; and this crack is
-increased by the pressure of _n_ and _m_ which sink or penetrate
-into the soil in which foundations are built more than the lighter
-portion at _b_. Besides, the old foundation under _b_ has already
-settled, and this the piers _n_ and _m_ have not yet done. Hence the
-part _b_ does not settle down perpendicularly; on the contrary, it
-is thrown outwards obliquely, and it cannot on the contrary be
-thrown inwards, because a portion like this, separated from the main
-wall, is larger outside than inside and the main wall, where it is
-broken, is of the same shape and is also larger outside than inside;
-therefore, if this separate portion were to fall inwards the larger
-would have to pass through the smaller--which is impossible. Hence
-it is evident that the portion of the semicircular wall when
-disunited from the main wall will be thrust outwards, and not
-inwards as the adversary says.
-
-When a dome or a half-dome is crushed from above by an excess of
-weight the vault will give way, forming a crack which diminishes
-towards the top and is wide below, narrow on the inner side and wide
-outside; as is the case with the outer husk of a pomegranate,
-divided into many parts lengthwise; for the more it is pressed in
-the direction of its length, that part of the joints will open most,
-which is most distant from the cause of the pressure; and for that
-reason the arches of the vaults of any apse should never be more
-loaded than the arches of the principal building. Because that which
-weighs most, presses most on the parts below, and they sink into the
-foundations; but this cannot happen to lighter structures like the
-said apses.
-
-[Footnote: The figure on Pl. CV, No. 4 belongs to the first
-paragraph of this passage, lines 1-14; fig. 5 is sketched by the
-side of lines l5--and following. The sketch below of a pomegranate
-refers to line 22. The drawing fig. 6 is, in the original, over line
-37 and fig. 7 over line 54.]
-
-Which of these two cubes will shrink the more uniformly: the cube
-_A_ resting on the pavement, or the cube _b_ suspended in the air,
-when both cubes are equal in weight and bulk, and of clay mixed with
-equal quantities of water?
-
-The cube placed on the pavement diminishes more in height than in
-breadth, which the cube above, hanging in the air, cannot do. Thus
-it is proved. The cube shown above is better shown here below.
-
-The final result of the two cylinders of damp clay that is _a_ and
-_b_ will be the pyramidal figures below _c_ and _d_. This is proved
-thus: The cylinder _a_ resting on block of stone being made of clay
-mixed with a great deal of water will sink by its weight, which
-presses on its base, and in proportion as it settles and spreads all
-the parts will be somewhat nearer to the base because that is
-charged with the whole weight.
-
-III.
-
-ON THE NATURE OF THE ARCH.
-
-779.
-
-WHAT IS AN ARCH?
-
-The arch is nothing else than a force originated by two weaknesses,
-for the arch in buildings is composed of two segments of a circle,
-each of which being very weak in itself tends to fall; but as each
-opposes this tendency in the other, the two weaknesses combine to
-form one strength.
-
-OF THE KIND OF PRESSURE IN ARCHES.
-
-As the arch is a composite force it remains in equilibrium because
-the thrust is equal from both sides; and if one of the segments
-weighs more than the other the stability is lost, because the
-greater pressure will outweigh the lesser.
-
-OF DISTRIBUTING THE PRESSURE ABOVE AN ARCH.
-
-Next to giving the segments of the circle equal weight it is
-necessary to load them equally, or you will fall into the same
-defect as before.
-
-WHERE AN ARCH BREAKS.
-
-An arch breaks at the part which lies below half way from the
-centre.
-
-SECOND RUPTURE OF THE ARCH.
-
-If the excess of weight be placed in the middle of the arch at the
-point _a_, that weight tends to fall towards _b_, and the arch
-breaks at 2/3 of its height at _c e_; and _g e_ is as many times
-stronger than _e a_, as _m o_ goes into _m n_.
-
-ON ANOTHER CAUSE OF RUIN.
-
-The arch will likewise give way under a transversal thrust, for when
-the charge is not thrown directly on the foot of the arch, the arch
-lasts but a short time.
-
-780.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH.
-
-The way to give stability to the arch is to fill the spandrils with
-good masonry up to the level of its summit.
-
-ON THE LOADING OF ROUND ARCHES.
-
-ON THE PROPER MANNER OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH.
-
-ON THE EVIL EFFECTS OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH DIRECTLY ABOVE ITS
-CROWN.
-
-ON THE DAMAGE DONE TO THE POINTED ARCH BY THROWING THE PRESSURE ON
-THE FLANKS.
-
-An arch of small curve is safe in itself, but if it be heavily
-charged, it is necessary to strengthen the flanks well. An arch of a
-very large curve is weak in itself, and stronger if it be charged,
-and will do little harm to its abutments, and its places of giving
-way are _o p_.
-
-[Footnote: Inside the large figure on the righi is the note: _Da
-pesare la forza dell' archo_.]
-
-781.
-
-ON THE REMEDY FOR EARTHQUAKES.
-
-The arch which throws its pressure perpendicularly on the abutments
-will fulfil its function whatever be its direction, upside down,
-sideways or upright.
-
-The arch will not break if the chord of the outer arch does not
-touch the inner arch. This is manifest by experience, because
-whenever the chord _a o n_ of the outer arch _n r a_ approaches the
-inner arch _x b y_ the arch will be weak, and it will be weaker in
-proportion as the inner arch passes beyond that chord. When an arch
-is loaded only on one side the thrust will press on the top of the
-other side and be transmitted to the spring of the arch on that
-side; and it will break at a point half way between its two
-extremes, where it is farthest from the chord.
-
-782.
-
-A continuous body which has been forcibly bent into an arch, thrusts
-in the direction of the straight line, which it tends to recover.
-
-783.
-
-In an arch judiciously weighted the thrust is oblique, so that the
-triangle _c n b_ has no weight upon it.
-
-784.
-
-I here ask what weight will be needed to counterpoise and resist the
-tendency of each of these arches to give way?
-
-[Footnote: The two lower sketches are taken from the MS. S. K. M.
-III, 10a; they have there no explanatory text.]
-
-785.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH IN ARCHITECTURE.
-
-The stability of the arch built by an architect resides in the tie
-and in the flanks.
-
-ON THE POSITION OF THE TIE IN THE ABOVE NAMED ARCH.
-
-The position of the tie is of the same importance at the beginning
-of the arch and at the top of the perpendicular pier on which it
-rests. This is proved by the 2nd "of supports" which says: that part
-of a support has least resistance which is farthest from its solid
-attachment; hence, as the top of the pier is farthest from the
-middle of its true foundation and the same being the case at the
-opposite extremities of the arch which are the points farthest from
-the middle, which is really its [upper] attachment, we have
-concluded that the tie _a b_ requires to be in such a position as
-that its opposite ends are between the four above-mentioned
-extremes.
-
-The adversary says that this arch must be more than half a circle,
-and that then it will not need a tie, because then the ends will not
-thrust outwards but inwards, as is seen in the excess at _a c_, _b
-d_. To this it must be answered that this would be a very poor
-device, for three reasons. The first refers to the strength of the
-arch, since it is proved that the circular parallel being composed
-of two semicircles will only break where these semicircles cross
-each other, as is seen in the figure _n m;_ besides this it follows
-that there is a wider space between the extremes of the semicircle
-than between the plane of the walls; the third reason is that the
-weight placed to counterbalance the strength of the arch diminishes
-in proportion as the piers of the arch are wider than the space
-between the piers. Fourthly in proportion as the parts at _c a b d_
-turn outwards, the piers are weaker to support the arch above them.
-The 5th is that all the material and weight of the arch which are in
-excess of the semicircle are useless and indeed mischievous; and
-here it is to be noted that the weight placed above the arch will be
-more likely to break the arch at _a b_, where the curve of the
-excess begins that is added to the semicircle, than if the pier were
-straight up to its junction with the semicircle [spring of the
-arch].
-
-AN ARCH LOADED OVER THE CROWN WILL GIVE WAY AT THE LEFT HAND AND
-RIGHT HAND QUARTERS.
-
-This is proved by the 7th of this which says: The opposite ends of
-the support are equally pressed upon by the weight suspended to
-them; hence the weight shown at _f_ is felt at _b c_, that is half
-at each extremity; and by the third which says: in a support of
-equal strength [throughout] that portion will give way soonest which
-is farthest from its attachment; whence it follows that _d_ being
-equally distant from _f, e_ .....
-
-If the centering of the arch does not settle as the arch settles,
-the mortar, as it dries, will shrink and detach itself from the
-bricks between which it was laid to keep them together; and as it
-thus leaves them disjoined the vault will remain loosely built, and
-the rains will soon destroy it.
-
-786.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH AND NATURE OF ARCHES, AND WHERE THEY ARE STRONG OR
-WEAK; AND THE SAME AS TO COLUMNS.
-
-That part of the arch which is nearer to the horizontal offers least
-resistance to the weight placed on it.
-
-When the triangle _a z n_, by settling, drives backwards the 2/3 of
-each 1/2 circle that is _a s_ and in the same way _z m_, the reason
-is that _a_ is perpendicularly over _b_ and so likewise _z_ is above
-_f_.
-
-Either half of an arch, if overweighted, will break at 2/3 of its
-height, the point which corresponds to the perpendicular line above
-the middle of its bases, as is seen at _a b_; and this happens
-because the weight tends to fall past the point _r_.--And if,
-against its nature it should tend to fall towards the point _s_ the
-arch _n s_ would break precisely in its middle. If the arch _n s_
-were of a single piece of timber, if the weight placed at _n_ should
-tend to fall in the line _n m_, the arch would break in the middle
-of the arch _e m_, otherwise it will break at one third from the top
-at the point a because from _a_ to _n_ the arch is nearer to the
-horizontal than from _a_ to _o_ and from _o_ to _s_, in proportion
-as _p t_ is greater than _t n_, _a o_ will be stronger than _a n_
-and likewise in proportion as _s o_ is stronger than _o a_, _r p_
-will be greater than _p t_.
-
-The arch which is doubled to four times of its thickness will bear
-four times the weight that the single arch could carry, and more in
-proportion as the diameter of its thickness goes a smaller number of
-times into its length. That is to say that if the thickness of the
-single arch goes ten times into its length, the thickness of the
-doubled arch will go five times into its length. Hence as the
-thickness of the double arch goes only half as many times into its
-length as that of the single arch does, it is reasonable that it
-should carry half as much more weight as it would have to carry if
-it were in direct proportion to the single arch. Hence as this
-double arch has 4 times the thickness of the single arch, it would
-seem that it ought to bear 4 times the weight; but by the above rule
-it is shown that it will bear exactly 8 times as much.
-
-THAT PIER, WHICH is CHARGED MOST UNEQUALLY, WILL SOONEST GIVE WAY.
-
-The column _c b_, being charged with an equal weight, [on each side]
-will be most durable, and the other two outward columns require on
-the part outside of their centre as much pressure as there is inside
-of their centre, that is, from the centre of the column, towards the
-middle of the arch.
-
-Arches which depend on chains for their support will not be very
-durable.
-
-THAT ARCH WILL BE OF LONGER DURATION WHICH HAS A GOOD ABUTMENT
-OPPOSED TO ITS THRUST.
-
-The arch itself tends to fall. If the arch be 30 braccia and the
-interval between the walls which carry it be 20, we know that 30
-cannot pass through the 20 unless 20 becomes likewise 30. Hence the
-arch being crushed by the excess of weight, and the walls offering
-insufficient resistance, part, and afford room between them, for the
-fall of the arch.
-
-But if you do not wish to strengthen the arch with an iron tie you
-must give it such abutments as can resist the thrust; and you can do
-this thus: fill up the spandrels _m n_ with stones, and direct the
-lines of the joints between them to the centre of the circle of the
-arch, and the reason why this makes the arch durable is this. We
-know very well that if the arch is loaded with an excess of weight
-above its quarter as _a b_, the wall _f g_ will be thrust outwards
-because the arch would yield in that direction; if the other quarter
-_b c_ were loaded, the wall _f g_ would be thrust inwards, if it
-were not for the line of stones _x y_ which resists this.
-
-787.
-
-PLAN.
-
-Here it is shown how the arches made in the side of the octagon
-thrust the piers of the angles outwards, as is shown by the line _h
-c_ and by the line _t d_ which thrust out the pier _m_; that is they
-tend to force it away from the centre of such an octagon.
-
-788.
-
-An Experiment to show that a weight placed on an arch does not
-discharge itself entirely on its columns; on the contrary the
-greater the weight placed on the arches, the less the arch transmits
-the weight to the columns. The experiment is the following. Let a
-man be placed on a steel yard in the middle of the shaft of a well,
-then let him spread out his hands and feet between the walls of the
-well, and you will see him weigh much less on the steel yard; give
-him a weight on the shoulders, you will see by experiment, that the
-greater the weight you give him the greater effort he will make in
-spreading his arms and legs, and in pressing against the wall and
-the less weight will be thrown on the steel yard.
-
-IV.
-
-ON FOUNDATIONS, THE NATURE OF THE GROUND AND SUPPORTS.
-
-789.
-
-The first and most important thing is stability.
-
-As to the foundations of the component parts of temples and other
-public buildings, the depths of the foundations must bear the same
-proportions to each other as the weight of material which is to be
-placed upon them.
-
-Every part of the depth of earth in a given space is composed of
-layers, and each layer is composed of heavier or lighter materials,
-the lowest being the heaviest. And this can be proved, because these
-layers have been formed by the sediment from water carried down to
-the sea, by the current of rivers which flow into it. The heaviest
-part of this sediment was that which was first thrown down, and so
-on by degrees; and this is the action of water when it becomes
-stagnant, having first brought down the mud whence it first flowed.
-And such layers of soil are seen in the banks of rivers, where their
-constant flow has cut through them and divided one slope from the
-other to a great depth; where in gravelly strata the waters have run
-off, the materials have, in consequence, dried and been converted
-into hard stone, and this happened most in what was the finest mud;
-whence we conclude that every portion of the surface of the earth
-was once at the centre of the earth, and _vice_versa_ &c.
-
-790.
-
-The heaviest part of the foundations of buildings settles most, and
-leaves the lighter part above it separated from it.
-
-And the soil which is most pressed, if it be porous yields most.
-
-You should always make the foundations project equally beyond the
-weight of the walls and piers, as shown at _m a b_. If you do as
-many do, that is to say if you make a foundation of equal width from
-the bottom up to the surface of the ground, and charge it above with
-unequal weights, as shown at _b e_ and at _e o_, at the part of the
-foundation at _b e_, the pier of the angle will weigh most and
-thrust its foundation downwards, which the wall at _e o_ will not
-do; since it does not cover the whole of its foundation, and
-therefore thrusts less heavily and settles less. Hence, the pier _b
-e_ in settling cracks and parts from the wall _e o_. This may be
-seen in most buildings which are cracked round the piers.
-
-791.
-
-The window _a_ is well placed under the window _c_, and the window
-_b_ is badly placed under the pier _d_, because this latter is
-without support and foundation; mind therefore never to make a break
-under the piers between the windows.
-
-792.
-
-OF THE SUPPORTS.
-
-A pillar of which the thickness is increased will gain more than its
-due strength, in direct proportion to what its loses in relative
-height.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-If a pillar should be nine times as high as it is broad--that is to
-say, if it is one braccio thick, according to rule it should be nine
-braccia high--then, if you place 100 such pillars together in a mass
-this will be ten braccia broad and 9 high; and if the first pillar
-could carry 10000 pounds the second being only about as high as it
-is wide, and thus lacking 8 parts of its proper length, it, that is
-to say, each pillar thus united, will bear eight times more than
-when disconnected; that is to say, that if at first it would carry
-ten thousand pounds, it would now carry 90 thousand.
-
-V.
-
-ON THE RESISTANCE OF BEAMS.
-
-793.
-
-That angle will offer the greatest resistance which is most acute,
-and the most obtuse will be the weakest.
-
-[Footnote: The three smaller sketches accompany the text in the
-original, but the larger one is not directly connected with it. It
-is to be found on fol. 89a of the same Manuscript and there we read
-in a note, written underneath, _coverchio della perdicha del
-castello_ (roof of the flagstaff of the castle),--Compare also Pl.
-XCIII, No. 1.]
-
-794.
-
-If the beams and the weight _o_ are 100 pounds, how much weight will
-be wanted at _ae_ to resist such a weight, that it may not fall
-down?
-
-795.
-
-ON THE LENGTH OF BEAMS.
-
-That beam which is more than 20 times as long as its greatest
-thickness will be of brief duration and will break in half; and
-remember, that the part built into the wall should be steeped in hot
-pitch and filleted with oak boards likewise so steeped. Each beam
-must pass through its walls and be secured beyond the walls with
-sufficient chaining, because in consequence of earthquakes the beams
-are often seen to come out of the walls and bring down the walls and
-floors; whilst if they are chained they will hold the walls strongly
-together and the walls will hold the floors. Again I remind you
-never to put plaster over timber. Since by expansion and shrinking
-of the timber produced by damp and dryness such floors often crack,
-and once cracked their divisions gradually produce dust and an ugly
-effect. Again remember not to lay a floor on beams supported on
-arches; for, in time the floor which is made on beams settles
-somewhat in the middle while that part of the floor which rests on
-the arches remains in its place; hence, floors laid over two kinds
-of supports look, in time, as if they were made in hills [Footnote:
-19 M. RAVAISSON, in his edition of MS. A gives a very different
-rendering of this passage translating it thus: _Les planchers qui
-sont soutenus par deux differentes natures de supports paraissent
-avec le temps faits en voute a cholli_.]
-
-Remarks on the style of Leonardo's architecture.
-
-A few remarks may here be added on the style of Leonardo's
-architectural studies. However incomplete, however small in scale,
-they allow us to establish a certain number of facts and
-probabilities, well worthy of consideration.
-
-When Leonardo began his studies the great name of Brunellesco was
-still the inspiration of all Florence, and we cannot doubt that
-Leonardo was open to it, since we find among his sketches the plan
-of the church of Santo Spirito[Footnote 1: See Pl. XCIV, No. 2. Then
-only in course of erection after the designs of Brunellesco, though
-he was already dead; finished in 1481.] and a lateral view of San
-Lorenzo (Pl. XCIV No. 1), a plan almost identical with the chapel
-Degli Angeli, only begun by him (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) while among
-Leonardo's designs for domes several clearly betray the influence of
-Brunellesco's Cupola and the lantern of Santa Maria del
-Fiore[Footnote 2: A small sketch of the tower of the Palazzo della
-Signoria (MS. C.A. 309) proves that he also studied mediaeval
-monuments.]
-
-The beginning of the second period of modern Italian architecture
-falls during the first twenty years of Leonardo's life. However the
-new impetus given by Leon Battista Alberti either was not generally
-understood by his contemporaries, or those who appreciated it, had
-no opportunity of showing that they did so. It was only when taken
-up by Bramante and developed by him to the highest rank of modern
-architecture that this new influence was generally felt. Now the
-peculiar feature of Leonardo's sketches is that, like the works of
-Bramante, they appear to be the development and continuation of
-Alberti's.
-
-_But a question here occurs which is difficult to answer. Did
-Leonardo, till he quitted Florence, follow the direction given by
-the dominant school of Brunellesco, which would then have given rise
-to his "First manner", or had he, even before he left Florence, felt
-Alberti's influence--either through his works (Palazzo Ruccellai,
-and the front of Santa Maria Novella) or through personal
-intercourse? Or was it not till he went to Milan that Alberti's work
-began to impress him through Bramante, who probably had known
-Alberti at Mantua about 1470 and who not only carried out Alberti's
-views and ideas, but, by his designs for St. Peter's at Rome, proved
-himself the greatest of modern architects. When Leonardo went to
-Milan Bramante had already been living there for many years. One of
-his earliest works in Milan was the church of Santa Maria presso San
-Satiro, Via del Falcone[Footnote 1: Evidence of this I intend to
-give later on in a Life of Bramante, which I have in preparation.].
-
-Now we find among Leonardos studies of Cupolas on Plates LXXXIV and
-LXXXV and in Pl. LXXX several sketches which seem to me to have been
-suggested by Bramante's dome of this church.
-
-The MSS. B and Ash. II contain the plans of S. Sepolcro, the
-pavilion in the garden of the duke of Milan, and two churches,
-evidently inspired by the church of San Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-MS. B. contains besides two notes relating to Pavia, one of them a
-design for the sacristy of the Cathedral at Pavia, which cannot be
-supposed to be dated later than 1492, and it has probably some
-relation to Leonardo's call to Pavia June 21, 1490[Footnote 2: The
-sketch of the plan of Brunellesco's church of Santo Spirito at
-Florence, which occurs in the same Manuscript, may have been done
-from memory.]. These and other considerations justify us in
-concluding, that Leonardo made his studies of cupolas at Milan,
-probably between the years 1487 and 1492 in anticipation of the
-erection of one of the grandest churches of Italy, the Cathedral of
-Pavia. This may explain the decidedly Lombardo-Bramantesque tendency
-in the style of these studies, among which only a few remind us of
-the forms of the cupolas of S. Maria del Fiore and of the Baptistery
-of Florence. Thus, although when compared with Bramante's work,
-several of these sketches plainly reveal that master's influence, we
-find, among the sketches of domes, some, which show already
-Bramante's classic style, of which the Tempietto of San Pietro in
-Montorio, his first building executed at Rome, is the foremost
-example[Footnote 3: It may be mentioned here, that in 1494 Bramante
-made a similar design for the lantern of the Cupola of the Church of
-Santa Maria delle Grazie.].
-
-On Plate LXXXIV is a sketch of the plan of a similar circular
-building; and the Mausoleum on Pl. XCVIII, no less than one of the
-pedestals for the statue of Francesco Sforza (Pl. LXV), is of the
-same type.
-
-The drawings Pl. LXXXIV No. 2, Pl. LXXXVI No. 1 and 2 and the ground
-flour ("flour" sic but should be "floor" ?) of the building in the
-drawing Pl. XCI No. 2, with the interesting decoration by gigantic
-statues in large niches, are also, I believe, more in the style
-Bramante adopted at Rome, than in the Lombard style. Are we to
-conclude from this that Leonardo on his part influenced Bramante in
-the sense of simplifying his style and rendering it more congenial
-to antique art? The answer to this important question seems at first
-difficult to give, for we are here in presence of Bramante, the
-greatest of modern architects, and with Leonardo, the man comparable
-with no other. We have no knowledge of any buildings erected by
-Leonardo, and unless we admit personal intercourse--which seems
-probable, but of which there is no proof--, it would be difficult to
-understand how Leonardo could have affected Bramante's style. The
-converse is more easily to be admitted, since Bramante, as we have
-proved elsewhere, drew and built simultaneously in different
-manners, and though in Lombardy there is no building by him in his
-classic style, the use of brick for building, in that part of Italy,
-may easily account for it._
-
-_Bramante's name is incidentally mentioned in Leonardo's manuscripts
-in two passages (Nos. 1414 and 1448). On each occasion it is only a
-slight passing allusion, and the nature of the context gives us no
-due information as to any close connection between the two artists._
-
-_It might be supposed, on the ground of Leonardo's relations with
-the East given in sections XVII and XXI of this volume, that some
-evidence of oriental influence might be detected in his
-architectural drawings. I do not however think that any such traces
-can be pointed out with certainty unless perhaps the drawing for a
-Mausoleum, Pl. XC VIII._
-
-_Among several studies for the construction of cupolas above a Greek
-cross there are some in which the forms are decidedly monotonous.
-These, it is clear, were not designed as models of taste; they must
-be regarded as the results of certain investigations into the laws
-of proportion, harmony and contrast._
-
-_The designs for churches, on the plan of a Latin cross are
-evidently intended to depart as little as possible from the form of
-a Greek cross; and they also show a preference for a nave surrounded
-with outer porticos._
-
-_The architectural forms preferred by Leonardo are pilasters coupled
-(Pl. LXXXII No. 1; or grouped (Pl. LXXX No. 5 and XCIV No. 4), often
-combined with niches. We often meet with orders superposed, one in
-each story, or two small orders on one story, in combination with
-one great order (Pl. XCVI No. 2)._
-
-The drum (tamburo) of these cupolas is generally octagonal, as in
-the cathedral of Florence, and with similar round windows in its
-sides. In Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 it is circular like the model actually
-carried out by Michael Angelo at St. Peter's.
-
-The cupola itself is either hidden under a pyramidal roof, as in the
-Baptistery of Florence, San Lorenzo of Milan and most of the Lombard
-churches (Pl. XCI No. 1 and Pl. XCII No. 1); but it more generally
-suggests the curve of Sta Maria del Fiore (Pl. LXXXVIII No. 5; Pl.
-XC No. 2; Pl. LXXXIX, M; Pl XC No. 4, Pl. XCVI No. 2). In other
-cases (Pl. LXXX No. 4; Pl. LXXXIX; Pl. XC No. 2) it shows the sides
-of the octagon crowned by semicircular pediments, as in
-Brunellesco's lantern of the Cathedral and in the model for the
-Cathedral of Pavia.
-
-Finally, in some sketches the cupola is either semicircular, or as
-in Pl. LXXXVII No. 2, shows the beautiful line, adopted sixty years
-later by Michael Angelo for the existing dome of St. Peter's.
-
-It is worth noticing that for all these domes Leonardo is not
-satisfied to decorate the exterior merely with ascending ribs or
-mouldings, but employs also a system of horizontal parallels to
-complete the architectural system. Not the least interesting are the
-designs for the tiburio (cupola) of the Milan Cathedral. They show
-some of the forms, just mentioned, adapted to the peculiar gothic
-style of that monument.
-
-The few examples of interiors of churches recall the style employed
-in Lombardy by Bramante, for instance in S. Maria di Canepanuova at
-Pavia, or by Dolcebuono in the Monastero Maggiore at Milan (see Pl.
-CI No. 1 [C. A. 181b; 546b]; Pl. LXXXIV No. 10).
-
-The few indications concerning palaces seem to prove that Leonardo
-followed Alberti's example of decorating the walls with pilasters
-and a flat rustica, either in stone or by graffitti (Pl. CII No. 1
-and Pl. LXXXV No. 14).
-
-By pointing out the analogies between Leonardo's architecture and
-that of other masters we in no way pretend to depreciate his
-individual and original inventive power. These are at all events
-beyond dispute. The project for the Mausoleum (Pl. XCVIII) would
-alone suffice to rank him among the greatest architects who ever
-lived. The peculiar shape of the tower (Pl. LXXX), of the churches
-for preaching (Pl. XCVII No. 1 and pages 56 and 57, Fig. 1-4), his
-curious plan for a city with high and low level streets (Pl. LXXVII
-and LXXVIII No. 2 and No. 3), his Loggia with fountains (Pl. LXXXII
-No. 4) reveal an originality, a power and facility of invention for
-almost any given problem, which are quite wonderful.
-
-_In addition to all these qualities he propably stood alone in his
-day in one department of architectural study,--his investigations,
-namely, as to the resistance of vaults, foundations, walls and
-arches._
-
-_As an application of these studies the plan of a semicircular vault
-(Pl. CIII No. 2) may be mentioned here, disposed so as to produce no
-thrust on the columns on which it rests:_ volta i botte e non
-ispignie ifori le colone. _Above the geometrical patterns on the
-same sheet, close to a circle inscribed in a square is the note:_ la
-ragio d'una volta cioe il terzo del diamitro della sua ... del
-tedesco in domo.
-
-_There are few data by which to judge of Leonardo's style in the
-treatment of detail. On Pl. LXXXV No. 10 and Pl. CIII No. 3, we find
-some details of pillars; on Pl. CI No. 3 slender pillars designed
-for a fountain and on Pl. CIII No. 1 MS. B, is a pen and ink drawing
-of a vase which also seems intended for a fountain. Three handles
-seem to have been intended to connect the upper parts with the base.
-There can be no doubt that Leonardo, like Bramante, but unlike
-Michael Angelo, brought infinite delicacy of motive and execution to
-bear on the details of his work._
-
-_XIV._
-
-_Anatomy, Zoology and Physiology._
-
-_Leonardo's eminent place in the history of medicine, as a pioneer
-in the sciences of Anatomy and Physiology, will never be appreciated
-till it is possible to publish the mass of manuscripts in which he
-largely treated of these two branches of learning. In the present
-work I must necessarily limit myself to giving the reader a general
-view of these labours, by publishing his introductory notes to the
-various books on anatomical subjects. I have added some extracts,
-and such observations as are scattered incidentally through these
-treatises, as serving to throw a light on Leonardo's scientific
-attitude, besides having an interest for a wider circle than that of
-specialists only._
-
-_VASARI expressly mentions Leonardo's anatomical studies, having had
-occasion to examine the manuscript books which refer to them.
-According to him Leonardo studied Anatomy in the companionship of
-Marc Antonio della Torre_ "aiutato e scambievolmente
-aiutando."_--This learned Anatomist taught the science in the
-universities first of Padua and then of Pavia, and at Pavia he and
-Leonardo may have worked and studied together. We have no clue to
-any exact dates, but in the year 1506 Marc Antonio della Torre seems
-to have not yet left Padua. He was scarcely thirty years old when he
-died in 1512, and his writings on anatomy have not only never been
-published, but no manuscript copy of them is known to exist._
-
-_This is not the place to enlarge on the connection between Leonardo
-and Marc Antonio della Torre. I may however observe that I have not
-been able to discover in Leonardo's manuscripts on anatomy any
-mention of his younger contemporary. The few quotations which occur
-from writers on medicine--either of antiquity or of the middle ages
-are printed in Section XXII. Here and there in the manuscripts
-mention is made of an anonymous "adversary"_ (avversario) _whose
-views are opposed and refuted by Leonardo, but there is no ground
-for supposing that Marc Antonio della Torre should have been this
-"adversary"._
-
-_Only a very small selection from the mass of anatomical drawings
-left by Leonardo have been published here in facsimile, but to form
-any adequate idea of their scientific merit they should be compared
-with the coarse and inadequate figures given in the published books
-of the early part of the XVI. century.
-
-William Hunter, the great surgeon--a competent judge--who had an
-opportunity in the time of George III. of seeing the originals in
-the King's Library, has thus recorded his opinion: "I expected to
-see little more than such designs in Anatomy as might be useful to a
-painter in his own profession. But I saw, and indeed with
-astonishment, that Leonardo had been a general and deep student.
-When I consider what pains he has taken upon every part of the body,
-the superiority of his universal genius, his particular excellence
-in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attention with which such a man
-would examine and see objects which he has to draw, I am fully
-persuaded that Leonardo was the best Anatomist, at that time, in the
-world ... Leonardo was certainly the first man, we know of, who
-introduced the practice of making anatomical drawings" (Two
-introductory letters. London 1784, pages 37 and 39).
-
-The illustrious German Naturalist Johan Friedrich Blumenback
-esteemed them no less highly; he was one of the privileged few who,
-after Hunter, had the chance of seeing these Manuscripts. He writes:
-_Der Scharfblick dieses grossen Forschers und Darstellers der Natur
-hat schon auf Dinge geachtet, die noch Jahrhunderte nachher
-unbemerkt geblieben sind_" (see _Blumenbach's medicinische
-Bibliothek_, Vol. 3, St. 4, 1795. page 728).
-
-These opinions were founded on the drawings alone. Up to the present
-day hardly anything has been made known of the text, and, for the
-reasons I have given, it is my intention to reproduce here no more
-than a selection of extracts which I have made from the originals at
-Windsor Castle and elsewhere. In the Bibliography of the
-Manuscripts, at the end of this volume a short review is given of
-the valuable contents of these Anatomical note books which are at
-present almost all in the possession of her Majesty the Queen of
-England. It is, I believe, possible to assign the date with
-approximate accuracy to almost all the fragments, and I am thus led
-to conclude that the greater part of Leonardo's anatomical
-investigations were carried out after the death of della Torre.
-
-Merely in reading the introductory notes to his various books on
-Anatomy which are here printed it is impossible to resist the
-impression that the Master's anatomical studies bear to a very great
-extent the stamp of originality and independent thought.
-
-I.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-796.
-
-A general introduction
-
-I wish to work miracles;--it may be that I shall possess less than
-other men of more peaceful lives, or than those who want to grow
-rich in a day. I may live for a long time in great poverty, as
-always happens, and to all eternity will happen, to alchemists, the
-would-be creators of gold and silver, and to engineers who would
-have dead water stir itself into life and perpetual motion, and to
-those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter.
-
-[Footnote 23: The following seems to be directed against students of
-painting and young artists rather than against medical men and
-anatomists.]
-
-And you, who say that it would be better to watch an anatomist at
-work than to see these drawings, you would be right, if it were
-possible to observe all the things which are demonstrated in such
-drawings in a single figure, in which you, with all your cleverness,
-will not see nor obtain knowledge of more than some few veins, to
-obtain a true and perfect knowledge of which I have dissected more
-than ten human bodies, destroying all the other members, and
-removing the very minutest particles of the flesh by which these
-veins are surrounded, without causing them to bleed, excepting the
-insensible bleeding of the capillary veins; and as one single body
-would not last so long, since it was necessary to proceed with
-several bodies by degrees, until I came to an end and had a complete
-knowledge; this I repeated twice, to learn the differences [59].
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-59 and 60-89 are written in two parallel columns.
-When we here find Leonardo putting himself in the same category as
-the Alchemists and Necromancers, whom he elsewhere mocks at so
-bitterly, it is evidently meant ironically. In the same way
-Leonardo, in the introduction to the Books on Perspective sets
-himself with transparent satire on a level with other writers on the
-subject.]
-
-And if you should have a love for such things you might be prevented
-by loathing, and if that did not prevent you, you might be deterred
-by the fear of living in the night hours in the company of those
-corpses, quartered and flayed and horrible to see. And if this did
-not prevent you, perhaps you might not be able to draw so well as is
-necessary for such a demonstration; or, if you had the skill in
-drawing, it might not be combined with knowledge of perspective; and
-if it were so, you might not understand the methods of geometrical
-demonstration and the method of the calculation of forces and of the
-strength of the muscles; patience also may be wanting, so that you
-lack perseverance. As to whether all these things were found in me
-or not [Footnote 84: Leonardo frequently, and perhaps habitually,
-wrote in note books of a very small size and only moderately thick;
-in most of those which have been preserved undivided, each contains
-less than fifty leaves. Thus a considerable number of such volumes
-must have gone to make up a volume of the bulk of the '_Codex
-Atlanticus_' which now contains nearly 1200 detached leaves. In the
-passage under consideration, which was evidently written at a late
-period of his life, Leonardo speaks of his Manuscript note-books as
-numbering 12O; but we should hardly be justified in concluding from
-this passage that the greater part of his Manuscripts were now
-missing (see _Prolegomena_, Vol. I, pp. 5-7).], the hundred and
-twenty books composed by me will give verdict Yes or No. In these I
-have been hindered neither by avarice nor negligence, but simply by
-want of time. Farewell [89].
-
-Plans and suggestions for the arrangement of materials (797-802).
-
-797.
-
-OF THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-This work must begin with the conception of man, and describe the
-nature of the womb and how the foetus lives in it, up to what stage
-it resides there, and in what way it quickens into life and feeds.
-Also its growth and what interval there is between one stage of
-growth and another. What it is that forces it out from the body of
-the mother, and for what reasons it sometimes comes out of the
-mother's womb before the due time.
-
-Then I will describe which are the members, which, after the boy is
-born, grow more than the others, and determine the proportions of a
-boy of one year.
-
-Then describe the fully grown man and woman, with their proportions,
-and the nature of their complexions, colour, and physiognomy.
-
-Then how they are composed of veins, tendons, muscles and bones.
-This I shall do at the end of the book. Then, in four drawings,
-represent four universal conditions of men. That is, Mirth, with
-various acts of laughter, and describe the cause of laughter.
-Weeping in various aspects with its causes. Contention, with various
-acts of killing; flight, fear, ferocity, boldness, murder and every
-thing pertaining to such cases. Then represent Labour, with pulling,
-thrusting, carrying, stopping, supporting and such like things.
-
-Further I would describe attitudes and movements. Then perspective,
-concerning the functions and effects of the eye; and of
-hearing--here I will speak of music--, and treat of the other
-senses.
-
-And then describe the nature of the senses.
-
-This mechanism of man we will demonstrate in ... figures; of which
-the three first will show the ramification of the bones; that is:
-first one to show their height and position and shape: the second
-will be seen in profile and will show the depth of the whole and of
-the parts, and their position. The third figure will be a
-demonstration of the bones of the backparts. Then I will make three
-other figures from the same point of view, with the bones sawn
-across, in which will be shown their thickness and hollowness. Three
-other figures of the bones complete, and of the nerves which rise
-from the nape of the neck, and in what limbs they ramify. And three
-others of the bones and veins, and where they ramify. Then three
-figures with the muscles and three with the skin, and their proper
-proportions; and three of woman, to illustrate the womb and the
-menstrual veins which go to the breasts.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning of the word _nervo_ varies in different
-passages, being sometimes used for _muscolo_ (muscle).]
-
-798.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-This depicting of mine of the human body will be as clear to you as
-if you had the natural man before you; and the reason is that if you
-wish thoroughly to know the parts of man, anatomically, you--or your
-eye--require to see it from different aspects, considering it from
-below and from above and from its sides, turning it about and
-seeking the origin of each member; and in this way the natural
-anatomy is sufficient for your comprehension. But you must
-understand that this amount of knowledge will not continue to
-satisfy you; seeing the very great confusion that must result from
-the combination of tissues, with veins, arteries, nerves, sinews,
-muscles, bones, and blood which, of itself, tinges every part the
-same colour. And the veins, which discharge this blood, are not
-discerned by reason of their smallness. Moreover integrity of the
-tissues, in the process of the investigating the parts within them,
-is inevitably destroyed, and their transparent substance being
-tinged with blood does not allow you to recognise the parts covered
-by them, from the similarity of their blood-stained hue; and you
-cannot know everything of the one without confusing and destroying
-the other. Hence, some further anatomy drawings become necessary. Of
-which you want three to give full knowledge of the veins and
-arteries, everything else being destroyed with the greatest care.
-And three others to display the tissues; and three for the sinews
-and muscles and ligaments; and three for the bones and cartilages;
-and three for the anatomy of the bones, which have to be sawn to
-show which are hollow and which are not, which have marrow and which
-are spongy, and which are thick from the outside inwards, and which
-are thin. And some are extremely thin in some parts and thick in
-others, and in some parts hollow or filled up with bone, or full of
-marrow, or spongy. And all these conditions are sometimes found in
-one and the same bone, and in some bones none of them. And three you
-must have for the woman, in which there is much that is mysterious
-by reason of the womb and the foetus. Therefore by my drawings every
-part will be known to you, and all by means of demonstrations from
-three different points of view of each part; for when you have seen
-a limb from the front, with any muscles, sinews, or veins which take
-their rise from the opposite side, the same limb will be shown to
-you in a side view or from behind, exactly as if you had that same
-limb in your hand and were turning it from side to side until you
-had acquired a full comprehension of all you wished to know. In the
-same way there will be put before you three or four demonstrations
-of each limb, from various points of view, so that you will be left
-with a true and complete knowledge of all you wish to learn of the
-human figure[Footnote 35: Compare Pl. CVII. The original drawing at
-Windsor is 28 1/2 X 19 1/2 centimetres. The upper figures are
-slightly washed with Indian ink. On the back of this drawing is the
-text No. 1140.].
-
-Thus, in twelve entire figures, you will have set before you the
-cosmography of this lesser world on the same plan as, before me, was
-adopted by Ptolemy in his cosmography; and so I will afterwards
-divide them into limbs as he divided the whole world into provinces;
-then I will speak of the function of each part in every direction,
-putting before your eyes a description of the whole form and
-substance of man, as regards his movements from place to place, by
-means of his different parts. And thus, if it please our great
-Author, I may demonstrate the nature of men, and their customs in
-the way I describe his figure.
-
-And remember that the anatomy of the nerves will not give the
-position of their ramifications, nor show you which muscles they
-branch into, by means of bodies dissected in running water or in
-lime water; though indeed their origin and starting point may be
-seen without such water as well as with it. But their ramifications,
-when under running water, cling and unite--just like flat or hemp
-carded for spinning--all into a skein, in a way which makes it
-impossible to trace in which muscles or by what ramification the
-nerves are distributed among those muscles.
-
-799.
-
-THE ARRANGEMENT OF ANATOMY
-
-First draw the bones, let us say, of the arm, and put in the motor
-muscle from the shoulder to the elbow with all its lines. Then
-proceed in the same way from the elbow to the wrist. Then from the
-wrist to the hand and from the hand to the fingers.
-
-And in the arm you will put the motors of the fingers which open,
-and these you will show separately in their demonstration. In the
-second demonstration you will clothe these muscles with the
-secondary motors of the fingers and so proceed by degrees to avoid
-confusion. But first lay on the bones those muscles which lie close
-to the said bones, without confusion of other muscles; and with
-these you may put the nerves and veins which supply their
-nourishment, after having first drawn the tree of veins and nerves
-over the simple bones.
-
-800.
-
-Begin the anatomy at the head and finish at the sole of the foot.
-
-801.
-
-3 men complete, 3 with bones and nerves, 3 with the bones only. Here
-we have 12 demonstrations of entire figures.
-
-802.
-
-When you have finished building up the man, you will make the statue
-with all its superficial measurements.
-
-[Footnote: _Cresciere l'omo_. The meaning of this expression appears
-to be different here and in the passage C.A. 157a, 468a (see No.
-526, Note 1. 2). Here it can hardly mean anything else than
-modelling, since the sculptor forms the figure by degrees, by adding
-wet clay and the figure consequently increases or grows. _Tu farai
-la statua_ would then mean, you must work out the figure in marble.
-If this interpretation is the correct one, this passage would have
-no right to find a place in the series on anatomical studies. I may
-say that it was originally inserted in this connection under the
-impression that _di cresciere_ should be read _descrivere_.]
-
-Plans for the representation of muscles by drawings (803-809).
-
-803.
-
-You must show all the motions of the bones with their joints to
-follow the demonstration of the first three figures of the bones,
-and this should be done in the first book.
-
-804.
-
-Remember that to be certain of the point of origin of any muscle,
-you must pull the sinew from which the muscle springs in such a way
-as to see that muscle move, and where it is attached to the
-ligaments of the bones.
-
-NOTE.
-
-You will never get any thing but confusion in demonstrating the
-muscles and their positions, origin, and termination, unless you
-first make a demonstration of thin muscles after the manner of linen
-threads; and thus you can represent them, one over another as nature
-has placed them; and thus, too, you can name them according to the
-limb they serve; for instance the motor of the point of the great
-toe, of its middle bone, of its first bone, &c. And when you have
-the knowledge you will draw, by the side of this, the true form and
-size and position of each muscle. But remember to give the threads
-which explain the situation of the muscles in the position which
-corresponds to the central line of each muscle; and so these threads
-will demonstrate the form of the leg and their distance in a plain
-and clear manner.
-
-I have removed the skin from a man who was so shrunk by illness that
-the muscles were worn down and remained in a state like thin
-membrane, in such a way that the sinews instead of merging in
-muscles ended in wide membrane; and where the bones were covered by
-the skin they had very little over their natural size.
-
-[Footnote: The photograph No. 41 of Grosvenor Gallery Publications:
-a drawing of the muscles of the foot, includes a complete facsimile
-of the text of this passage.]
-
-805.
-
-Which nerve causes the motion of the eye so that the motion of one
-eye moves the other?
-
-Of frowning the brows, of raising the brows, of lowering the
-brows,--of closing the eyes, of opening the eyes,--of raising the
-nostrils, of opening the lips, with the teeth shut, of pouting with
-the lips, of smiling, of astonishment.--
-
-Describe the beginning of man when it is caused in the womb and why
-an eight months child does not live. What sneezing is. What yawning
-is. Falling sickness, spasms, paralysis, shivering with cold,
-sweating, fatigue, hunger, sleepiness, thirst, lust.
-
-Of the nerve which is the cause of movement from the shoulder to the
-elbow, of the movement from the elbow to the hand, from the joint of
-the hand to the springing of the fingers. From the springing of the
-fingers to the middle joints, and from the middle joints to the
-last.
-
-Of the nerve which causes the movement of the thigh, and from the
-knee to the foot, and from the joint of the foot to the toes, and
-then to the middle of the toes and of the rotary motion of the leg.
-
-806.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-Which nerves or sinews of the hand are those which close and part
-the fingers and toes latteraly?
-
-807.
-
-Remove by degrees all the parts of the front of a man in making your
-dissection, till you come to the bones. Description of the parts of
-the bust and of their motions.
-
-808.
-
-Give the anatomy of the leg up to the hip, in all views and in every
-action and in every state; veins, arteries, nerves, sinews and
-muscles, skin and bones; then the bones in sections to show the
-thickness of the bones.
-
-[Footnote: A straightened leg in profile is sketched by the side of
-this text.]
-
-On corpulency and leanness (809-811).
-
-809.
-
-Make the rule and give the measurement of each muscle, and give the
-reasons of all their functions, and in which way they work and what
-makes them work &c.
-
-[4] First draw the spine of the back; then clothe it by degrees, one
-after the other, with each of its muscles and put in the nerves and
-arteries and veins to each muscle by itself; and besides these note
-the vertebrae to which they are attached; which of the intestines
-come in contact with them; and which bones and other organs &c.
-
-The most prominent parts of lean people are most prominent in the
-muscular, and equally so in fat persons. But concerning the
-difference in the forms of the muscles in fat persons as compared
-with muscular persons, it shall be described below.
-
-[Footnote: The two drawings given on Pl. CVIII no. 1 come between
-lines 3 and 4. A good and very early copy of this drawing without
-the written text exists in the collection of drawings belonging to
-Christ's College Oxford, where it is attributed to Leonardo.]
-
-810.
-
-Describe which muscles disappear in growing fat, and which become
-visible in growing lean.
-
-And observe that that part which on the surface of a fat person is
-most concave, when he grows lean becomes more prominent.
-
-Where the muscles separate one from another you must give profiles
-and where they coalesce ...
-
-811.
-
-OF THE HUMAN FIGURE.
-
-Which is the part in man, which, as he grows fatter, never gains
-flesh?
-
-Or what part which as a man grows lean never falls away with a too
-perceptible diminution? And among the parts which grow fat which is
-that which grows fattest?
-
-Among those which grow lean which is that which grows leanest?
-
-In very strong men which are the muscles which are thickest and most
-prominent?
-
-In your anatomy you must represent all the stages of the limbs from
-man's creation to his death, and then till the death of the bone;
-and which part of him is first decayed and which is preserved the
-longest.
-
-And in the same way of extreme leanness and extreme fatness.
-
-The divisions of the head (812. 813).
-
-812.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-There are eleven elementary tissues:-- Cartilage, bones, nerves,
-veins, arteries, fascia, ligament and sinews, skin, muscle and fat.
-
-OF THE HEAD.
-
-The divisions of the head are 10, viz. 5 external and 5 internal,
-the external are the hair, skin, muscle, fascia and the skull; the
-internal are the dura mater, the pia mater, [which enclose] the
-brain. The pia mater and the dura mater come again underneath and
-enclose the brain; then the rete mirabile, and the occipital bone,
-which supports the brain from which the nerves spring.
-
-813.
-
-_a_. hair
-
-_n_. skin
-
-_c_. muscle
-
-_m_. fascia
-
-_o_. skull _i.e._ bone
-
-_b_. dura mater
-
-_d_. pia mater
-
-_f_. brain
-
-_r_. pia mater, below
-
-_t_. dura mater
-
-_l_. rete mirablile
-
-_s_. the occipitul bone.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 3.]
-
-Physiological problems (814. 815).
-
-814.
-
-Of the cause of breathing, of the cause of the motion of the heart,
-of the cause of vomiting, of the cause of the descent of food from
-the stomach, of the cause of emptying the intestines.
-
-Of the cause of the movement of the superfluous matter through the
-intestines.
-
-Of the cause of swallowing, of the cause of coughing, of the cause
-of yawning, of the cause of sneezing, of the cause of limbs getting
-asleep.
-
-Of the cause of losing sensibility in any limb.
-
-Of the cause of tickling.
-
-Of the cause of lust and other appetites of the body, of the cause
-of urine and also of all the natural excretions of the body.
-
-[Footnote: By the side of this text stands the pen and ink drawing
-reproduced on Pl. CVIII, No. 4; a skull with indications of the
-veins in the fleshy covering.]
-
-815.
-
-The tears come from the heart and not from the brain.
-
-Define all the parts, of which the body is composed, beginning with
-the skin with its outer cuticle which is often chapped by the
-influence of the sun.
-
-II.
-
-ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
-
-The divisions of the animal kingdom (816. 817).
-
-816.
-
-_Man_. The description of man, which includes that of such creatures
-as are of almost the same species, as Apes, Monkeys and the like,
-which are many,
-
-_The Lion_ and its kindred, as Panthers. [Footnote 3: _Leonza_--wild
-cat? "_Secondo alcuni, lo stesso che Leonessa; e secondo altri con
-piu certezza, lo stesso che Pantera_" FANFANI, _Vocabolario_ page
-858.] Wildcats (?) Tigers, Leopards, Wolfs, Lynxes, Spanish cats,
-common cats and the like.
-
-_The Horse_ and its kindred, as Mule, Ass and the like, with incisor
-teeth above and below.
-
-_The Bull_ and its allies with horns and without upper incisors as
-the Buffalo, Stag Fallow Deer, Wild Goat, Swine, Goat, wild Goats
-Muskdeers, Chamois, Giraffe.
-
-817.
-
-Describe the various forms of the intestines of the human species,
-of apes and such like. Then, in what way the leonine species differ,
-and then the bovine, and finally birds; and arrange this description
-after the manner of a disquisition.
-
-Miscellaneous notes on the study of Zoology (818-821).
-
-818.
-
-Procure the placenta of a calf when it is born and observe the form
-of the cotyledons, if their cotyledons are male or female.
-
-819.
-
-Describe the tongue of the woodpecker and the jaw of the crocodile.
-
-820.
-
-Of the flight of the 4th kind of butterflies that consume winged
-ants. Of the three principal positions of the wings of birds in
-downward flight.
-
-[Footnote: A passing allusion is all I can here permit myself to
-Leonardo's elaborate researches into the flight of birds. Compare
-the observations on this subject in the Introduction to section
-XVIII and in the Bibliography of Manuscripts at the end of the
-work.]
-
-821.
-
-Of the way in which the tail of a fish acts in propelling the fish;
-as in the eel, snake and leech.
-
-[Footnote: A sketch of a fish, swimming upwards is in the original,
-inserted above this text.--Compare No. 1114.]
-
-Comparative study of the structure of bones and of the action of
-muscles (822-826).
-
-822.
-
-OF THE PALM OF THE HAND.
-
-Then I will discourse of the hands of each animal to show in what
-they vary; as in the bear, which has the ligatures of the sinews of
-the toes joined above the instep.
-
-823.
-
-A second demonstration inserted between anatomy and [the treatise
-on] the living being.
-
-You will represent here for a comparison, the legs of a frog, which
-have a great resemblance to the legs of man, both in the bones and
-in the muscles. Then, in continuation, the hind legs of the hare,
-which are very muscular, with strong active muscles, because they
-are not encumbered with fat.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written by the side of a drawing in black
-chalk of a nude male figure, but there is no connection between the
-sketch and the text.]
-
-824.
-
-Here I make a note to demonstrate the difference there is between
-man and the horse and in the same way with other animals. And first
-I will begin with the bones, and then will go on to all the muscles
-which spring from the bones without tendons and end in them in the
-same way, and then go on to those which start with a single tendon
-at one end.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 2.]
-
-825.
-
-Note on the bendings of joints and in what way the flesh grows upon
-them in their flexions or extensions; and of this most important
-study write a separate treatise: in the description of the movements
-of animals with four feet; among which is man, who likewise in his
-infancy crawls on all fours.
-
-826.
-
-OF THE WAY OF WALKING IN MAN.
-
-The walking of man is always after the universal manner of walking
-in animals with 4 legs, inasmuch as just as they move their feet
-crosswise after the manner of a horse in trotting, so man moves his
-4 limbs crosswise; that is, if he puts forward his right foot in
-walking he puts forward, with it, his left arm and vice versa,
-invariably.
-
-III.
-
-PHYSIOLOGY.
-
-Comparative study of the organs of sense in men and animals.
-
-827.
-
-I have found that in the composition of the human body as compared
-with the bodies of animals the organs of sense are duller and
-coarser. Thus it is composed of less ingenious instruments, and of
-spaces less capacious for receiving the faculties of sense. I have
-seen in the Lion tribe that the sense of smell is connected with
-part of the substance of the brain which comes down the nostrils,
-which form a spacious receptacle for the sense of smell, which
-enters by a great number of cartilaginous vesicles with several
-passages leading up to where the brain, as before said, comes down.
-
-The eyes in the Lion tribe have a large part of the head for their
-sockets and the optic nerves communicate at once with the brain; but
-the contrary is to be seen in man, for the sockets of the eyes are
-but a small part of the head, and the optic nerves are very fine and
-long and weak, and by the weakness of their action we see by day but
-badly at night, while these animals can see as well at night as by
-day. The proof that they can see is that they prowl for prey at
-night and sleep by day, as nocturnal birds do also.
-
-Advantages in the structure of the eye in certain animals (828-831).
-
-828.
-
-Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,
-and larger in the morning than at midday.
-
-This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
-than at any other time.
-
-In proportion as the eye or the pupil of the owl is larger in
-proportion to the animal than that of man, so much the more light
-can it see at night than man can; hence at midday it can see nothing
-if its pupil does not diminish; and, in the same way, at night
-things look larger to it than by day.
-
-829.
-
-OF THE EYES IN ANIMALS.
-
-The eyes of all animals have their pupils adapted to dilate and
-diminish of their own accord in proportion to the greater or less
-light of the sun or other luminary. But in birds the variation is
-much greater; and particularly in nocturnal birds, such as horned
-owls, and in the eyes of one species of owl; in these the pupil
-dilates in such away as to occupy nearly the whole eye, or
-diminishes to the size of a grain of millet, and always preserves
-the circular form. But in the Lion tribe, as panthers, pards,
-ounces, tigers, lynxes, Spanish cats and other similar animals the
-pupil diminishes from the perfect circle to the figure of a pointed
-oval such as is shown in the margin. But man having a weaker sight
-than any other animal is less hurt by a very strong light and his
-pupil increases but little in dark places; but in the eyes of these
-nocturnal animals, the horned owl--a bird which is the largest of
-all nocturnal birds--the power of vision increases so much that in
-the faintest nocturnal light (which we call darkness) it sees with
-much more distinctness than we do in the splendour of noon day, at
-which time these birds remain hidden in dark holes; or if indeed
-they are compelled to come out into the open air lighted up by the
-sun, they contract their pupils so much that their power of sight
-diminishes together with the quantity of light admitted.
-
-Study the anatomy of various eyes and see which are the muscles
-which open and close the said pupils of the eyes of animals.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 24, lines 8 and fol.]
-
-830.
-
-_a b n_ is the membrane which closes the eye from below, upwards,
-with an opaque film, _c n b_ encloses the eye in front and behind
-with a transparent membrane.
-
-It closes from below, upwards, because it [the eye] comes downwards.
-
-When the eye of a bird closes with its two lids, the first to close
-is the nictitating membrane which closes from the lacrymal duct over
-to the outer corner of the eye; and the outer lid closes from below
-upwards, and these two intersecting motions begin first from the
-lacrymatory duct, because we have already seen that in front and
-below birds are protected and use only the upper portion of the eye
-from fear of birds of prey which come down from above and behind;
-and they uncover first the membrane from the outer corner, because
-if the enemy comes from behind, they have the power of escaping to
-the front; and again the muscle called the nictitating membrane is
-transparent, because, if the eye had not such a screen, they could
-not keep it open against the wind which strikes against the eye in
-the rush of their rapid flight. And the pupil of the eye dilates and
-contracts as it sees a less or greater light, that is to say intense
-brilliancy.
-
-831.
-
-If at night your eye is placed between the light and the eye of a
-cat, it will see the eye look like fire.
-
-Remarks on the organs of speech
-
-(832. 833).
-
-832.
-
-_a  e  i  o  u
-ba be bi bo bu
-ca ce ci co cu
-da de di do du
-fa fe fi fo fu
-ga ge gi go gu
-la le li lo lu
-ma me mi mo mu
-na ne ni no nu
-pa pe pi po pu
-qa qe qi qo qu
-ra re ri ro ru
-sa se si so su
-ta te ti to tu_
-
-The tongue is found to have 24 muscles which correspond to the six
-muscles which compose the portion of the tongue which moves in the
-mouth.
-
-And when _a o u_ are spoken with a clear and rapid pronunciation, it
-is necessary, in order to pronounce continuously, without any pause
-between, that the opening of the lips should close by degrees; that
-is, they are wide apart in saying _a_, closer in saying _o_, and
-much closer still to pronounce _u_.
-
-It may be shown how all the vowels are pronounced with the farthest
-portion of the false palate which is above the epiglottis.
-
-833.
-
-If you draw in breath by the nose and send it out by the mouth you
-will hear the sound made by the division that is the membrane in
-[Footnote 5: The text here breaks off.]...
-
-On the conditions of sight (834. 835).
-
-834.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF SIGHT.
-
-I say that sight is exercised by all animals, by the medium of
-light; and if any one adduces, as against this, the sight of
-nocturnal animals, I must say that this in the same way is subject
-to the very same natural laws. For it will easily be understood that
-the senses which receive the images of things do not project from
-themselves any visual virtue [Footnote 4: Compare No. 68.]. On the
-contrary the atmospheric medium which exists between the object and
-the sense incorporates in itself the figure of things, and by its
-contact with the sense transmits the object to it. If the
-object--whether by sound or by odour--presents its spiritual force
-to the ear or the nose, then light is not required and does not act.
-The forms of objects do not send their images into the air if they
-are not illuminated [8]; and the eye being thus constituted cannot
-receive that from the air, which the air does not possess, although
-it touches its surface. If you choose to say that there are many
-animals that prey at night, I answer that when the little light
-which suffices the nature of their eyes is wanting, they direct
-themselves by their strong sense of hearing and of smell, which are
-not impeded by the darkness, and in which they are very far superior
-to man. If you make a cat leap, by daylight, among a quantity of
-jars and crocks you will see them remain unbroken, but if you do the
-same at night, many will be broken. Night birds do not fly about
-unless the moon shines full or in part; rather do they feed between
-sun-down and the total darkness of the night.
-
-[Footnote 8: See No. 58-67.]
-
-No body can be apprehended without light and shade, and light and
-shade are caused by light.
-
-835.
-
-WHY MEN ADVANCED IN AGE SEE BETTER AT A DISTANCE.
-
-Sight is better from a distance than near in those men who are
-advancing in age, because the same object transmits a smaller
-impression of itself to the eye when it is distant than when it is
-near.
-
-The seat of the common sense.
-
-836.
-
-The Common Sense, is that which judges of things offered to it by
-the other senses. The ancient speculators have concluded that that
-part of man which constitutes his judgment is caused by a central
-organ to which the other five senses refer everything by means of
-impressibility; and to this centre they have given the name Common
-Sense. And they say that this Sense is situated in the centre of the
-head between Sensation and Memory. And this name of Common Sense is
-given to it solely because it is the common judge of all the other
-five senses _i.e._ Seeing, Hearing, Touch, Taste and Smell. This
-Common Sense is acted upon by means of Sensation which is placed as
-a medium between it and the senses. Sensation is acted upon by means
-of the images of things presented to it by the external instruments,
-that is to say the senses which are the medium between external
-things and Sensation. In the same way the senses are acted upon by
-objects. Surrounding things transmit their images to the senses and
-the senses transfer them to the Sensation. Sensation sends them to
-the Common Sense, and by it they are stamped upon the memory and are
-there more or less retained according to the importance or force of
-the impression. That sense is most rapid in its function which is
-nearest to the sensitive medium and the eye, being the highest is
-the chief of the others. Of this then only we will speak, and the
-others we will leave in order not to make our matter too long.
-Experience tells us that the eye apprehends ten different natures of
-things, that is: Light and Darkness, one being the cause of the
-perception of the nine others, and the other its absence:-- Colour
-and substance, form and place, distance and nearness, motion and
-stillness [Footnote 15: Compare No. 23.].
-
-On the origin of the soul.
-
-837.
-
-Though human ingenuity may make various inventions which, by the
-help of various machines answering the same end, it will never
-devise any inventions more beautiful, nor more simple, nor more to
-the purpose than Nature does; because in her inventions nothing is
-wanting, and nothing is superfluous, and she needs no counterpoise
-when she makes limbs proper for motion in the bodies of animals. But
-she puts into them the soul of the body, which forms them that is
-the soul of the mother which first constructs in the womb the form
-of the man and in due time awakens the soul that is to inhabit it.
-And this at first lies dormant and under the tutelage of the soul of
-the mother, who nourishes and vivifies it by the umbilical vein,
-with all its spiritual parts, and this happens because this
-umbilicus is joined to the placenta and the cotyledons, by which the
-child is attached to the mother. And these are the reason why a
-wish, a strong craving or a fright or any other mental suffering in
-the mother, has more influence on the child than on the mother; for
-there are many cases when the child loses its life from them, &c.
-
-This discourse is not in its place here, but will be wanted for the
-one on the composition of animated bodies--and the rest of the
-definition of the soul I leave to the imaginations of friars, those
-fathers of the people who know all secrets by inspiration.
-
-[Footnote 57: _lettere incoronate_. By this term Leonardo probably
-understands not the Bible only, but the works of the early Fathers,
-and all the books recognised as sacred by the Roman Church.] I leave
-alone the sacred books; for they are supreme truth.
-
-On the relations of the soul to the organs of sense.
-
-838.
-
-HOW THE FIVE SENSES ARE THE MINISTERS OF THE SOUL.
-
-The soul seems to reside in the judgment, and the judgment would
-seem to be seated in that part where all the senses meet; and this
-is called the Common Sense and is not all-pervading throughout the
-body, as many have thought. Rather is it entirely in one part.
-Because, if it were all-pervading and the same in every part, there
-would have been no need to make the instruments of the senses meet
-in one centre and in one single spot; on the contrary it would have
-sufficed that the eye should fulfil the function of its sensation on
-its surface only, and not transmit the image of the things seen, to
-the sense, by means of the optic nerves, so that the soul--for the
-reason given above-- may perceive it in the surface of the eye. In
-the same way as to the sense of hearing, it would have sufficed if
-the voice had merely sounded in the porous cavity of the indurated
-portion of the temporal bone which lies within the ear, without
-making any farther transit from this bone to the common sense, where
-the voice confers with and discourses to the common judgment. The
-sense of smell, again, is compelled by necessity to refer itself to
-that same judgment. Feeling passes through the perforated cords and
-is conveyed to this common sense. These cords diverge with infinite
-ramifications into the skin which encloses the members of the body
-and the viscera. The perforated cords convey volition and sensation
-to the subordinate limbs. These cords and the nerves direct the
-motions of the muscles and sinews, between which they are placed;
-these obey, and this obedience takes effect by reducing their
-thickness; for in swelling, their length is reduced, and the nerves
-shrink which are interwoven among the particles of the limbs; being
-extended to the tips of the fingers, they transmit to the sense the
-object which they touch.
-
-The nerves with their muscles obey the tendons as soldiers obey the
-officers, and the tendons obey the Common [central] Sense as the
-officers obey the general. [27] Thus the joint of the bones obeys
-the nerve, and the nerve the muscle, and the muscle the tendon and
-the tendon the Common Sense. And the Common Sense is the seat of the
-soul [28], and memory is its ammunition, and the impressibility is
-its referendary since the sense waits on the soul and not the soul
-on the sense. And where the sense that ministers to the soul is not
-at the service of the soul, all the functions of that sense are also
-wanting in that man's life, as is seen in those born mute and blind.
-
-[Footnote: The peculiar use of the words _nervo_, _muscolo_,
-_corda_, _senso comune_, which are here literally rendered by nerve,
-muscle cord or tendon and Common Sense may be understood from lines
-27 and 28.]
-
-On involuntary muscular action.
-
-839.
-
-HOW THE NERVES SOMETIMES ACT OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT ANY COMMANDS FROM
-THE OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL.
-
-This is most plainly seen; for you will see palsied and shivering
-persons move, and their trembling limbs, as their head and hands,
-quake without leave from their soul and their soul with all its
-power cannot prevent their members from trembling. The same thing
-happens in falling sickness, or in parts that have been cut off, as
-in the tails of lizards. The idea or imagination is the helm and
-guiding-rein of the senses, because the thing conceived of moves the
-sense. Pre-imagining, is imagining the things that are to be.
-Post-imagining, is imagining the things that are past.
-
-Miscellaneous physiological observations (840-842).
-
-840.
-
-There are four Powers: memory and intellect, desire and
-covetousness. The two first are mental and the others sensual. The
-three senses: sight, hearing and smell cannot well be prevented;
-touch and taste not at all. Smell is connected with taste in dogs
-and other gluttonous animals.
-
-841.
-
-I reveal to men the origin of the first, or perhaps second cause of
-their existence.
-
-842.
-
-Lust is the cause of generation.
-
-Appetite is the support of life. Fear or timidity is the
-prolongation of life and preservation of its instruments.
-
-The laws of nutrition and the support of life (843-848).
-
-843.
-
-HOW THE BODY OF ANIMALS IS CONSTANTLY DYING AND BEING RENEWED.
-
-The body of any thing whatever that takes nourishment constantly
-dies and is constantly renewed; because nourishment can only enter
-into places where the former nourishment has expired, and if it has
-expired it no longer has life. And if you do not supply nourishment
-equal to the nourishment which is gone, life will fail in vigour,
-and if you take away this nourishment, the life is entirely
-destroyed. But if you restore as much is destroyed day by day, then
-as much of the life is renewed as is consumed, just as the flame of
-the candle is fed by the nourishment afforded by the liquid of this
-candle, which flame continually with a rapid supply restores to it
-from below as much as is consumed in dying above: and from a
-brilliant light is converted in dying into murky smoke; and this
-death is continuous, as the smoke is continuous; and the continuance
-of the smoke is equal to the continuance of the nourishment, and in
-the same instant all the flame is dead and all regenerated,
-simultaneously with the movement of its own nourishment.
-
-844.
-
-King of the animals--as thou hast described him--I should rather say
-king of the beasts, thou being the greatest--because thou hast
-spared slaying them, in order that they may give thee their children
-for the benefit of the gullet, of which thou hast attempted to make
-a sepulchre for all animals; and I would say still more, if it were
-allowed me to speak the entire truth [5]. But we do not go outside
-human matters in telling of one supreme wickedness, which does not
-happen among the animals of the earth, inasmuch as among them are
-found none who eat their own kind, unless through want of sense (few
-indeed among them, and those being mothers, as with men, albeit they
-be not many in number); and this happens only among the rapacious
-animals, as with the leonine species, and leopards, panthers lynxes,
-cats and the like, who sometimes eat their children; but thou,
-besides thy children devourest father, mother, brothers and friends;
-nor is this enough for thee, but thou goest to the chase on the
-islands of others, taking other men and these half-naked, the ...
-and the ... thou fattenest, and chasest them down thy own
-throat[18]; now does not nature produce enough simples, for thee to
-satisfy thyself? and if thou art not content with simples, canst
-thou not by the mixture of them make infinite compounds, as Platina
-wrote[Footnote 21: _Come scrisse il Platina_ (Bartolomeo Sacchi, a
-famous humanist). The Italian edition of his treatise _De arte
-coquinaria_, was published under the title _De la honestra
-voluptate, e valetudine, Venezia_ 1487.], and other authors on
-feeding?
-
-[Footnote: We are led to believe that Leonardo himself was a
-vegetarian from the following interesting passage in the first of
-Andrea Corsali's letters to Giuliano de'Medici: _Alcuni gentili
-chiamati Guzzarati non si cibano di cosa, alcuna che tenga sangue,
-ne fra essi loro consentono che si noccia ad alcuna cosa animata,
-come il nostro Leonardo da Vinci_.
-
-5-18. Amerigo Vespucci, with whom Leonardo was personally
-acquainted, writes in his second letter to Pietro Soderini, about
-the inhabitants of the Canary Islands after having stayed there in
-1503: "_Hanno una scelerata liberta di viuere; ... si cibano di
-carne humana, di maniera che il padre magia il figliuolo, et
-all'incontro il figliuolo il padre secondo che a caso e per sorte
-auiene. Io viddi un certo huomo sceleratissimo che si vantaua, et si
-teneua a non piccola gloria di hauer mangiato piu di trecento
-huomini. Viddi anche vna certa citta, nella quale io dimorai forse
-ventisette giorni, doue le carni humane, hauendole salate, eran
-appicate alli traui, si come noi alli traui di cucina_ _appicchiamo
-le carni di cinghali secche al sole o al fumo, et massimamente
-salsiccie, et altre simil cose: anzi si marauigliauano gradem ete
-che noi non magiaissimo della carne de nemici, le quali dicono
-muouere appetito, et essere di marauiglioso sapore, et le lodano
-come cibi soaui et delicati (Lettere due di Amerigo Vespucci
-Fiorentino drizzate al magnifico Pietro Soderini, Gonfaloniere della
-eccelsa Republica di Firenze_; various editions).]
-
-845.
-
-Our life is made by the death of others.
-
-In dead matter insensible life remains, which, reunited to the
-stomachs of living beings, resumes life, both sensual and
-intellectual.
-
-846.
-
-Here nature appears with many animals to have been rather a cruel
-stepmother than a mother, and with others not a stepmother, but a
-most tender mother.
-
-847.
-
-Man and animals are really the passage and the conduit of food, the
-sepulchre of animals and resting place of the dead, one causing the
-death of the other, making themselves the covering for the
-corruption of other dead [bodies].
-
-On the circulation of the blood (848-850).
-
-848.
-
-Death in old men, when not from fever, is caused by the veins which
-go from the spleen to the valve of the liver, and which thicken so
-much in the walls that they become closed up and leave no passage
-for the blood that nourishes it.
-
-[6]The incessant current of the blood through the veins makes these
-veins thicken and become callous, so that at last they close up and
-prevent the passage of the blood.
-
-849.
-
-The waters return with constant motion from the lowest depths of the
-sea to the utmost height of the mountains, not obeying the nature of
-heavier bodies; and in this they resemble the blood of animated
-beings which always moves from the sea of the heart and flows
-towards the top of the head; and here it may burst a vein, as may be
-seen when a vein bursts in the nose; all the blood rises from below
-to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes out from the
-burst vein in the earth, it obeys the law of other bodies that are
-heavier than the air since it always seeks low places.
-
-[Footnote: From this passage it is quite plain that Leonardo had not
-merely a general suspicion of the circulation of the blood but a
-very clear conception of it. Leonardo's studies on the muscles of
-the heart are to be found in the MS. W. An. III. but no information
-about them has hitherto been made public. The limits of my plan in
-this work exclude all purely anatomical writings, therefore only a
-very brief excerpt from this note book can be given here. WILLIAM
-HARVEY (born 1578 and Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge from 1615)
-is always considered to have been the discoverer of the circulation
-of the blood. He studied medicine at Padua in 1598, and in 1628
-brought out his memorable and important work: _De motu cordis et
-sanguinis_.]
-
-850.
-
-That the blood which returns when the heart opens again is not the
-same as that which closes the valves of the heart.
-
-Some notes on medicine (851-855).
-
-851.
-
-Make them give you the definition and remedies for the case ... and
-you will see that men are selected to be doctors for diseases they
-do not know.
-
-852.
-
-A remedy for scratches taught me by the Herald to the King of
-France. 4 ounces of virgin wax, 4 ounces of colophony, 2 ounces of
-incense. Keep each thing separate; and melt the wax, and then put in
-the incense and then the colophony, make a mixture of it and put it
-on the sore place.
-
-853.
-
-Medicine is the restoration of discordant elements; sickness is the
-discord of the elements infused into the living body.
-
-854.
-
-Those who are annoyed by sickness at sea should drink extract of
-wormwood.
-
-855.
-
-To keep in health, this rule is wise: Eat only when you want and
-relish food. Chew thoroughly that it may do you good. Have it well
-cooked, unspiced and undisguised. He who takes medicine is ill
-advised.
-
-[Footnote: This appears to be a sketch for a poem.]
-
-856.
-
-I teach you to preserve your health; and in this you will succed
-better in proportion as you shun physicians, because their medicines
-are the work of alchemists.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is written on the back of the drawing Pl.
-CVIII. Compare also No. 1184.]
-
-_XV_.
-
-_Astronomy_.
-
-_Ever since the publication by Venturi in_ 1797 _and Libri in_ 1840
-_of some few passages of Leonardo's astronomical notes, scientific
-astronomers have frequently expressed the opinion, that they must
-have been based on very important discoveries, and that the great
-painter also deserved a conspicuous place in the history of this
-science. In the passages here printed, a connected view is given of
-his astronomical studies as they lie scattered through the
-manuscripts, which have come down to us. Unlike his other purely
-scientific labours, Leonardo devotes here a good deal of attention
-to the opinions of the ancients, though he does not follow the
-practice universal in his day of relying on them as authorities; he
-only quotes them, as we shall see, in order to refute their
-arguments. His researches throughout have the stamp of independent
-thought. There is nothing in these writings to lead us to suppose
-that they were merely an epitome of the general learning common to
-the astronomers of the period. As early as in the XIVth century
-there were chairs of astronomy in the universities of Padua and
-Bologna, but so late as during the entire XVIth century Astronomy
-and Astrology were still closely allied._
-
-_It is impossible now to decide whether Leonardo, when living in
-Florence, became acquainted in his youth with the doctrines of Paolo
-Toscanelli the great astronomer and mathematician (died_ 1482_), of
-whose influence and teaching but little is now known, beyond the
-fact that he advised and encouraged Columbus to carry out his
-project of sailing round the world. His name is nowhere mentioned by
-Leonardo, and from the dates of the manuscripts from which the texts
-on astronomy are taken, it seems highly probable that Leonardo
-devoted his attention to astronomical studies less in his youth than
-in his later years. It was evidently his purpose to treat of
-Astronomy in a connected form and in a separate work (see the
-beginning of Nos._ 866 _and_ 892_; compare also No._ 1167_). It is
-quite in accordance with his general scientific thoroughness that he
-should propose to write a special treatise on Optics as an
-introduction to Astronomy (see Nos._ 867 _and_ 877_). Some of the
-chapters belonging to this Section bear the title "Prospettiva"
-_(see Nos._ 869 _and_ 870_), this being the term universally applied
-at the time to Optics as well as Perspective (see Vol. I, p._ 10,
-_note to No._ 13, _l._ 10_)_.
-
-_At the beginning of the XVIth century the Ptolemaic theory of the
-universe was still universally accepted as the true one, and
-Leonardo conceives of the earth as fixed, with the moon and sun
-revolving round it, as they are represented in the diagram to No._
-897. _He does not go into any theory of the motions of the planets;
-with regard to these and the fixed stars he only investigates the
-phenomena of their luminosity. The spherical form of the earth he
-takes for granted as an axiom from the first, and he anticipates
-Newton by pointing out the universality of Gravitation not merely in
-the earth, but even in the moon. Although his acute research into
-the nature of the moon's light and the spots on the moon did not
-bring to light many results of lasting importance beyond making it
-evident that they were a refutation of the errors of his
-contemporaries, they contain various explanations of facts which
-modern science need not modify in any essential point, and
-discoveries which history has hitherto assigned to a very much later
-date_.
-
-_The ingenious theory by which he tries to explain the nature of
-what is known as earth shine, the reflection of the sun's rays by
-the earth towards the moon, saying that it is a peculiar refraction,
-originating in the innumerable curved surfaces of the waves of the
-sea may be regarded as absurd; but it must not be forgotten that he
-had no means of detecting the fundamental error on which he based
-it, namely: the assumption that the moon was at a relatively short
-distance from the earth. So long as the motion of the earth round
-the sun remained unknown, it was of course impossible to form any
-estimate of the moon's distance from the earth by a calculation of
-its parallax_.
-
-_Before the discovery of the telescope accurate astronomical
-observations were only possible to a very limited extent. It would
-appear however from certain passages in the notes here printed for
-the first time, that Leonardo was in a position to study the spots
-in the moon more closely than he could have done with the unaided
-eye. So far as can be gathered from the mysterious language in which
-the description of his instrument is wrapped, he made use of
-magnifying glasses; these do not however seem to have been
-constructed like a telescope--telescopes were first made about_
-1600. _As LIBRI pointed out_ (Histoire des Sciences mathematiques
-III, 101) _Fracastoro of Verona_ (1473-1553) _succeeded in
-magnifying the moon's face by an arrangement of lenses (compare No._
-910, _note), and this gives probability to Leonardo's invention at a
-not much earlier date._
-
-I.
-
-THE EARTH AS A PLANET.
-
-The earth's place in the universe (857. 858).
-
-857.
-
-The equator, the line of the horizon, the ecliptic, the meridian:
-
-These lines are those which in all their parts are equidistant from
-the centre of the globe.
-
-858.
-
-The earth is not in the centre of the Sun's orbit nor at the centre
-of the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements, and
-united with them. And any one standing on the moon, when it and the
-sun are both beneath us, would see this our earth and the element of
-water upon it just as we see the moon, and the earth would light it
-as it lights us.
-
-The fundamental laws of the solar system (859-864).
-
-859.
-
-Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical
-motion, and the grand-child of spiritual motion, and the mother and
-origin of gravity. Gravity is limited to the elements of water and
-earth; but this force is unlimited, and by it infinite worlds might
-be moved if instruments could be made by which the force could be
-generated.
-
-Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance are the
-four external powers on which all actions of mortals depend.
-
-Force has its origin in spiritual motion; and this motion, flowing
-through the limbs of sentient animals, enlarges their muscles. Being
-enlarged by this current the muscles are shrunk in length and
-contract the tendons which are connected with them, and this is the
-cause of the force of the limbs in man.
-
-The quality and quantity of the force of a man are able to give
-birth to other forces, which will be proportionally greater as the
-motions produced by them last longer.
-
-[Footnote: Only part of this passage belongs, strictly speaking, to
-this section. The principle laid down in the second paragraph is
-more directly connected with the notes given in the preceding
-section on Physiology.]
-
-860.
-
-Why does not the weight _o_ remain in its place? It does not remain
-because it has no resistance. Where will it move to? It will move
-towards the centre [of gravity]. And why by no other line? Because a
-weight which has no support falls by the shortest road to the lowest
-point which is the centre of the world. And why does the weight know
-how to find it by so short a line? Because it is not independant and
-does not move about in various directions.
-
-[Footnote: This text and the sketch belonging to it, are reproduced
-on Pl. CXXI.]
-
-861.
-
-Let the earth turn on which side it may the surface of the waters
-will never move from its spherical form, but will always remain
-equidistant from the centre of the globe.
-
-Granting that the earth might be removed from the centre of the
-globe, what would happen to the water?
-
-It would remain in a sphere round that centre equally thick, but the
-sphere would have a smaller diameter than when it enclosed the
-earth.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 896, lines 48-64; and No. 936.]
-
-862.
-
-Supposing the earth at our antipodes which supports the ocean were
-to rise and stand uncovered, far out of the sea, but remaining
-almost level, by what means afterwards, in the course of time, would
-mountains and vallies be formed?
-
-And the rocks with their various strata?
-
-863.
-
-Each man is always in the middle of the surface of the earth and
-under the zenith of his own hemisphere, and over the centre of the
-earth.
-
-864.
-
-Mem.: That I must first show the distance of the sun from the earth;
-and, by means of a ray passing through a small hole into a dark
-chamber, detect its real size; and besides this, by means of the
-aqueous sphere calculate the size of the globe ...
-
-Here it will be shown, that when the sun is in the meridian of our
-hemisphere [Footnote 10: _Antipodi orientali cogli occidentali_. The
-word _Antipodes_ does not here bear its literal sense, but--as we
-may infer from the simultaneous reference to inhabitants of the
-North and South-- is used as meaning men living at a distance of 90
-degrees from the zenith of the rational horizon of each observer.],
-the antipodes to the East and to the West, alike, and at the same
-time, see the sun mirrored in their waters; and the same is equally
-true of the arctic and antarctic poles, if indeed they are
-inhabited.
-
-How to prove that the earth is a planet (865-867).
-
-865.
-
-That the earth is a star.
-
-866.
-
-In your discourse you must prove that the earth is a star much like
-the moon, and the glory of our universe; and then you must treat of
-the size of various stars, according to the authors.
-
-867.
-
-THE METHOD OF PROVING THAT THE EARTH IS A STAR.
-
-First describe the eye; then show how the twinkling of a star is
-really in the eye and why one star should twinkle more than another,
-and how the rays from the stars originate in the eye; and add, that
-if the twinkling of the stars were really in the stars --as it seems
-to be--that this twinkling appears to be an extension as great as
-the diameter of the body of the star; therefore, the star being
-larger than the earth, this motion effected in an instant would be a
-rapid doubling of the size of the star. Then prove that the surface
-of the air where it lies contiguous to fire, and the surface of the
-fire where it ends are those into which the solar rays penetrate,
-and transmit the images of the heavenly bodies, large when they
-rise, and small, when they are on the meridian. Let _a_ be the earth
-and _n d m_ the surface of the air in contact with the sphere of
-fire; _h f g_ is the orbit of the moon or, if you please, of the
-sun; then I say that when the sun appears on the horizon _g_, its
-rays are seen passing through the surface of the air at a slanting
-angle, that is _o m_; this is not the case at _d k_. And so it
-passes through a greater mass of air; all of _e m_ is a denser
-atmosphere.
-
-868.
-
-Beyond the sun and us there is darkness and so the air appears blue.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 301.]
-
-869.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-It is possible to find means by which the eye shall not see remote
-objects as much diminished as in natural perspective, which
-diminishes them by reason of the convexity of the eye which
-necessarily intersects, at its surface, the pyramid of every image
-conveyed to the eye at a right angle on its spherical surface. But
-by the method I here teach in the margin [9] these pyramids are
-intersected at right angles close to the surface of the pupil. The
-convex pupil of the eye can take in the whole of our hemisphere,
-while this will show only a single star; but where many small stars
-transmit their images to the surface of the pupil those stars are
-extremely small; here only one star is seen but it will be large.
-And so the moon will be seen larger and its spots of a more defined
-form [Footnote 20 and fol.: Telescopes were not in use till a century
-later. Compare No. 910 and page 136.]. You must place close to the
-eye a glass filled with the water of which mention is made in number
-4 of Book 113 "On natural substances" [Footnote 23: _libro_ 113.
-This is perhaps the number of a book in some library catalogue. But
-it may refer, on the other hand, to one of the 120 Books mentioned
-in No. 796. l. 84.]; for this water makes objects which are enclosed
-in balls of crystalline glass appear free from the glass.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-Among the smaller objects presented to the pupil of the eye, that
-which is closest to it, will be least appreciable to the eye. And at
-the same time, the experiments here made with the power of sight,
-show that it is not reduced to speck if the &c. [32][Footnote 32:
-Compare with this the passage in Vol. I, No. 52, written about
-twenty years earlier.].
-
-Read in the margin.
-
-[34]Those objects are seen largest which come to the eye at the
-largest angles.
-
-But the images of the objects conveyed to the pupil of the eye are
-distributed to the pupil exactly as they are distributed in the air:
-and the proof of this is in what follows; that when we look at the
-starry sky, without gazing more fixedly at one star than another,
-the sky appears all strewn with stars; and their proportions to the
-eye are the same as in the sky and likewise the spaces between them
-[61].
-
-[Footnote: 9. 32. _in margine:_ lines 34-61 are, in the original,
-written on the margin and above them is the diagram to which
-Leonardo seems to refer here.]
-
-870.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Among objects moved from the eye at equal distance, that undergoes
-least diminution which at first was most remote.
-
-When various objects are removed at equal distances farther from
-their original position, that which was at first the farthest from
-the eye will diminish least. And the proportion of the diminution
-will be in proportion to the relative distance of the objects from
-the eye before they were removed.
-
-That is to say in the object _t_ and the object _e_ the proportion
-of their distances from the eye _a_ is quintuple. I remove each from
-its place and set it farther from the eye by one of the 5 parts into
-which the proposition is divided. Hence it happens that the nearest
-to the eye has doubled the distance and according to the last
-proposition but one of this, is diminished by the half of its whole
-size; and the body _e_, by the same motion, is diminished 1/5 of its
-whole size. Therefore, by that same last proposition but one, that
-which is said in this last proposition is true; and this I say of
-the motions of the celestial bodies which are more distant by 3500
-miles when setting than when overhead, and yet do not increase or
-diminish in any sensible degree.
-
-871.
-
-_a b_ is the aperture through which the sun passes, and if you could
-measure the size of the solar rays at _n m_, you could accurately
-trace the real lines of the convergence of the solar rays, the
-mirror being at _a b_, and then show the reflected rays at equal
-angles to _n m_; but, as you want to have them at _n m_, take them
-at the. inner side of the aperture at cd, where they maybe measured
-at the spot where the solar rays fall. Then place your mirror at the
-distance _a b_, making the rays _d b_, _c a_ fall and then be
-reflected at equal angles towards _c d_; and this is the best
-method, but you must use this mirror always in the same month, and
-the same day, and hour and instant, and this will be better than at
-no fixed time because when the sun is at a certain distance it
-produces a certain pyramid of rays.
-
-872.
-
-_a_, the side of the body in light and shade _b_, faces the whole
-portion of the hemisphere bed _e f_, and does not face any part of
-the darkness of the earth. And the same occurs at the point _o_;
-therefore the space a _o_ is throughout of one and the same
-brightness, and s faces only four degrees of the hemisphere _d e f g
-h_, and also the whole of the earth _s h_, which will render it
-darker; and how much must be demonstrated by calculation. [Footnote:
-This passage, which has perhaps a doubtful right to its place in
-this connection, stands in the Manuscript between those given in
-Vol. I as No. 117 and No. 427.]
-
-873.
-
-THE REASON OF THE INCREASED SIZE OF THE SUN IN THE WEST.
-
-Some mathematicians explain that the sun looks larger as it sets,
-because the eye always sees it through a denser atmosphere, alleging
-that objects seen through mist or through water appear larger. To
-these I reply: No; because objects seen through a mist are similar
-in colour to those at a distance; but not being similarly diminished
-they appear larger. Again, nothing increases in size in smooth
-water; and the proof of this may be seen by throwing a light on a
-board placed half under water. But the reason why the sun looks
-larger is that every luminous body appears larger in proportion as
-it is more remote. [Footnote: Lines 5 and 6 are thus rendered by M.
-RAVAISSON in his edition of MS. A. "_De meme, aucune chose ne croit
-dans l'eau plane, et tu en feras l'experience_ en calquant un ais
-sous l'eau."--Compare the diagrams in Vol. I, p. 114.]
-
-On the luminosity of the Earth in the universal space (874-878).
-
-874.
-
-In my book I propose to show, how the ocean and the other seas must,
-by means of the sun, make our world shine with the appearance of a
-moon, and to the remoter worlds it looks like a star; and this I
-shall prove.
-
-Show, first that every light at a distance from the eye throws out
-rays which appear to increase the size of the luminous body; and
-from this it follows that 2 ...[Footnote 10: Here the text breaks
-off; lines 11 and fol. are written in the margin.].
-
-[11]The moon is cold and moist. Water is cold and moist. Thus our
-seas must appear to the moon as the moon does to us.
-
-875.
-
-The waves in water magnify the image of an object reflected in it.
-
-Let _a_ be the sun, and _n m_ the ruffled water, _b_ the image of
-the sun when the water is smooth. Let _f_ be the eye which sees the
-image in all the waves included within the base of the triangle _c e
-f_. Now the sun reflected in the unruffled surface occupied the
-space _c d_, while in the ruffled surface it covers all the watery
-space _c e_ (as is proved in the 4th of my "Perspective") [Footnote
-9: _Nel quarto della mia prospettiva_. If this reference is to the
-diagrams accompanying the text--as is usual with Leonardo--and not
-to some particular work, the largest of the diagrams here given must
-be meant. It is the lowest and actually the fifth, but he would have
-called it the fourth, for the text here given is preceded on the
-same page of the manuscript by a passage on whirlpools, with the
-diagram belonging to it also reproduced here. The words _della mia
-prospettiva_ may therefore indicate that the diagram to the
-preceding chapter treating on a heterogeneal subject is to be
-excluded. It is a further difficulty that this diagram belongs
-properly to lines 9-10 and not to the preceding sentence. The
-reflection of the sun in water is also discussed in the Theoretical
-part of the Book on Painting; see Vol. I, No. 206, 207.] and it will
-cover more of the water in proportion as the reflected image is
-remote from the eye [10].
-
-[Footnote: In the original sketch, inside the circle in the first
-diagram, is written _Sole_ (sun), and to the right of it _luna_
-(moon). Thus either of these heavenly bodies may be supposed to fill
-that space. Within the lower circle is written _simulacro_ (image).
-In the two next diagrams at the spot here marked _L_ the word _Luna_
-is written, and in the last _sole_ is written in the top circle at
-_a_.]
-
-The image of the sun will be more brightly shown in small waves than
-in large ones--and this is because the reflections or images of the
-sun are more numerous in the small waves than in large ones, and the
-more numerous reflections of its radiance give a larger light than
-the fewer.
-
-Waves which intersect like the scales of a fir cone reflect the
-image of the sun with the greatest splendour; and this is the case
-because the images are as many as the ridges of the waves on which
-the sun shines, and the shadows between these waves are small and
-not very dark; and the radiance of so many reflections together
-becomes united in the image which is transmitted to the eye, so that
-these shadows are imperceptible.
-
-That reflection of the sun will cover most space on the surface of
-the water which is most remote from the eye which sees it.
-
-Let _a_ be the sun, _p q_ the reflection of the sun; _a b_ is the
-surface of the water, in which the sun is mirrored, and _r_ the eye
-which sees this reflection on the surface of the water occupying the
-space _o m_. _c_ is the eye at a greater distance from the surface
-of the water and also from the reflection; hence this reflection
-covers a larger space of water, by the distance between _n_ and _o_.
-
-876.
-
-It is impossible that the side of a spherical mirror, illuminated by
-the sun, should reflect its radiance unless this mirror were
-undulating or filled with bubbles.
-
-You see here the sun which lights up the moon, a spherical mirror,
-and all of its surface, which faces the sun is rendered radiant.
-
-Whence it may be concluded that what shines in the moon is water
-like that of our seas, and in waves as that is; and that portion
-which does not shine consists of islands and terra firma.
-
-This diagram, of several spherical bodies interposed between the eye
-and the sun, is given to show that, just as the reflection of the
-sun is seen in each of these bodies, in the same way that image may
-be seen in each curve of the waves of the sea; and as in these many
-spheres many reflections of the sun are seen, so in many waves there
-are many images, each of which at a great distance is much magnified
-to the eye. And, as this happens with each wave, the spaces
-interposed between the waves are concealed; and, for this reason, it
-looks as though the many suns mirrored in the many waves were but
-one continuous sun; and the shadows,, mixed up with the luminous
-images, render this radiance less brilliant than that of the sun
-mirrored in these waves.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, at letter _A_ in the diagram "_Sole_"
-(the sun) is written, and at _o_ "_occhio_" (the eye).]
-
-877.
-
-This will have before it the treatise on light and shade.
-
-The edges in the moon will be most strongly lighted and reflect most
-light, because, there, nothing will be visible but the tops of the
-waves of the water [Footnote 5: I have thought it unnecessary to
-reproduce the detailed explanation of the theory of reflection on
-waves contained in the passage which follows this.].
-
-878.
-
-The sun will appear larger in moving water or on waves than in still
-water; an example is the light reflected on the strings of a
-monochord.
-
-II.
-
-THE SUN.
-
-The question of the true and of the apparent size of the sun
-(879-884).
-
-879.
-
-IN PRAISE OF THE SUN.
-
-If you look at the stars, cutting off the rays (as may be done by
-looking through a very small hole made with the extreme point of a
-very fine needle, placed so as almost to touch the eye), you will
-see those stars so minute that it would seem as though nothing could
-be smaller; it is in fact their great distance which is the reason
-of their diminution, for many of them are very many times larger
-than the star which is the earth with water. Now reflect what this
-our star must look like at such a distance, and then consider how
-many stars might be added--both in longitude and latitude--between
-those stars which are scattered over the darkened sky. But I cannot
-forbear to condemn many of the ancients, who said that the sun was
-no larger than it appears; among these was Epicurus, and I believe
-that he founded his reason on the effects of a light placed in our
-atmosphere equidistant from the centre of the earth. Any one looking
-at it never sees it diminished in size at whatever distance; and the
-rea-
-
-[Footnote 879-882: What Leonardo says of Epicurus-- who according to
-LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, and MADLER, _Geschichte der
-Himmelskunde_, did not devote much attention to the study of
-celestial phenomena--, he probably derived from Book X of Diogenes
-Laertius, whose _Vitae Philosophorum_ was not printed in Greek till
-1533, but the Latin translation appeared in 1475.]
-
-880.
-
-sons of its size and power I shall reserve for Book 4. But I wonder
-greatly that Socrates
-
-[Footnote 2: _Socrates;_ I have little light to throw on this
-reference. Plato's Socrates himself declares on more than one
-occasion that in his youth he had turned his mind to the study of
-celestial phenomena (METEWPA) but not in his later years (see G. C.
-LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, page 109; MADLER,
-_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, page 41). Here and there in Plato's
-writings we find incidental notes on the sun and other heavenly
-bodies. Leonardo may very well have known of these, since the Latin
-version by Ficinus was printed as early as 1491; indeed an undated
-edition exists which may very likely have appeared between 1480--90.
-
-There is but one passage in Plato, Epinomis (p. 983) where he speaks
-of the physical properties of the sun and says that it is larger
-than the earth.
-
-Aristotle who goes very fully into the subject says the same. A
-complete edition of Aristotele's works was first printed in Venice
-1495-98, but a Latin version of the Books _De Coelo et Mundo_ and
-_De Physica_ had been printed in Venice as early as in 1483 (H.
-MULLER-STRUBING).]
-
-should have depreciated that solar body, saying that it was of the
-nature of incandescent stone, and the one who opposed him as to that
-error was not far wrong. But I only wish I had words to serve me to
-blame those who are fain to extol the worship of men more than that
-of the sun; for in the whole universe there is nowhere to be seen a
-body of greater magnitude and power than the sun. Its light gives
-light to all the celestial bodies which are distributed throughout
-the universe; and from it descends all vital force, for the heat
-that is in living beings comes from the soul [vital spark]; and
-there is no other centre of heat and light in the universe as will
-be shown in Book 4; and certainly those who have chosen to worship
-men as gods--as Jove, Saturn, Mars and the like--have fallen into
-the gravest error, seeing that even if a man were as large as our
-earth, he would look no bigger than a little star which appears but
-as a speck in the universe; and seeing again that these men are
-mortal, and putrid and corrupt in their sepulchres.
-
-Marcellus [Footnote 23: I have no means of identifying _Marcello_
-who is named in the margin. It may be Nonius Marcellus, an obscure
-Roman Grammarian of uncertain date (between the IInd and Vth
-centuries A. C.) the author of the treatise _De compendiosa doctrina
-per litteras ad filium_ in which he treats _de rebus omnibus et
-quibusdam aliis_. This was much read in the middle ages. The _editto
-princeps_ is dated 1470 (H. MULLER-STRUBING).] and many others
-praise the sun.
-
-881.
-
-Epicurus perhaps saw the shadows cast by columns on the walls in
-front of them equal in diameter to the columns from which the
-shadows were cast; and the breadth of the shadows being parallel
-from beginning to end, he thought he might infer that the sun also
-was directly opposite to this parallel and that consequently its
-breadth was not greater than that of the column; not perceiving that
-the diminution in the shadow was insensibly slight by reason of the
-remoteness of the sun. If the sun were smaller than the earth, the
-stars on a great portion of our hemisphere would have no light,
-which is evidence against Epicurus who says the sun is only as large
-as it appears.
-
-[Footnote: In the original the writing is across the diagram.]
-
-882.
-
-Epicurus says the sun is the size it looks. Hence as it looks about
-a foot across we must consider that to be its size; it would follow
-that when the moon eclipses the sun, the sun ought not to appear the
-larger, as it does. Then, the moon being smaller than the sun, the
-moon must be less than a foot, and consequently when our world
-eclipses the moon, it must be less than a foot by a finger's
-breadth; inasmuch as if the sun is a foot across, and our earth
-casts a conical shadow on the moon, it is inevitable that the
-luminous cause of the cone of shadow must be larger than the opaque
-body which casts the cone of shadow.
-
-883.
-
-To measure how many times the diameter of the sun will go into its
-course in 24 hours.
-
-Make a circle and place it to face the south, after the manner of a
-sundial, and place a rod in the middle in such a way as that its
-length points to the centre of this circle, and mark the shadow cast
-in the sunshine by this rod on the circumference of the circle, and
-this shadow will be--let us say-- as broad as from _a_ to _n_. Now
-measure how many times this shadow will go into this circumference
-of a circle, and that will give you the number of times that the
-solar body will go into its orbit in 24 hours. Thus you may see
-whether Epicurus was [right in] saying that the sun was only as
-large as it looked; for, as the apparent diameter of the sun is
-about a foot, and as that sun would go a thousand times into the
-length of its course in 24 hours, it would have gone a thousand
-feet, that is 300 braccia, which is the sixth of a mile. Whence it
-would follow that the course of the sun during the day would be the
-sixth part of a mile and that this venerable snail, the sun will
-have travelled 25 braccia an hour.
-
-884.
-
-Posidonius composed books on the size of the sun. [Footnote:
-Poseidonius of Apamea, commonly called the Rhodian, because he
-taught in Rhodes, was a Stoic philosopher, a contemporary and friend
-of Cicero's, and the author of numerous works on natural science,
-among them.
-
-Strabo quotes no doubt from one of his works, when he says that
-Poseidonius explained how it was that the sun looked larger when it
-was rising or setting than during the rest of its course (III, p.
-135). Kleomedes, a later Greek Naturalist also mentions this
-observation of Poseidonius' without naming the title of his work;
-however, as Kleomedes' Cyclia Theorica was not printed till 1535,
-Leonardo must have derived his quotation from Strabo. He probably
-wrote this note in 1508, and as the original Greek was first printed
-in Venice in 1516, we must suppose him to quote here from the
-translation by Guarinus Veronensis, which was printed as early as
-1471, also at Venice (H. MULLER-STRUBING).]
-
-Of the nature of Sunlight.
-
-885.
-
-OF THE PROOF THAT THE SUN IS HOT BY NATURE AND NOT BY VIRTUE.
-
-Of the nature of Sunlight.
-
-That the heat of the sun resides in its nature and not in its virtue
-[or mode of action] is abundantly proved by the radiance of the
-solar body on which the human eye cannot dwell and besides this no
-less manifestly by the rays reflected from a concave mirror,
-which--when they strike the eye with such splendour that the eye
-cannot bear them--have a brilliancy equal to the sun in its own
-place. And that this is true I prove by the fact that if the mirror
-has its concavity formed exactly as is requisite for the collecting
-and reflecting of these rays, no created being could endure the
-heat that strikes from the reflected rays of such a mirror. And if
-you argue that the mirror itself is cold and yet send forth hot
-rays, I should reply that those rays come really from the sun and
-that it is the ray of the concave mirror after having passed through
-the window.
-
-Considerations as to the size of the sun (886-891).
-
-886.
-
-The sun does not move. [Footnote: This sentence occurs incidentally
-among mathematical notes, and is written in unusually large
-letters.]
-
-887.
-
-PROOF THAT THE NEARER YOU ARE TO THE SOURCE OF THE SOLAR RAYS, THE
-LARGER WILL THE REFLECTION OF THE SUN FROM THE SEA APPEAR TO YOU.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 4 and fol. Compare Vol. I, Nos. 130, 131.] If it is
-from the centre that the sun employs its radiance to intensify the
-power of its whole mass, it is evident that the farther its rays
-extend, the more widely they will be divided; and this being so,
-you, whose eye is near the water that mirrors the sun, see but a
-small portion of the rays of the sun strike the surface of the
-water, and reflecting the form of the sun. But if you were near to
-the sun--as would be the case when the sun is on the meridian and
-the sea to the westward--you would see the sun, mirrored in the sea,
-of a very great size; because, as you are nearer to the sun, your
-eye taking in the rays nearer to the point of radiation takes more
-of them in, and a great splendour is the result. And in this way it
-can be proved that the moon must have seas which reflect the sun,
-and that the parts which do not shine are land.
-
-888.
-
-Take the measure of the sun at the solstice in mid-June.
-
-889.
-
-WHY THE SUN APPEARS LARGER WHEN SETTING THAN AT NOON, WHEN IT IS
-NEAR TO US.
-
-Every object seen through a curved medium seems to be of larger size
-than it is.
-
-[Footnote: At A is written _sole_ (the sun), at B _terra_ (the
-earth).]
-
-890.
-
-Because the eye is small it can only see the image of the sun as of
-a small size. If the eye were as large as the sun it would see the
-image of the sun in water of the same size as the real body of the
-sun, so long as the water is smooth.
-
-891.
-
-A METHOD OF SEEING THE SUN ECLIPSED WITHOUT PAIN TO THE EYE.
-
-Take a piece of paper and pierce holes in it with a needle, and look
-at the sun through these holes.
-
-III.
-
-THE MOON.
-
-On the luminousity of the moon (892-901).
-
-892.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-As I propose to treat of the nature of the moon, it is necessary
-that first I should describe the perspective of mirrors, whether
-plane, concave or convex; and first what is meant by a luminous ray,
-and how it is refracted by various kinds of media; then, when a
-reflected ray is most powerful, whether when the angle of incidence
-is acute, right, or obtuse, or from a convex, a plane, or a concave
-surface; or from an opaque or a transparent body. Besides this, how
-it is that the solar rays which fall on the waves of the sea, are
-seen by the eye of the same width at the angle nearest to the eye,
-as at the highest line of the waves on the horizon; but
-notwithstanding this the solar rays reflected from the waves of the
-sea assume the pyramidal form and consequently, at each degree of
-distance increase proportionally in size, although to our sight,
-they appear as parallel.
-
-1st. Nothing that has very little weight is opaque.
-
-2dly. Nothing that is excessively weighty can remain beneath that
-which is heavier.
-
-3dly. As to whether the moon is situated in the centre of its
-elements or not.
-
-And, if it has no proper place of its own, like the earth, in the
-midst of its elements, why does it not fall to the centre of our
-elements? [Footnote 26: The problem here propounded by Leonardo was
-not satisfactorily answered till Newton in 1682 formulated the law
-of universal attraction and gravitation. Compare No. 902, lines
-5-15.]
-
-And, if the moon is not in the centre of its own elements and yet
-does not fall, it must then be lighter than any other element.
-
-And, if the moon is lighter than the other elements why is it opaque
-and not transparent?
-
-When objects of various sizes, being placed at various distances,
-look of equal size, there must be the same relative proportion in
-the distances as in the magnitudes of the objects.
-
-[Footnote: In the diagram Leonardo wrote _sole_ at the place marked
-_A_.]
-
-893.
-
-OF THE MOON AND WHETHER IT IS POLISHED AND SPHERICAL.
-
-The image of the sun in the moon is powerfully luminous, and is only
-on a small portion of its surface. And the proof may be seen by
-taking a ball of burnished gold and placing it in the dark with a
-light at some distance from it; and then, although it will
-illuminate about half of the ball, the eye will perceive its
-reflection only in a small part of its surface, and all the rest of
-the surface reflects the darkness which surrounds it; so that it is
-only in that spot that the image of the light is seen, and all the
-rest remains invisible, the eye being at a distance from the ball.
-The same thing would happen on the surface of the moon if it were
-polished, lustrous and opaque, like all bodies with a reflecting
-surface.
-
-Show how, if you were standing on the moon or on a star, our earth
-would seem to reflect the sun as the moon does.
-
-And show that the image of the sun in the sea cannot appear one and
-undivided, as it appears in a perfectly plane mirror.
-
-894.
-
-How shadows are lost at great distances, as is shown by the shadow
-side of the moon which is never seen. [Footnote: Compare also Vol.
-I, Nos. 175-179.]
-
-895.
-
-Either the moon has intrinsic luminosity or not. If it has, why does
-it not shine without the aid of the sun? But if it has not any light
-in itself it must of necessity be a spherical mirror; and if it is a
-mirror, is it not proved in Perspective that the image of a luminous
-object will never be equal to the extent of surface of the
-reflecting body that it illuminates? And if it be thus [Footnote 13:
-At A, in the diagram, Leonardo wrote "_sole_" (the sun), and at B
-"_luna o noi terra_" (the moon or our earth). Compare also the text
-of No. 876.], as is here shown at _r s_ in the figure, whence comes
-so great an extent of radiance as that of the full moon as we see
-it, at the fifteenth day of the moon?
-
-896.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-The moon has no light in itself; but so much of it as faces the sun
-is illuminated, and of that illumined portion we see so much as
-faces the earth. And the moon's night receives just as much light as
-is lent it by our waters as they reflect the image of the sun, which
-is mirrored in all those waters which are on the side towards the
-sun. The outside or surface of the waters forming the seas of the
-moon and of the seas of our globe is always ruffled little or much,
-or more or less--and this roughness causes an extension of the
-numberless images of the sun which are repeated in the ridges and
-hollows, the sides and fronts of the innumerable waves; that is to
-say in as many different spots on each wave as our eyes find
-different positions to view them from. This could not happen, if the
-aqueous sphere which covers a great part of the moon were uniformly
-spherical, for then the images of the sun would be one to each
-spectator, and its reflections would be separate and independent and
-its radiance would always appear circular; as is plainly to be seen
-in the gilt balls placed on the tops of high buildings. But if those
-gilt balls were rugged or composed of several little balls, like
-mulberries, which are a black fruit composed of minute round
-globules, then each portion of these little balls, when seen in the
-sun, would display to the eye the lustre resulting from the
-reflection of the sun, and thus, in one and the same body many tiny
-suns would be seen; and these often combine at a long distance and
-appear as one. The lustre of the new moon is brighter and stronger,
-than when the moon is full; and the reason of this is that the angle
-of incidence is more obtuse in the new than in the full moon, in
-which the angles [of incidence and reflection] are highly acute. The
-waves of the moon therefore mirror the sun in the hollows of the
-waves as well as on the ridges, and the sides remain in shadow. But
-at the sides of the moon the hollows of the waves do not catch the
-sunlight, but only their crests; and thus the images are fewer and
-more mixed up with the shadows in the hollows; and this
-intermingling of the shaded and illuminated spots comes to the eye
-with a mitigated splendour, so that the edges will be darker,
-because the curves of the sides of the waves are insufficient to
-reflect to the eye the rays that fall upon them. Now the new moon
-naturally reflects the solar rays more directly towards the eye from
-the crests of the waves than from any other part, as is shown by the
-form of the moon, whose rays a strike the waves _b_ and are
-reflected in the line _b d_, the eye being situated at _d_. This
-cannot happen at the full moon, when the solar rays, being in the
-west, fall on the extreme waters of the moon to the East from _n_ to
-_m_, and are not reflected to the eye in the West, but are thrown
-back eastwards, with but slight deflection from the straight course
-of the solar ray; and thus the angle of incidence is very wide
-indeed.
-
-The moon is an opaque and solid body and if, on the contrary, it
-were transparent, it would not receive the light of the sun.
-
-The yellow or yolk of an egg remains in the middle of the albumen,
-without moving on either side; now it is either lighter or heavier
-than this albumen, or equal to it; if it is lighter, it ought to
-rise above all the albumen and stop in contact with the shell of the
-egg; and if it is heavier, it ought to sink, and if it is equal, it
-might just as well be at one of the ends, as in the middle or below
-[54].
-
-[Footnote 48-64: Compare No. 861.]
-
-The innumerable images of the solar rays reflected from the
-innumerable waves of the sea, as they fall upon those waves, are
-what cause us to see the very broad and continuous radiance on the
-surface of the sea.
-
-897.
-
-That the sun could not be mirrored in the body of the moon, which is
-a convex mirror, in such a way as that so much of its surface as is
-illuminated by the sun, should reflect the sun unless the moon had a
-surface adapted to reflect it--in waves and ridges, like the surface
-of the sea when its surface is moved by the wind.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagrams _sole_ is written at the place
-marked _A; luna_ at _C,_ and _terra_ at the two spots marked _B_.]
-
-The waves in water multiply the image of the object reflected in it.
-
-These waves reflect light, each by its own line, as the surface of
-the fir cone does [Footnote 14: See the diagram p. 145.]
-
-These are 2 figures one different from the other; one with
-undulating water and the other with smooth water.
-
-It is impossible that at any distance the image of the sun cast on
-the surface of a spherical body should occupy the half of the
-sphere.
-
-Here you must prove that the earth produces all the same effects
-with regard to the moon, as the moon with regard to the earth.
-
-The moon, with its reflected light, does not shine like the sun,
-because the light of the moon is not a continuous reflection of that
-of the sun on its whole surface, but only on the crests and hollows
-of the waves of its waters; and thus the sun being confusedly
-reflected, from the admixture of the shadows that lie between the
-lustrous waves, its light is not pure and clear as the sun is.
-
-[Footnote 38: This refers to the small diagram placed between _B_
-and _B_.--]. The earth between the moon on the fifteenth day and the
-sun. [Footnote 39: See the diagram below the one referred to in the
-preceding note.] Here the sun is in the East and the moon on the
-fifteenth day in the West. [Footnote 40.41: Refers to the diagram
-below the others.] The moon on the fifteenth [day] between the earth
-and the sun. [41]Here it is the moon which has the sun to the West
-and the earth to the East.
-
-898.
-
-WHAT SORT OF THING THE MOON IS.
-
-The moon is not of itself luminous, but is highly fitted to
-assimilate the character of light after the manner of a mirror, or
-of water, or of any other reflecting body; and it grows larger in
-the East and in the West, like the sun and the other planets. And
-the reason is that every luminous body looks larger in proportion as
-it is remote. It is easy to understand that every planet and star is
-farther from us when in the West than when it is overhead, by about
-3500 miles, as is proved on the margin [Footnote 7: refers to the
-first diagram.--A = _sole_ (the sun), B = _terra_ (the earth), C =
-_luna_ (the moon).], and if you see the sun or moon mirrored in the
-water near to you, it looks to you of the same size in the water as
-in the sky. But if you recede to the distance of a mile, it will
-look 100 times larger; and if you see the sun reflected in the sea
-at sunset, its image would look to you more than 10 miles long;
-because that reflected image extends over more than 10 miles of sea.
-And if you could stand where the moon is, the sun would look to you,
-as if it were reflected from all the sea that it illuminates by day;
-and the land amid the water would appear just like the dark spots
-that are on the moon, which, when looked at from our earth, appears
-to men the same as our earth would appear to any men who might dwell
-in the moon.
-
-[Footnote: This text has already been published by LIBRI: _Histoire
-des Sciences,_ III, pp. 224, 225.]
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE MOON.
-
-When the moon is entirely lighted up to our sight, we see its full
-daylight; and at that time, owing to the reflection of the solar
-rays which fall on it and are thrown off towards us, its ocean casts
-off less moisture towards us; and the less light it gives the more
-injurious it is.
-
-899.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-I say that as the moon has no light in itself and yet is luminous,
-it is inevitable but that its light is caused by some other body.
-
-900.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-All my opponent's arguments to say that there is no water in the
-moon. [Footnote: The objections are very minutely noted down in the
-manuscript, but they hardly seem to have a place here.]
-
-901.
-
-Answer to Maestro Andrea da Imola, who said that the solar rays
-reflected from a convex mirror are mingled and lost at a short
-distance; whereby it is altogether denied that the luminous side of
-the moon is of the nature of a mirror, and that consequently the
-light is not produced by the innumerable multitude of the waves of
-that sea, which I declared to be the portion of the moon which is
-illuminated by the solar rays.
-
-Let _o p_ be the body of the sun, _c n s_ the moon, and _b_ the eye
-which, above the base _c n_ of the cathetus _c n m_, sees the body
-of the sun reflected at equal angles _c n_; and the same again on
-moving the eye from _b_ to _a_. [Footnote: The large diagram on the
-margin of page 161 belongs to this chapter.]
-
-Explanation of the lumen cinereum in the moon.
-
-902.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-No solid body is less heavy than the atmosphere.
-
-[Footnote: 1. On the margin are the words _tola romantina,
-tola--ferro stagnato_ (tinned iron); _romantina_ is some special
-kind of sheet-iron no longer known by that name.]
-
-Having proved that the part of the moon that shines consists of
-water, which mirrors the body of the sun and reflects the radiance
-it receives from it; and that, if these waters were devoid of waves,
-it would appear small, but of a radiance almost like the sun; --[5]
-It must now be shown whether the moon is a heavy or a light body:
-for, if it were a heavy body--admitting that at every grade of
-distance from the earth greater levity must prevail, so that water
-is lighter than the earth, and air than water, and fire than air and
-so on successively--it would seem that if the moon had density as it
-really has, it would have weight, and having weight, that it could
-not be sustained in the space where it is, and consequently that it
-would fall towards the centre of the universe and become united to
-the earth; or if not the moon itself, at least its waters would fall
-away and be lost from it, and descend towards the centre, leaving
-the moon without any and so devoid of lustre. But as this does not
-happen, as might in reason be expected, it is a manifest sign that
-the moon is surrounded by its own elements: that is to say water,
-air and fire; and thus is, of itself and by itself, suspended in
-that part of space, as our earth with its element is in this part of
-space; and that heavy bodies act in the midst of its elements just
-as other heavy bodies do in ours [Footnote 15: This passage would
-certainly seem to establish Leonardo's claim to be regarded as the
-original discoverer of the cause of the ashy colour of the new moon
-(_lumen cinereum_). His observations however, having hitherto
-remained unknown to astronomers, Moestlin and Kepler have been
-credited with the discoveries which they made independently a
-century later.
-
-Some disconnected notes treat of the same subject in MS. C. A. 239b;
-718b and 719b; "_Perche la luna cinta della parte alluminata dal
-sole in ponente, tra maggior splendore in mezzo a tal cerchio, che
-quando essa eclissava il sole. Questo accade perche nell' eclissare
-il sole ella ombrava il nostro oceano, il qual caso non accade
-essendo in ponente, quando il sole alluma esso oceano_." The editors
-of the "_Saggio_" who first published this passage (page 12) add
-another short one about the seasons in the moon which I confess not
-to have seen in the original manuscript: "_La luna ha ogni mese un
-verno e una state, e ha maggiori freddi e maggiori caldi, e i suoi
-equinozii son piu freddi de' nostri._"]
-
-When the eye is in the East and sees the moon in the West near to
-the setting sun, it sees it with its shaded portion surrounded by
-luminous portions; and the lateral and upper portion of this light
-is derived from the sun, and the lower portion from the ocean in the
-West, which receives the solar rays and reflects them on the lower
-waters of the moon, and indeed affords the part of the moon that is
-in shadow as much radiance as the moon gives the earth at midnight.
-Therefore it is not totally dark, and hence some have believed that
-the moon must in parts have a light of its own besides that which is
-given it by the sun; and this light is due, as has been said, to the
-above- mentioned cause,--that our seas are illuminated by the sun.
-
-Again, it might be said that the circle of radiance shown by the
-moon when it and the sun are both in the West is wholly borrowed
-from the sun, when it, and the sun, and the eye are situated as is
-shown above.
-
-[Footnote 23. 24: The larger of the two diagrams reproduced above
-stands between these two lines, and the smaller one is sketched in
-the margin. At the spot marked _A_ Leonardo wrote _corpo solare_
-(solar body) in the larger diagram and _Sole_ (sun) in the smaller
-one. At _C luna_ (moon) is written and at _B terra_ (the earth).]
-
-Some might say that the air surrounding the moon as an element,
-catches the light of the sun as our atmosphere does, and that it is
-this which completes the luminous circle on the body of the moon.
-
-Some have thought that the moon has a light of its own, but this
-opinion is false, because they have founded it on that dim light
-seen between the hornes of the new moon, which looks dark where it
-is close to the bright part, while against the darkness of the
-background it looks so light that many have taken it to be a ring of
-new radiance completing the circle where the tips of the horns
-illuminated by the sun cease to shine [Footnote 34: See Pl. CVIII,
-No. 5.]. And this difference of background arises from the fact that
-the portion of that background which is conterminous with the bright
-part of the moon, by comparison with that brightness looks darker
-than it is; while at the upper part, where a portion of the luminous
-circle is to be seen of uniform width, the result is that the moon,
-being brighter there than the medium or background on which it is
-seen by comparison with that darkness it looks more luminous at that
-edge than it is. And that brightness at such a time itself is
-derived from our ocean and other inland-seas. These are, at that
-time, illuminated by the sun which is already setting in such a way
-as that the sea then fulfils the same function to the dark side of
-the moon as the moon at its fifteenth day does to us when the sun is
-set. And the small amount of light which the dark side of the moon
-receives bears the same proportion to the light of that side which
-is illuminated, as that... [Footnote 42: Here the text breaks off;
-lines 43-52 are written on the margin.].
-
-If you want to see how much brighter the shaded portion of the moon
-is than the background on which it is seen, conceal the luminous
-portion of the moon with your hand or with some other more distant
-object.
-
-On the spots in the moon (903-907).
-
-903.
-
-THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-Some have said that vapours rise from the moon, after the manner of
-clouds and are interposed between the moon and our eyes. But, if
-this were the case, these spots would never be permanent, either as
-to position or form; and, seeing the moon from various aspects, even
-if these spots did not move they would change in form, as objects do
-which are seen from different sides.
-
-904.
-
-OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-Others say that the moon is composed of more or less transparent
-parts; as though one part were something like alabaster and others
-like crystal or glass. It would follow from this that the sun
-casting its rays on the less transparent portions, the light would
-remain on the surface, and so the denser part would be illuminated,
-and the transparent portions would display the shadow of their
-darker depths; and this is their account of the structure and nature
-of the moon. And this opinion has found favour with many
-philosophers, and particularly with Aristotle, and yet it is a false
-view--for, in the various phases and frequent changes of the moon
-and sun to our eyes, we should see these spots vary, at one time
-looking dark and at another light: they would be dark when the sun
-is in the West and the moon in the middle of the sky; for then the
-transparent hollows would be in shadow as far as the tops of the
-edges of those transparent hollows, because the sun could not then
-fling his rays into the mouth of the hollows, which however, at full
-moon, would be seen in bright light, at which time the moon is in
-the East and faces the sun in the West; then the sun would
-illuminate even the lowest depths of these transparent places and
-thus, as there would be no shadows cast, the moon at these times
-would not show us the spots in question; and so it would be, now
-more and now less, according to the changes in the position of the
-sun to the moon, and of the moon to our eyes, as I have said above.
-
-905.
-
-OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-It has been asserted, that the spots on the moon result from the
-moon being of varying thinness or density; but if this were so, when
-there is an eclipse of the moon the solar rays would pierce through
-the portions which were thin as is alleged [Footnote 3-5: _Eclissi_.
-This word, as it seems to me, here means eclipses of the sun; and
-the sense of the passage, as I understand it, is that by the
-foregoing hypothesis the moon, when it comes between the sun and the
-earth must appear as if pierced,--we may say like a sieve.]. But as
-we do not see this effect the opinion must be false.
-
-Others say that the surface of the moon is smooth and polished and
-that, like a mirror, it reflects in itself the image of our earth.
-This view is also false, inasmuch as the land, where it is not
-covered with water, presents various aspects and forms. Hence when
-the moon is in the East it would reflect different spots from those
-it would show when it is above us or in the West; now the spots on
-the moon, as they are seen at full moon, never vary in the course of
-its motion over our hemisphere. A second reason is that an object
-reflected in a convex body takes up but a small portion of that
-body, as is proved in perspective [Footnote 18: _come e provato_.
-This alludes to the accompanying diagram.]. The third reason is that
-when the moon is full, it only faces half the hemisphere of the
-illuminated earth, on which only the ocean and other waters reflect
-bright light, while the land makes spots on that brightness; thus
-half of our earth would be seen girt round with the brightness of
-the sea lighted up by the sun, and in the moon this reflection would
-be the smallest part of that moon. Fourthly, a radiant body cannot
-be reflected from another equally radiant; therefore the sea, since
-it borrows its brightness from the sun,--as the moon does--, could
-not cause the earth to be reflected in it, nor indeed could the body
-of the sun be seen reflected in it, nor indeed any star opposite to
-it.
-
-906.
-
-If you keep the details of the spots of the moon under observation
-you will often find great variation in them, and this I myself have
-proved by drawing them. And this is caused by the clouds that rise
-from the waters in the moon, which come between the sun and those
-waters, and by their shadow deprive these waters of the sun's rays.
-Thus those waters remain dark, not being able to reflect the solar
-body.
-
-907.
-
-How the spots on the moon must have varied from what they formerly
-were, by reason of the course of its waters.
-
-On the moon's halo.
-
-908.
-
-OF HALOS ROUND THE MOON.
-
-I have found, that the circles which at night seem to surround the
-moon, of various sizes, and degrees of density are caused by various
-gradations in the densities of the vapours which exist at different
-altitudes between the moon and our eyes. And of these halos the
-largest and least red is caused by the lowest of these vapours; the
-second, smaller one, is higher up, and looks redder because it is
-seen through two vapours. And so on, as they are higher they will
-appear smaller and redder, because, between the eye and them, there
-is thicker vapour. Whence it is proved that where they are seen to
-be reddest, the vapours are most dense.
-
-On instruments for observing the moon (909. 910).
-
-909.
-
-If you want to prove why the moon appears larger than it is, when it
-reaches the horizon; take a lens which is highly convex on one
-surface and concave on the opposite, and place the concave side next
-the eye, and look at the object beyond the convex surface; by this
-means you will have produced an exact imitation of the atmosphere
-included beneath the sphere of fire and outside that of water; for
-this atmosphere is concave on the side next the earth, and convex
-towards the fire.
-
-910.
-
-Construct glasses to see the moon magnified.
-
-[Footnote: See the Introduction, p. 136, Fracastoro says in his work
-Homocentres: "_Per dua specilla ocularla si quis perspiciat, alteri
-altero superposito, majora multo et propinquiora videbit
-omnia.--Quin imo quaedam specilla ocularia fiunt tantae densitatis,
-ut si per ea quis aut lunam, aut aliud siderum spectet, adeo
-propinqua illa iudicet, ut ne turres ipsas excedant_" (sect. II c. 8
-and sect. III, c. 23).]
-
-I.
-THE STARS.
-On the light of the stars (911-913).
-911.
-The stars are visible by night and not by day, because we are
-eneath the dense atmosphere, which is full of innumerable
-articles of moisture, each of which independently, when the
-ays of the sun fall upon it, reflects a radiance, and so these
-umberless bright particles conceal the stars; and if it were not
-or this atmosphere the sky would always display the stars against
-ts darkness.
-[Footnote: See No. 296, which also refers to starlight.]
-912.
-Whether the stars have their light from the sun or in themselves.
-Some say that they shine of themselves, alledging that if Venus
-nd Mercury had not a light of their own, when they come between
-ur eye and the sun they would darken so much of the sun as they
-ould cover from our eye. But this is false, for it is proved that
- dark object against a luminous body is enveloped and entirely
-oncealed by the lateral rays of the rest of that luminous body
-nd so remains invisible. As may be seen when the sun is seen
-hrough the boughs of trees bare of their leaves, at some distance
-he branches do not conceal any portion of the sun from our eye.
-he same thing happens with the above mentioned planets which,
-hough they have no light of their own, do not--as has been said--
-onceal any part of the sun from our eye
-[18].
-
-SECOND ARGUMENT.
-
-Some say that the stars appear most brilliant at night in proportion
-as they are higher up; and that if they had no light of their own,
-the shadow of the earth which comes between them and the sun, would
-darken them, since they would not face nor be faced by the solar
-body. But those persons have not considered that the conical shadow
-of the earth cannot reach many of the stars; and even as to those it
-does reach, the cone is so much diminished that it covers very
-little of the star's mass, and all the rest is illuminated by the
-sun.
-
-Footnote: From this and other remarks (see No. 902) it is clear
-hat Leonardo was familiar with the phenomena of Irradiation.]
-
-13.
-
-Why the planets appear larger in the East than they do overhead,
-whereas the contrary should be the case, as they are 3500 miles
-nearer to us when in mid sky than when on the horizon.
-
-All the degrees of the elements, through which the images of the
-celestial bodies pass to reach the eye, are equal curves and the
-angles by which the central line of those images passes through
-them, are unequal angles [Footnote 13: _inequali_, here and
-elsewhere does not mean unequal in the sense of not being equal to
-each other, but angles which are not right angles.]; and the
-distance is greater, as is shown by the excess of _a b_ beyond _a
-d_; and the enlargement of these celestial bodies on the horizon is
-shown by the 9th of the 7th.
-
-Observations on the stars.
-
-914.
-
-To see the real nature of the planets open the covering and note at
-the base [Footnote 4: _basa_. This probably alludes to some
-instrument, perhaps the Camera obscura.] one single planet, and the
-reflected movement of this base will show the nature of the said
-planet; but arrange that the base may face only one at the time.
-
-On history of astronomy.
-
-915.
-
-Cicero says in [his book] De Divinatione that Astrology has been
-practised five hundred seventy thousand years before the Trojan war.
-
-57000.
-
-[Footnote: The statement that CICERO, _De Divin._ ascribes the
-discovery of astrology to a period 57000 years before the Trojan war
-I believe to be quite erroneous. According to ERNESTI, _Clavis
-Ciceroniana,_ CH. G. SCHULZ (_Lexic. Cicer._) and the edition of _De
-Divin._ by GIESE the word Astrologia occurs only twice in CICERO:
-_De Divin. II_, 42. _Ad Chaldaeorum monstra veniamus, de quibus
-Eudoxus, Platonis auditor, in astrologia judicio doctissimorum
-hominum facile princeps, sic opinatur (id quod scriptum reliquit):
-Chaldaeis in praedictione et in notatione cujusque vitae ex natali
-die minime esse credendum._" He then quotes the condemnatory verdict
-of other philosophers as to the teaching of the Chaldaeans but says
-nothing as to the antiquity and origin of astronomy. CICERO further
-notes _De oratore_ I, 16 that Aratus was "_ignarus astrologiae_" but
-that is all. So far as I know the word occurs nowhere else in
-CICERO; and the word _Astronomia_ he does not seem to have used at
-all. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
-
-Of time and its divisions (916-918).
-
-916.
-
-Although time is included in the class of Continuous Quantities,
-being indivisible and immaterial, it does not come entirely under
-the head of Geometry, which represents its divisions by means of
-figures and bodies of infinite variety, such as are seen to be
-continuous in their visible and material properties. But only with
-its first principles does it agree, that is with the Point and the
-Line; the point may be compared to an instant of time, and the line
-may be likened to the length of a certain quantity of time, and just
-as a line begins and terminates in a point, so such a space of time.
-begins and terminates in an instant. And whereas a line is
-infinitely divisible, the divisibility of a space of time is of the
-same nature; and as the divisions of the line may bear a certain
-proportion to each other, so may the divisions of time.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is repeated word for word on page 190b of
-the same manuscript and this is accounted for by the text in Vol. I,
-No. 4. Compare also No. 1216.]
-
-917.
-
-Describe the nature of Time as distinguished from the Geometrical
-definitions.
-
-918.
-
-Divide an hour into 3000 parts, and this you can do with a clock by
-making the pendulum lighter or heavier.
-
-_XVI.
-
-Physical Geography.
-
-Leonardo's researches as to the structure of the earth and sea were
-made at a time, when the extended voyages of the Spaniards and
-Portuguese had also excited a special interest in geographical
-questions in Italy, and particularly in Tuscany. Still, it need
-scarcely surprise us to find that in deeper questions, as to the
-structure of the globe, the primitive state of the earth's surface,
-and the like, he was far in advance of his time.
-
-The number of passages which treat of such matters is relatively
-considerable; like almost all Leonardo's scientific notes they deal
-partly with theoretical and partly with practical questions. Some of
-his theoretical views of the motion of water were collected in a
-copied manuscript volume by an early transcriber, but without any
-acknowledgment of the source whence they were derived. This copy is
-now in the Library of the Barberini palace at Rome and was published
-under the title: "De moto e misura dell'acqua," by FRANCESCO
-CARDINALI, Bologna_ 1828. _In this work the texts are arranged under
-the following titles:_ Libr. I. Della spera dell'acqua; Libr. II.
-Del moto dell'acqua; Libr. III. Dell'onda dell'acqua; Libr. IV. Dei
-retrosi d'acqua; Libr. V. Dell'acqua cadente; Libr. VI. Delle
-rotture fatte dall'acqua; Libr. VII Delle cose portate dall'acqua;
-Libr. VIII. Dell'oncia dell'acqua e delle canne; Libr. IX. De molini
-e d'altri ordigni d'acqua.
-
-_The large number of isolated observations scattered through the
-manuscripts, accounts for our so frequently finding notes of new
-schemes for the arrangement of those relating to water and its
-motions, particularly in the Codex Atlanticus: I have printed
-several of these plans as an introduction to the Physical Geography,
-and I have actually arranged the texts in accordance with the clue
-afforded by one of them which is undoubtedly one of the latest notes
-referring to the subject (No._ 920_). The text given as No._ 930
-_which is also taken from a late note-book of Leonardo's, served as
-a basis for the arrangement of the first of the seven books--or
-sections--, bearing the title: Of the Nature of Water_ (Dell'acque
-in se).
-
-_As I have not made it any part of this undertaking to print the
-passages which refer to purely physical principles, it has also been
-necessary to exclude those practical researches which, in accordance
-with indications given in_ 920, _ought to come in as Books_ 13, 14
-_and_ 15. _I can only incidentally mention here that Leonardo--as it
-seems to me, especially in his youth--devoted a great deal of
-attention to the construction of mills. This is proved by a number
-of drawings of very careful and minute execution, which are to be
-found in the Codex Atlanticus. Nor was it possible to include his
-considerations on the regulation of rivers, the making of canals and
-so forth (No._ 920, _Books_ 10, 11 _and_ 12_); but those passages in
-which the structure of a canal is directly connected with notices of
-particular places will be found duly inserted under section XVII
-(Topographical notes). In Vol. I, No._ 5 _the text refers to
-canal-making in general._
-
-_On one point only can the collection of passages included under the
-general heading of Physical Geography claim to be complete. When
-comparing and sorting the materials for this work I took particular
-care not to exclude or omit any text in which a geographical name
-was mentioned even incidentally, since in all such researches the
-chief interest, as it appeared to me, attached to the question
-whether these acute observations on the various local
-characteristics of mountains, rivers or seas, had been made by
-Leonardo himself, and on the spot. It is self-evident that the few
-general and somewhat superficial observations on the Rhine and the
-Danube, on England and Flanders, must have been obtained from maps
-or from some informants, and in the case of Flanders Leonardo
-himself acknowledges this (see No._ 1008_). But that most of the
-other and more exact observations were made, on the spot, by
-Leonardo himself, may be safely assumed from their method and the
-style in which he writes of them; and we should bear it in mind that
-in all investigations, of whatever kind, experience is always spoken
-of as the only basis on which he relies. Incidentally, as in No._
-984, _he thinks it necessary to allude to the total absence of all
-recorded observations._
-
-I.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-Schemes for the arrangement of the materials (919-928).
-
-919.
-
-These books contain in the beginning: Of the nature of water itself
-in its motions; the others treat of the effects of its currents,
-which change the world in its centre and its shape.
-
-920.
-
-DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK.
-
-Book 1 of water in itself.
-
-Book 2 of the sea.
-
-Book 3 of subterranean rivers.
-
-Book 4 of rivers.
-
-Book 5 of the nature of the abyss.
-
-Book 6 of the obstacles.
-
-Book 7 of gravels.
-
-Book 8 of the surface of water.
-
-Book 9 of the things placed therein.
-
-Book 10 of the repairing of rivers.
-
-Book 11 of conduits.
-
-Book 12 of canals.
-
-Book 13 of machines turned by water.
-
-Book 14 of raising water.
-
-Book 15 of matters worn away by water.
-
-921.
-
-First you shall make a book treating of places occupied by fresh
-waters, and the second by salt waters, and the third, how by the
-disappearance of these, our parts of the world were made lighter and
-in consequence more remote from the centre of the world.
-
-922.
-
-First write of all water, in each of its motions; then describe all
-its bottoms and their various materials, always referring to the
-propositions concerning the said waters; and let the order be good,
-for otherwise the work will be confused.
-
-Describe all the forms taken by water from its greatest to its
-smallest wave, and their causes.
-
-923.
-
-Book 9, of accidental risings of water.
-
-924.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-Place at the beginning what a river can effect.
-
-925.
-
-A book of driving back armies by the force of a flood made by
-releasing waters.
-
-A book showing how the waters safely bring down timber cut in the
-mountains.
-
-A book of boats driven against the impetus of rivers.
-
-A book of raising large bridges higher. Simply by the swelling of
-the waters.
-
-A book of guarding against the impetus of rivers so that towns may
-not be damaged by them.
-
-926.
-
-A book of the ordering of rivers so as to preserve their banks.
-
-A book of the mountains, which would stand forth and become land, if
-our hemisphere were to be uncovered by the water.
-
-A book of the earth carried down by the waters to fill up the great
-abyss of the seas.
-
-A book of the ways in which a tempest may of itself clear out filled
-up sea-ports.
-
-A book of the shores of rivers and of their permanency.
-
-A book of how to deal with rivers, so that they may keep their
-bottom scoured by their own flow near the cities they pass.
-
-A book of how to make or to repair the foundations for bridges over
-the rivers.
-
-A book of the repairs which ought to be made in walls and banks of
-rivers where the water strikes them.
-
-A book of the formation of hills of sand or gravel at great depths
-in water.
-
-927.
-
-Water gives the first impetus to its motion.
-
-A book of the levelling of waters by various means,
-
-A book of diverting rivers from places where they do mischief.
-
-A book of guiding rivers which occupy too much ground.
-
-A book of parting rivers into several branches and making them
-fordable.
-
-A book of the waters which with various currents pass through seas.
-
-A book of deepening the beds of rivers by means of currents of
-water.
-
-A book of controlling rivers so that the little beginnings of
-mischief, caused by them, may not increase.
-
-A book of the various movements of waters passing through channels
-of different forms.
-
-A book of preventing small rivers from diverting the larger one into
-which their waters run.
-
-A book of the lowest level which can be found in the current of the
-surface of rivers.
-
-A book of the origin of rivers which flow from the high tops of
-mountains.
-
-A book of the various motions of waters in their rivers.
-
-928.
-
-[1] Of inequality in the concavity of a ship. [Footnote 1: The first
-line of this passage was added subsequently, evidently as a
-correction of the following line.]
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the curve of the sides of ships.
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the position of the tiller.
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the keel of ships.
-
-[2] A book of various forms of apertures by which water flows out.
-
-[3] A book of water contained in vessels with air, and of its
-movements.
-
-[4] A book of the motion of water through a syphon. [Footnote 7:
-_cicognole_, see No. 966, 11, 17.]
-
-[5] A book of the meetings and union of waters coming from different
-directions.
-
-[6] A book of the various forms of the banks through which rivers
-pass.
-
-[7] A book of the various forms of shoals formed under the sluices
-of rivers.
-
-[8] A book of the windings and meanderings of the currents of
-rivers.
-
-[9] A book of the various places whence the waters of rivers are
-derived.
-
-[10] A book of the configuration of the shores of rivers and of
-their permanency.
-
-[11] A book of the perpendicular fall of water on various objects.
-
-[12] Abook of the course of water when it is impeded in various
-places.
-
-[12] A book of the various forms of the obstacles which impede the
-course of waters.
-
-[13] A book of the concavity and globosity formed round various
-objects at the bottom.
-
-[14] Abook of conducting navigable canals above or beneath the
-rivers which intersect them.
-
-[15] A book of the soils which absorb water in canals and of
-repairing them.
-
-[16] Abook of creating currents for rivers, which quit their beds,
-[and] for rivers choked with soil.
-
-General introduction.
-
-929.
-
-THE BEGINNING OF THE TREATISE ON WATER.
-
-By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and
-certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is
-composed of earth, water, air and fire, his body resembles that of
-the earth; and as man has in him bones the supports and framework of
-his flesh, the world has its rocks the supports of the earth; as man
-has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in
-breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which
-likewise rises and falls every six hours, as if the world breathed;
-as in that pool of blood veins have their origin, which ramify all
-over the human body, so likewise the ocean sea fills the body of the
-earth with infinite springs of water. The body of the earth lacks
-sinews and this is, because the sinews are made expressely for
-movements and, the world being perpetually stable, no movement takes
-place, and no movement taking place, muscles are not necessary.
---But in all other points they are much alike.
-
-I.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF WATER.
-
-The arrangement of Book I.
-
-930.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE FIRST BOOK ON WATER.
-
-Define first what is meant by height and depth; also how the
-elements are situated one inside another. Then, what is meant by
-solid weight and by liquid weight; but first what weight and
-lightness are in themselves. Then describe why water moves, and why
-its motion ceases; then why it becomes slower or more rapid; besides
-this, how it always falls, being in contact with the air but lower
-than the air. And how water rises in the air by means of the heat of
-the sun, and then falls again in rain; again, why water springs
-forth from the tops of mountains; and if the water of any spring
-higher than the ocean can pour forth water higher than the surface
-of that ocean. And how all the water that returns to the ocean is
-higher than the sphere of waters. And how the waters of the
-equatorial seas are higher than the waters of the North, and higher
-beneath the body of the sun than in any part of the equatorial
-circle; for experiment shows that under the heat of a burning brand
-the water near the brand boils, and the water surrounding this
-ebullition always sinks with a circular eddy. And how the waters of
-the North are lower than the other seas, and more so as they become
-colder, until they are converted into ice.
-
-Definitions (931. 932).
-
-931.
-
-OF WHAT IS WATER.
-
-Among the four elements water is the second both in weight and in
-instability.
-
-932.
-
-THE BEGINNING OF THE BOOK ON WATER.
-
-Sea is the name given to that water which is wide and deep, in which
-the waters have not much motion.
-
-[Footnote: Only the beginning of this passage is here given, the
-remainder consists of definitions which have no direct bearing on
-the subject.]
-
-Of the surface of the water in relation to the globe (933-936).
-
-933.
-
-The centres of the sphere of water are two, one universal and common
-to all water, the other particular. The universal one is that which
-is common to all waters not in motion, which exist in great
-quantities. As canals, ditches, ponds, fountains, wells, dead
-rivers, lakes, stagnant pools and seas, which, although they are at
-various levels, have each in itself the limits of their superficies
-equally distant from the centre of the earth, such as lakes placed
-at the tops of high mountains; as the lake near Pietra Pana and the
-lake of the Sybil near Norcia; and all the lakes that give rise to
-great rivers, as the Ticino from Lago Maggiore, the Adda from the
-lake of Como, the Mincio from the lake of Garda, the Rhine from the
-lakes of Constance and of Chur, and from the lake of Lucerne, like
-the Tigris which passes through Asia Minor carrying with it the
-waters of three lakes, one above the other at different heights of
-which the highest is Munace, the middle one Pallas, and the lowest
-Triton; the Nile again flows from three very high lakes in Ethiopia.
-
-[Footnote 5: _Pietra Pana_, a mountain near Florence. If for Norcia,
-we may read Norchia, the remains of the Etruscan city near Viterbo,
-there can be no doubt that by '_Lago della Sibilla_'--a name not
-known elsewhere, so far as I can learn--Leonardo meant _Lago di
-Vico_ (Lacus Ciminus, Aen. 7).]
-
-934.
-
-OF THE CENTRE OF THE OCEAN.
-
-The centre of the sphere of waters is the true centre of the globe
-of our world, which is composed of water and earth, having the shape
-of a sphere. But, if you want to find the centre of the element of
-the earth, this is placed at a point equidistant from the surface of
-the ocean, and not equidistant from the surface of the earth; for it
-is evident that this globe of earth has nowhere any perfect
-rotundity, excepting in places where the sea is, or marshes or other
-still waters. And every part of the earth that rises above the water
-is farther from the centre.
-
-935.
-
-OF THE SEA WHICH CHANGES THE WEIGHT OF THE EARTH.
-
-The shells, oysters, and other similar animals, which originate in
-sea-mud, bear witness to the changes of the earth round the centre
-of our elements. This is proved thus: Great rivers always run
-turbid, being coloured by the earth, which is stirred by the
-friction of their waters at the bottom and on their shores; and this
-wearing disturbs the face of the strata made by the layers of
-shells, which lie on the surface of the marine mud, and which were
-produced there when the salt waters covered them; and these strata
-were covered over again from time to time, with mud of various
-thickness, or carried down to the sea by the rivers and floods of
-more or less extent; and thus these layers of mud became raised to
-such a height, that they came up from the bottom to the air. At the
-present time these bottoms are so high that they form hills or high
-mountains, and the rivers, which wear away the sides of these
-mountains, uncover the strata of these shells, and thus the softened
-side of the earth continually rises and the antipodes sink closer to
-the centre of the earth, and the ancient bottoms of the seas have
-become mountain ridges.
-
-936.
-
-Let the earth make whatever changes it may in its weight, the
-surface of the sphere of waters can never vary in its equal distance
-from the centre of the world.
-
-Of the proportion of the mass of water to that of the earth (937.
-938).
-
-937.
-
-WHETHER THE EARTH IS LESS THAN THE WATER.
-
-Some assert that it is true that the earth, which is not covered by
-water is much less than that covered by water. But considering the
-size of 7000 miles in diameter which is that of this earth, we may
-conclude the water to be of small depth.
-
-938.
-
-OF THE EARTH.
-
-The great elevations of the peaks of the mountains above the sphere
-of the water may have resulted from this that: a very large portion
-of the earth which was filled with water that is to say the vast
-cavern inside the earth may have fallen in a vast part of its vault
-towards the centre of the earth, being pierced by means of the
-course of the springs which continually wear away the place where
-they pass.
-
-Sinking in of countries like the Dead Sea in Syria, that is Sodom
-and Gomorrah.
-
-It is of necessity that there should be more water than land, and
-the visible portion of the sea does not show this; so that there
-must be a great deal of water inside the earth, besides that which
-rises into the lower air and which flows through rivers and springs.
-
-[Footnote: The small sketch below on the left, is placed in the
-original close to the text referring to the Dead Sea.]
-
-The theory of Plato.
-
-939.
-
-THE FIGURES OF THE ELEMENTS.
-
-Of the figures of the elements; and first as against those who deny
-the opinions of Plato, and who say that if the elements include one
-another in the forms attributed to them by Plato they would cause a
-vacuum one within the other. I say it is not true, and I here prove
-it, but first I desire to propound some conclusions. It is not
-necessary that the elements which include each other should be of
-corresponding magnitude in all the parts, of that which includes and
-of that which is included. We see that the sphere of the waters
-varies conspicuously in mass from the surface to the bottom, and
-that, far from investing the earth when that was in the form of a
-cube that is of 8 angles as Plato will have it, that it invests the
-earth which has innumerable angles of rock covered by the water and
-various prominences and concavities, and yet no vacuum is generated
-between the earth and water; again, the air invests the sphere of
-waters together with the mountains and valleys, which rise above
-that sphere, and no vacuum remains between the earth and the air, so
-that any one who says a vacuum is generated, speaks foolishly.
-
-But to Plato I would reply that the surface of the figures which
-according to him the elements would have, could not exist.
-
-That the flow of rivers proves the slope of the land.
-
-940.
-
-PROVES HOW THE EARTH IS NOT GLOBULAR AND NOT BEING GLOBULAR CANNOT
-HAVE A COMMON CENTRE.
-
-We see the Nile come from Southern regions and traverse various
-provinces, running towards the North for a distance of 3000 miles
-and flow into the Mediterranean by the shores of Egypt; and if we
-will give to this a fall of ten braccia a mile, as is usually
-allowed to the course of rivers in general, we shall find that the
-Nile must have its mouth ten miles lower than its source. Again, we
-see the Rhine, the Rhone and the Danube starting from the German
-parts, almost the centre of Europe, and having a course one to the
-East, the other to the North, and the last to Southern seas. And if
-you consider all this you will see that the plains of Europe in
-their aggregate are much higher than the high peaks of the maritime
-mountains; think then how much their tops must be above the sea
-shores.
-
-Theory of the elevation of water within the mountains.
-
-941.
-
-OF THE HEAT THAT IS IN THE WORLD.
-
-Where there is life there is heat, and where vital heat is, there is
-movement of vapour. This is proved, inasmuch as we see that the
-element of fire by its heat always draws to itself damp vapours and
-thick mists as opaque clouds, which it raises from seas as well as
-lakes and rivers and damp valleys; and these being drawn by degrees
-as far as the cold region, the first portion stops, because heat and
-moisture cannot exist with cold and dryness; and where the first
-portion stops the rest settle, and thus one portion after another
-being added, thick and dark clouds are formed. They are often wafted
-about and borne by the winds from one region to another, where by
-their density they become so heavy that they fall in thick rain; and
-if the heat of the sun is added to the power of the element of fire,
-the clouds are drawn up higher still and find a greater degree of
-cold, in which they form ice and fall in storms of hail. Now the
-same heat which holds up so great a weight of water as is seen to
-rain from the clouds, draws them from below upwards, from the foot
-of the mountains, and leads and holds them within the summits of the
-mountains, and these, finding some fissure, issue continuously and
-cause rivers.
-
-The relative height of the surface of the sea to that of the land
-(942-945).
-
-942.
-
-OF THE SEA, WHICH TO MANY FOOLS APPEARS TO BE HIGHER THAN THE EARTH
-WHICH FORMS ITS SHORE.
-
-_b d_ is a plain through which a river flows to the sea; this plain
-ends at the sea, and since in fact the dry land that is uncovered is
-not perfectly level--for, if it were, the river would have no
-motion--as the river does move, this place is a slope rather than a
-plain; hence this plain _d b_ so ends where the sphere of water
-begins that if it were extended in a continuous line to _b a_ it
-would go down beneath the sea, whence it follows that the sea _a c
-b_ looks higher than the dry land.
-
-Obviously no portions of dry land left uncovered by water can ever
-be lower than the surface of the watery sphere.
-
-943.
-
-OF CERTAIN PERSONS WHO SAY THE WATERS WERE HIGHER THAN THE DRY LAND.
-
-Certainly I wonder not a little at the common opinion which is
-contrary to truth, but held by the universal consent of the judgment
-of men. And this is that all are agreed that the surface of the sea
-is higher than the highest peaks of the mountains; and they allege
-many vain and childish reasons, against which I will allege only one
-simple and short reason; We see plainly that if we could remove the
-shores of the sea, it would invest the whole earth and make it a
-perfect sphere. Now, consider how much earth would be carried away
-to enable the waves of the sea to cover the world; therefore that
-which would be carried away must be higher than the sea-shore.
-
-944.
-
-THE OPINION OF SOME PERSONS WHO SAY THAT THE WATER OF SOME SEAS IS
-HIGHER THAN THE HIGHEST SUMMITS OF MOUNTAINS; AND NEVERTHELESS THE
-WATER WAS FORCED UP TO THESE SUMMITS.
-
-Water would not move from place to place if it were not that it
-seeks the lowest level and by a natural consequence it never can
-return to a height like that of the place where it first on issuing
-from the mountain came to light. And that portion of the sea which,
-in your vain imagining, you say was so high that it flowed over the
-summits of the high mountains, for so many centuries would be
-swallowed up and poured out again through the issue from these
-mountains. You can well imagine that all the time that Tigris and
-Euphrates
-
-945.
-
-have flowed from the summits of the mountains of Armenia, it must be
-believed that all the water of the ocean has passed very many times
-through these mouths. And do you not believe that the Nile must have
-sent more water into the sea than at present exists of all the
-element of water? Undoubtedly, yes. And if all this water had fallen
-away from this body of the earth, this terrestrial machine would
-long since have been without water. Whence we may conclude that the
-water goes from the rivers to the sea, and from the sea to the
-rivers, thus constantly circulating and returning, and that all the
-sea and the rivers have passed through the mouth of the Nile an
-infinite number of times [Footnote: _Moti Armeni, Ermini_ in the
-original, in M. RAVAISSON'S transcript _"monti ernini [le loro
-ruine?]"_. He renders this _"Le Tigre et l'Euphrate se sont deverses
-par les sommets des montagnes [avec leurs eaux destructives?] on
-pent cro're" &c. Leonardo always writes _Ermini, Erminia_, for
-_Armeni, Armenia_ (Arabic: _Irminiah_). M. RAVAISSON also deviates
-from the original in his translation of the following passage: "_Or
-tu ne crois pas que le Nil ait mis plus d'eau dans la mer qu'il n'y
-en a a present dans tout l'element de l'eau. Il est certain que si
-cette eau etait tombee_" &c.]
-
-II.
-
-ON THE OCEAN.
-
-Refutation of Pliny's theory as to the saltness of the sea (946.
-947).
-
-946.
-
-WHY WATER IS SALT.
-
-Pliny says in his second book, chapter 103, that the water of the
-sea is salt because the heat of the sun dries up the moisture and
-drinks it up; and this gives to the wide stretching sea the savour
-of salt. But this cannot be admitted, because if the saltness of the
-sea were caused by the heat of the sun, there can be no doubt that
-lakes, pools and marshes would be so much the more salt, as their
-waters have less motion and are of less depth; but experience shows
-us, on the contrary, that these lakes have their waters quite free
-from salt. Again it is stated by Pliny in the same chapter that this
-saltness might originate, because all the sweet and subtle portions
-which the heat attracts easily being taken away, the more bitter and
-coarser part will remain, and thus the water on the surface is
-fresher than at the bottom [Footnote 22: Compare No. 948.]; but this
-is contradicted by the same reason given above, which is, that the
-same thing would happen in marshes and other waters, which are dried
-up by the heat. Again, it has been said that the saltness of the sea
-is the sweat of the earth; to this it may be answered that all the
-springs of water which penetrate through the earth, would then be
-salt. But the conclusion is, that the saltness of the sea must
-proceed from the many springs of water which, as they penetrate into
-the earth, find mines of salt and these they dissolve in part, and
-carry with them to the ocean and the other seas, whence the clouds,
-the begetters of rivers, never carry it up. And the sea would be
-salter in our times than ever it was at any time; and if the
-adversary were to say that in infinite time the sea would dry up or
-congeal into salt, to this I answer that this salt is restored to
-the earth by the setting free of that part of the earth which rises
-out of the sea with the salt it has acquired, and the rivers return
-it to the earth under the sea.
-
-[Footnote: See PLINY, Hist. Nat. II, CIII [C]. _Itaque Solis ardore
-siccatur liquor: et hoc esse masculum sidus accepimus, torrens
-cuncta sorbensque._ (cp. CIV.) _Sic mari late patenti saporem
-incoqui salis, aut quia exhausto inde dulci tenuique, quod facillime
-trahat vis ignea, omne asperius crassiusque linquatur: ideo summa
-aequorum aqua dulciorem profundam; hanc esse veriorem causam, quam
-quod mare terrae sudor sit aeternus: aut quia plurimum ex arido
-misceatur illi vapore: aut quia terrae natura sicut medicatas aquas
-inficiat_ ... (cp. CV): _altissimum mare XV. stadiorum Fabianus
-tradit. Alii n Ponto coadverso Coraxorum gentis (vocant B Ponti)
-trecentis fere a continenti stadiis immensam altitudinem maris
-tradunt, vadis nunquam repertis._ (cp. CVI [CIII]) _Mirabilius id
-faciunt aquae dulces, juxta mare, ut fistulis emicantes. Nam nec
-aquarum natura a miraculis cessat. Dulces mari invehuntur, leviores
-haud dubie. Ideo et marinae, quarum natura gravior, magis invecta
-sustinent. Quaedam vero et dulces inter se supermeant alias._]
-
-947.
-
-For the third and last reason we will say that salt is in all
-created things; and this we learn from water passed over the ashes
-and cinders of burnt things; and the urine of every animal, and the
-superfluities issuing from their bodies, and the earth into which
-all things are converted by corruption.
-
-But,--to put it better,--given that the world is everlasting, it
-must be admitted that its population will also be eternal; hence the
-human species has eternally been and would be consumers of salt; and
-if all the mass of the earth were to be turned into salt, it would
-not suffice for all human food [Footnote 27: That is, on the
-supposition that salt, once consumed, disappears for ever.]; whence
-we are forced to admit, either that the species of salt must be
-everlasting like the world, or that it dies and is born again like
-the men who devour it. But as experience teaches us that it does not
-die, as is evident by fire, which does not consume it, and by water
-which becomes salt in proportion to the quantity dissolved in
-it,--and when it is evaporated the salt always remains in the
-original quantity--it must pass through the bodies of men either in
-the urine or the sweat or other excretions where it is found again;
-and as much salt is thus got rid of as is carried every year into
-towns; therefore salt is dug in places where there is urine.-- Sea
-hogs and sea winds are salt.
-
-We will say that the rains which penetrate the earth are what is
-under the foundations of cities with their inhabitants, and are what
-restore through the internal passages of the earth the saltness
-taken from the sea; and that the change in the place of the sea,
-which has been over all the mountains, caused it to be left there in
-the mines found in those mountains, &c.
-
-The characteristics of sea water (948. 949).
-
-948.
-
-The waters of the salt sea are fresh at the greatest depths.
-
-949.
-
-THAT THE OCEAN DOES NOT PENETRATE UNDER THE EARTH.
-
-The ocean does not penetrate under the earth, and this we learn from
-the many and various springs of fresh water which, in many parts of
-the ocean make their way up from the bottom to the surface. The same
-thing is farther proved by wells dug beyond the distance of a mile
-from the said ocean, which fill with fresh water; and this happens
-because the fresh water is lighter than salt water and consequently
-more penetrating.
-
-Which weighs most, water when frozen or when not frozen?
-
-FRESH WATER PENETRATES MORE AGAINST SALT WATER THAN SALT WATER
-AGAINST FRESH WATER.
-
-That fresh water penetrates more against salt water, than salt water
-against fresh is proved by a thin cloth dry and old, hanging with
-the two opposite ends equally low in the two different waters, the
-surfaces of which are at an equal level; and it will then be seen
-how much higher the fresh water will rise in this piece of linen
-than the salt; by so much is the fresh lighter than the salt.
-
-On the formation of Gulfs (950. 951).
-
-950.
-
-All inland seas and the gulfs of those seas, are made by rivers
-which flow into the sea.
-
-951.
-
-HERE THE REASON IS GIVEN OF THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY THE WATERS IN
-THE ABOVE MENTIONED PLACE.
-
-All the lakes and all the gulfs of the sea and all inland seas are
-due to rivers which distribute their waters into them, and from
-impediments in their downfall into the Mediterranean --which divides
-Africa from Europe and Europe from Asia by means of the Nile and the
-Don which pour their waters into it. It is asked what impediment is
-great enough to stop the course of the waters which do not reach the
-ocean.
-
-On the encroachments of the sea on the land and vice versa
-(952-954).
-
-952.
-
-OF WAVES.
-
-A wave of the sea always breaks in front of its base, and that
-portion of the crest will then be lowest which before was highest.
-
-[Footnote: The page of FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO'S _Trattato_, on which
-Leonardo has written this remark, contains some notes on the
-construction of dams, harbours &c.]
-
-953.
-
-That the shores of the sea constantly acquire more soil towards the
-middle of the sea; that the rocks and promontories of the sea are
-constantly being ruined and worn away; that the Mediterranean seas
-will in time discover their bottom to the air, and all that will be
-left will be the channel of the greatest river that enters it; and
-this will run to the ocean and pour its waters into that with those
-of all the rivers that are its tributaries.
-
-954.
-
-How the river Po, in a short time might dry up the Adriatic sea in
-the same way as it has dried up a large part of Lombardy.
-
-The ebb and flow of the tide (955-960).
-
-955.
-
-Where there is a larger quantity of water, there is a greater flow
-and ebb, but the contrary in narrow waters.
-
-Look whether the sea is at its greatest flow when the moon is half
-way over our hemisphere [on the meridian].
-
-956.
-
-Whether the flow and ebb are caused by the moon or the sun, or are
-the breathing of this terrestrial machine. That the flow and ebb are
-different in different countries and seas.
-
-[Footnote: 1. Allusion may here be made to the mythological
-explanation of the ebb and flow given in the Edda. Utgardloki says
-to Thor (Gylfaginning 48): "When thou wert drinking out of the horn,
-and it seemed to thee that it was slow in emptying a wonder befell,
-which I should not have believed possible: the other end of the horn
-lay in the sea, which thou sawest not; but when thou shalt go to the
-sea, thou shalt see how much thou hast drunk out of it. And that men
-now call the ebb tide."
-
-Several passages in various manuscripts treat of the ebb and flow.
-In collecting them I have been guided by the rule only to transcribe
-those which named some particular spot.]
-
-957.
-
-Book 9 of the meeting of rivers and their flow and ebb. The cause is
-the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of Gibraltar.
-And again it is caused by whirlpools.
-
-958.
-
-OF THE FLOW AND EBB.
-
-All seas have their flow and ebb in the same period, but they seem
-to vary because the days do not begin at the same time throughout
-the universe; in such wise as that when it is midday in our
-hemisphere, it is midnight in the opposite hemisphere; and at the
-Eastern boundary of the two hemispheres the night begins which
-follows on the day, and at the Western boundary of these hemispheres
-begins the day, which follows the night from the opposite side.
-Hence it is to be inferred that the above mentioned swelling and
-diminution in the height of the seas, although they take place in
-one and the same space of time, are seen to vary from the above
-mentioned causes. The waters are then withdrawn into the fissures
-which start from the depths of the sea and which ramify inside the
-body of the earth, corresponding to the sources of rivers, which are
-constantly taking from the bottom of the sea the water which has
-flowed into it. A sea of water is incessantly being drawn off from
-the surface of the sea. And if you should think that the moon,
-rising at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean sea must there begin
-to attract to herself the waters of the sea, it would follow that we
-must at once see the effect of it at the Eastern end of that sea.
-Again, as the Mediterranean sea is about the eighth part of the
-circumference of the aqueous sphere, being 3000 miles long, while
-the flow and ebb only occur 4 times in 24 hours, these results would
-not agree with the time of 24 hours, unless this Mediterranean sea
-were six thousand miles in length; because if such a superabundance
-of water had to pass through the straits of Gibraltar in running
-behind the moon, the rush of the water through that strait would be
-so great, and would rise to such a height, that beyond the straits
-it would for many miles rush so violently into the ocean as to cause
-floods and tremendous seething, so that it would be impossible to
-pass through. This agitated ocean would afterwards return the waters
-it had received with equal fury to the place they had come from, so
-that no one ever could pass through those straits. Now experience
-shows that at every hour they are passed in safety, but when the
-wind sets in the same direction as the current, the strong ebb
-increases [Footnote 23: In attempting to get out of the
-Mediterranean, vessels are sometimes detained for a considerable
-time; not merely by the causes mentioned by Leonardo but by the
-constant current flowing eastwards through the middle of the straits
-of Gibraltar.]. The sea does not raise the water that has issued
-from the straits, but it checks them and this retards the tide; then
-it makes up with furious haste for the time it has lost until the
-end of the ebb movement.
-
-959.
-
-That the flow and ebb are not general; for on the shore at Genoa
-there is none, at Venice two braccia, between England and Flanders
-18 braccia. That in the straits of Sicily the current is very strong
-because all the waters from the rivers that flow into the Adriatic
-pass there.
-
-[Footnote: A few more recent data may be given here to facilitate
-comparison. In the Adriatic the tide rises 2 and 1/2 feet, at
-Terracina 1 1/4. In the English channel between Calais and Kent it
-rises from 18 to 20 feet. In the straits of Messina it rises no more
-than 2 1/2 feet, and that only in stormy weather, but the current is
-all the stronger. When Leonardo accounts for this by the southward
-flow of all the Italian rivers along the coasts, the explanation is
-at least based on a correct observation; namely that a steady
-current flows southwards along the coast of Calabria and another
-northwards, along the shores of Sicily; he seems to infer, from the
-direction of the fust, that the tide in the Adriatic is caused by
-it.]
-
-960.
-
-In the West, near to Flanders, the sea rises and decreases every 6
-hours about 20 braccia, and 22 when the moon is in its favour; but
-20 braccia is the general rule, and this rule, as it is evident,
-cannot have the moon for its cause. This variation in the increase
-and decrease of the sea every 6 hours may arise from the damming up
-of the waters, which are poured into the Mediterranean by the
-quantity of rivers from Africa, Asia and Europe, which flow into
-that sea, and the waters which are given to it by those rivers; it
-pours them to the ocean through the straits of Gibraltar, between
-Abila and Calpe [Footnote 5: _Abila_, Lat. _Abyla_, Gr. , now
-Sierra _Ximiera_ near Ceuta; _Calpe_, Lat. _Calpe_. Gr., now
-Gibraltar. Leonardo here uses the ancient names of the rocks, which
-were known as the Pillars of Hercules.]. That ocean extends to the
-island of England and others farther North, and it becomes dammed up
-and kept high in various gulfs. These, being seas of which the
-surface is remote from the centre of the earth, have acquired a
-weight, which as it is greater than the force of the incoming waters
-which cause it, gives this water an impetus in the contrary
-direction to that in which it came and it is borne back to meet the
-waters coming out of the straits; and this it does most against the
-straits of Gibraltar; these, so long as this goes on, remain dammed
-up and all the water which is poured out meanwhile by the
-aforementioned rivers, is pent up [in the Mediterranean]; and this
-might be assigned as the cause of its flow and ebb, as is shown in
-the 21st of the 4th of my theory.
-
-III.
-
-SUBTERRANEAN WATER COURSES.
-
-Theory of the circulation of the waters (961. 962).
-
-961.
-
-Very large rivers flow under ground.
-
-962.
-
-This is meant to represent the earth cut through in the middle,
-showing the depths of the sea and of the earth; the waters start
-from the bottom of the seas, and ramifying through the earth they
-rise to the summits of the mountains, flowing back by the rivers and
-returning to the sea.
-
-Observations in support of the hypothesis (963-969).
-
-963.
-
-The waters circulate with constant motion from the utmost depths of
-the sea to the highest summits of the mountains, not obeying the
-nature of heavy matter; and in this case it acts as does the blood
-of animals which is always moving from the sea of the heart and
-flows to the top of their heads; and here it is that veins burst--as
-one may see when a vein bursts in the nose, that all the blood from
-below rises to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes
-out of a burst vein in the earth it obeys the nature of other things
-heavier than the air, whence it always seeks the lowest places. [7]
-These waters traverse the body of the earth with infinite
-ramifications.
-
-[Footnote: The greater part of this passage has been given as No.
-849 in the section on Anatomy.]
-
-964.
-
-The same cause which stirs the humours in every species of animal
-body and by which every injury is repaired, also moves the waters
-from the utmost depth of the sea to the greatest heights.
-
-965.
-
-It is the property of water that it constitutes the vital human of
-this arid earth; and the cause which moves it through its ramified
-veins, against the natural course of heavy matters, is the same
-property which moves the humours in every species of animal body.
-But that which crowns our wonder in contemplating it is, that it
-rises from the utmost depths of the sea to the highest tops of the
-mountains, and flowing from the opened veins returns to the low
-seas; then once more, and with extreme swiftness, it mounts again
-and returns by the same descent, thus rising from the inside to the
-outside, and going round from the lowest to the highest, from whence
-it rushes down in a natural course. Thus by these two movements
-combined in a constant circulation, it travels through the veins of
-the earth.
-
-966.
-
-WHETHER WATER RISES FROM THE SEA TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-The water of the ocean cannot make its way from the bases to the
-tops of the mountains which bound it, but only so much rises as the
-dryness of the mountain attracts. And if, on the contrary, the rain,
-which penetrates from the summit of the mountain to the base, which
-is the boundary of the sea, descends and softens the slope opposite
-to the said mountain and constantly draws the water, like a syphon
-[Footnote 11: Cicognola, Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.] which
-pours through its longest side, it must be this which draws up the
-water of the sea; thus if _s n_ were the surface of the sea, and the
-rain descends from the top of the mountain _a_ to _n_ on one side,
-and on the other sides it descends from _a_ to _m_, without a doubt
-this would occur after the manner of distilling through felt, or as
-happens through the tubes called syphons [Footnote 17: Cicognola,
-Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.]. And at all times the water
-which has softened the mountain, by the great rain which runs down
-the two opposite sides, would constantly attract the rain _a n_, on
-its longest side together with the water from the sea, if that side
-of the mountain _a m_ were longer than the other _a n_; but this
-cannot be, because no part of the earth which is not submerged by
-the ocean can be lower than that ocean.
-
-967.
-
-OF SPRINGS OF WATER ON THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-It is quite evident that the whole surface of the ocean--when there
-is no storm--is at an equal distance from the centre of the earth,
-and that the tops of the mountains are farther from this centre in
-proportion as they rise above the surface of that sea; therefore if
-the body of the earth were not like that of man, it would be
-impossible that the waters of the sea--being so much lower than the
-mountains--could by their nature rise up to the summits of these
-mountains. Hence it is to be believed that the same cause which
-keeps the blood at the top of the head in man keeps the water at the
-summits of the mountains.
-
-[Footnote: This conception of the rising of the blood, which has
-given rise to the comparison, was recognised as erroneous by
-Leonardo himself at a later period. It must be remembered that the
-MS. A, from which these passages are taken, was written about twenty
-years earlier than the MS. Leic. (Nos. 963 and 849) and twenty-five
-years before the MS. W. An. IV.
-
-There is, in the original a sketch with No. 968 which is not
-reproduced. It represents a hill of the same shape as that shown at
-No. 982. There are veins, or branched streams, on the side of the
-hill, like those on the skull Pl. CVIII, No. 4]
-
-968.
-
-IN CONFIRMATION OF WHY THE WATER GOES TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-I say that just as the natural heat of the blood in the veins keeps
-it in the head of man,--for when the man is dead the cold blood
-sinks to the lower parts--and when the sun is hot on the head of a
-man the blood increases and rises so much, with other humours, that
-by pressure in the veins pains in the head are often caused; in the
-same way veins ramify through the body of the earth, and by the
-natural heat which is distributed throughout the containing body,
-the water is raised through the veins to the tops of mountains. And
-this water, which passes through a closed conduit inside the body of
-the mountain like a dead thing, cannot come forth from its low place
-unless it is warmed by the vital heat of the spring time. Again, the
-heat of the element of fire and, by day, the heat of the sun, have
-power to draw forth the moisture of the low parts of the mountains
-and to draw them up, in the same way as it draws the clouds and
-collects their moisture from the bed of the sea.
-
-969.
-
-That many springs of salt water are found at great distances from
-the sea; this might happen because such springs pass through some
-mine of salt, like that in Hungary where salt is hewn out of vast
-caverns, just as stone is hewn.
-
-[Footnote: The great mine of Wieliczka in Galicia, out of which a
-million cwt. of rock-salt are annually dug out, extends for 3000
-metres from West to East, and 1150 metres from North to South.]
-
-IV.
-
-OF RIVERS.
-
-On the way in which the sources of rivers are fed.
-
-970.
-
-OF THE ORIGIN OF RIVERS.
-
-The body of the earth, like the bodies of animals, is intersected
-with ramifications of waters which are all in connection and are
-constituted to give nutriment and life to the earth and to its
-creatures. These come from the depth of the sea and, after many
-revolutions, have to return to it by the rivers created by the
-bursting of these springs; and if you chose to say that the rains of
-the winter or the melting of the snows in summer were the cause of
-the birth of rivers, I could mention the rivers which originate in
-the torrid countries of Africa, where it never rains--and still less
-snows--because the intense heat always melts into air all the clouds
-which are borne thither by the winds. And if you chose to say that
-such rivers, as increase in July and August, come from the snows
-which melt in May and June from the sun's approach to the snows on
-the mountains of Scythia [Footnote 9: Scythia means here, as in
-Ancient Geography, the whole of the Northern part of Asia as far as
-India.], and that such meltings come down into certain valleys and
-form lakes, into which they enter by springs and subterranean caves
-to issue forth again at the sources of the Nile, this is false;
-because Scythia is lower than the sources of the Nile, and, besides,
-Scythia is only 400 miles from the Black sea and the sources of the
-Nile are 3000 miles distant from the sea of Egypt into which its
-waters flow.
-
-The tide in estuaries.
-
-971.
-
-Book 9, of the meeting of rivers and of their ebb and flow. The
-cause is the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of
-Gibraltar; and again it is caused by whirlpools.
-
-[3] If two rivers meet together to form a straight line, and then
-below two right angles take their course together, the flow and ebb
-will happen now in one river and now in the other above their
-confluence, and principally if the outlet for their united volume is
-no swifter than when they were separate. Here occur 4 instances.
-
-[Footnote: The first two lines of this passage have already been
-given as No. 957. In the margin, near line 3 of this passage, the
-text given as No. 919 is written.]
-
-On the alterations, caused in the courses of rivers by their
-confluence (972-974).
-
-972.
-
-When a smaller river pours its waters into a larger one, and that
-larger one flows from the opposite direction, the course of the
-smaller river will bend up against the approach of the larger river;
-and this happens because, when the larger river fills up all its bed
-with water, it makes an eddy in front of the mouth of the other
-river, and so carries the water poured in by the smaller river with
-its own. When the smaller river pours its waters into the larger
-one, which runs across the current at the mouth of the smaller
-river, its waters will bend with the downward movement of the larger
-river. [Footnote: In the original sketches the word _Arno_ is
-written at the spot here marked _A_, at _R. Rifredi_, and at _M.
-Mugnone_.]
-
-973.
-
-When the fulness of rivers is diminished, then the acute angles
-formed at the junction of their branches become shorter at the sides
-and wider at the point; like the current _a n_ and the current _d
-n_, which unite in _n_ when the river is at its greatest fulness. I
-say, that when it is in this condition if, before the fullest time,
-_d n_ was lower than _a n_, at the time of fulness _d n_ will be
-full of sand and mud. When the water _d n_ falls, it will carry away
-the mud and remain with a lower bottom, and the channel _a n_
-finding itself the higher, will fling its waters into the lower, _d
-n_, and will wash away all the point of the sand-spit _b n c_, and
-thus the angle _a c d_ will remain larger than the angle _a n d_ and
-the sides shorter, as I said before.
-
-[Footnote: Above the first sketch we find, in the original, this
-note: "_Sopra il pote rubaconte alla torricella_"; and by the
-second, which represents a pier of a bridge, "_Sotto l'ospedal del
-ceppo._"]
-
-974.
-
-WATER.
-
-OF THE MOVEMENT OF A SUDDEN RUSH MADE BY A RIVER IN ITS BED
-PREVIOUSLY DRY.
-
-In proportion as the current of the water given forth by the
-draining of the lake is slow or rapid in the dry river bed, so will
-this river be wider or narrower, or shallower or deeper in one place
-than another, according to this proposition: the flow and ebb of the
-sea which enters the Mediterranean from the ocean, and of the rivers
-which meet and struggle with it, will raise their waters more or
-less in proportion as the sea is wider or narrower.
-
-[Footnote: In the margin is a sketch of a river which winds so as to
-form islands.]
-
-Whirlpools.
-
-975.
-
-Whirlpools, that is to say caverns; that is to say places left by
-precipitated waters.
-
-On the alterations in the channels of rivers.
-
-976.
-
-OF THE VIBRATION OF THE EARTH.
-
-The subterranean channels of waters, like those which exist between
-the air and the earth, are those which unceasingly wear away and
-deepen the beds of their currents.
-
-The origin of the sand in rivers (977. 978).
-
-977.
-
-A river that flows from mountains deposits a great quantity of large
-stones in its bed, which still have some of their angles and sides,
-and in the course of its flow it carries down smaller stones with
-the angles more worn; that is to say the large stones become
-smaller. And farther on it deposits coarse gravel and then smaller,
-and as it proceeds this becomes coarse sand and then finer, and
-going on thus the water, turbid with sand and gravel, joins the sea;
-and the sand settles on the sea-shores, being cast up by the salt
-waves; and there results the sand of so fine a nature as to seem
-almost like water, and it will not stop on the shores of the sea but
-returns by reason of its lightness, because it was originally formed
-of rotten leaves and other very light things. Still, being
-almost--as was said--of the nature of water itself, it afterwards,
-when the weather is calm, settles and becomes solid at the bottom of
-the sea, where by its fineness it becomes compact and by its
-smoothness resists the waves which glide over it; and in this shells
-are found; and this is white earth, fit for pottery.
-
-978.
-
-All the torrents of water flowing from the mountains to the sea
-carry with them the stones from the hills to the sea, and by the
-influx of the sea-water towards the mountains; these stones were
-thrown back towards the mountains, and as the waters rose and
-retired, the stones were tossed about by it and in rolling, their
-angles hit together; then as the parts, which least resisted the
-blows, were worn off, the stones ceased to be angular and became
-round in form, as may be seen on the banks of the Elsa. And those
-remained larger which were less removed from their native spot; and
-they became smaller, the farther they were carried from that place,
-so that in the process they were converted into small pebbles and
-then into sand and at last into mud. After the sea had receded from
-the mountains the brine left by the sea with other humours of the
-earth made a concretion of these pebbles and this sand, so that the
-pebbles were converted into rock and the sand into tufa. And of this
-we see an example in the Adda where it issues from the mountains of
-Como and in the Ticino, the Adige and the Oglio coming from the
-German Alps, and in the Arno at Monte Albano [Footnote 13: At the
-foot of _Monte Albano_ lies Vinci, the birth place of Leonardo.
-Opposite, on the other bank of the Arno, is _Monte Lupo_.], near
-Monte Lupo and Capraia where the rocks, which are very large, are
-all of conglomerated pebbles of various kinds and colours.
-
-V.
-
-ON MOUNTAINS.
-
-The formation of mountains (979-983).
-
-979.
-
-Mountains are made by the currents of rivers.
-
-Mountains are destroyed by the currents of rivers.
-
-[Footnote: Compare 789.]
-
-980.
-
-That the Northern bases of some Alps are not yet petrified. And this
-is plainly to be seen where the rivers, which cut through them, flow
-towards the North; where they cut through the strata in the living
-stone in the higher parts of the mountains; and, where they join the
-plains, these strata are all of potter's clay; as is to be seen in
-the valley of Lamona where the river Lamona, as it issues from the
-Appenines, does these things on its banks.
-
-That the rivers have all cut and divided the mountains of the great
-Alps one from the other. This is visible in the order of the
-stratified rocks, because from the summits of the banks, down to the
-river the correspondence of the strata in the rocks is visible on
-either side of the river. That the stratified stones of the
-mountains are all layers of clay, deposited one above the other by
-the various floods of the rivers. That the different size of the
-strata is caused by the difference in the floods--that is to say
-greater or lesser floods.
-
-981.
-
-The summits of mountains for a long time rise constantly.
-
-The opposite sides of the mountains always approach each other
-below; the depths of the valleys which are above the sphere of the
-waters are in the course of time constantly getting nearer to the
-centre of the world.
-
-In an equal period, the valleys sink much more than the mountains
-rise.
-
-The bases of the mountains always come closer together.
-
-In proportion as the valleys become deeper, the more quickly are
-their sides worn away.
-
-982.
-
-In every concavity at the summit of the mountains we shall always
-find the divisions of the strata in the rocks.
-
-983.
-
-OF THE SEA WHICH ENCIRCLES THE EARTH.
-
-I find that of old, the state of the earth was that its plains were
-all covered up and hidden by salt water. [Footnote: This passage has
-already been published by Dr. M. JORDAN: _Das Malerbuch des L. da
-Vinci, Leipzig_ 1873, p. 86. However, his reading of the text
-differs from mine.]
-
-The authorities for the study of the structure of the earth.
-
-984.
-
-Since things are much more ancient than letters, it is no marvel if,
-in our day, no records exist of these seas having covered so many
-countries; and if, moreover, some records had existed, war and
-conflagrations, the deluge of waters, the changes of languages and
-of laws have consumed every thing ancient. But sufficient for us is
-the testimony of things created in the salt waters, and found again
-in high mountains far from the seas.
-
-VI.
-
-GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.
-
-985.
-
-In this work you have first to prove that the shells at a thousand
-braccia of elevation were not carried there by the deluge, because
-they are seen to be all at one level, and many mountains are seen to
-be above that level; and to inquire whether the deluge was caused by
-rain or by the swelling of the sea; and then you must show how,
-neither by rain nor by swelling of the rivers, nor by the overflow
-of this sea, could the shells--being heavy objects--be floated up
-the mountains by the sea, nor have carried there by the rivers
-against the course of their waters.
-
-Doubts about the deluge.
-
-986.
-
-A DOUBTFUL POINT.
-
-Here a doubt arises, and that is: whether the deluge, which happened
-at the time of Noah, was universal or not. And it would seem not,
-for the reasons now to be given: We have it in the Bible that this
-deluge lasted 40 days and 40 nights of incessant and universal rain,
-and that this rain rose to ten cubits above the highest mountains in
-the world. And if it had been that the rain was universal, it would
-have covered our globe which is spherical in form. And this
-spherical surface is equally distant in every part, from the centre
-of its sphere; hence the sphere of the waters being under the same
-conditions, it is impossible that the water upon it should move,
-because water, in itself, does not move unless it falls; therefore
-how could the waters of such a deluge depart, if it is proved that
-it has no motion? and if it departed how could it move unless it
-went upwards? Here, then, natural reasons are wanting; hence to
-remove this doubt it is necessary to call in a miracle to aid us, or
-else to say that all this water was evaporated by the heat of the
-sun.
-
-[Footnote: The passages, here given from the MS. Leic., have
-hitherto remained unknown. Some preliminary notes on the subject are
-to be found in MS. F 8oa and 8ob; but as compared with the fuller
-treatment here given, they are, it seems to me, of secondary
-interest. They contain nothing that is not repeated here more
-clearly and fully. LIBRI, _Histoire des Sciences mathematiques III_,
-pages 218--221, has printed the text of F 80a and 80b, therefore it
-seemed desirable to give my reasons for not inserting it in this
-work.]
-
-That marine shells could not go up the mountains.
-
-987.
-
-OF THE DELUGE AND OF MARINE SHELLS.
-
-If you were to say that the shells which are to be seen within the
-confines of Italy now, in our days, far from the sea and at such
-heights, had been brought there by the deluge which left them there,
-I should answer that if you believe that this deluge rose 7 cubits
-above the highest mountains-- as he who measured it has
-written--these shells, which always live near the sea-shore, should
-have been left on the mountains; and not such a little way from the
-foot of the mountains; nor all at one level, nor in layers upon
-layers. And if you were to say that these shells are desirous of
-remaining near to the margin of the sea, and that, as it rose in
-height, the shells quitted their first home, and followed the
-increase of the waters up to their highest level; to this I answer,
-that the cockle is an animal of not more rapid movement than the
-snail is out of water, or even somewhat slower; because it does not
-swim, on the contrary it makes a furrow in the sand by means of its
-sides, and in this furrow it will travel each day from 3 to 4
-braccia; therefore this creature, with so slow a motion, could not
-have travelled from the Adriatic sea as far as Monferrato in
-Lombardy [Footnote: _Monferrato di Lombardia_. The range of hills of
-Monferrato is in Piedmont, and Casale di Monferrato belonged, in
-Leonardo's time, to the Marchese di Mantova.], which is 250 miles
-distance, in 40 days; which he has said who took account of the
-time. And if you say that the waves carried them there, by their
-gravity they could not move, excepting at the bottom. And if you
-will not grant me this, confess at least that they would have to
-stay at the summits of the highest mountains, in the lakes which are
-enclosed among the mountains, like the lakes of Lario, or of Como
-and il Maggiore [Footnote: _Lago di Lario._ Lacus Larius was the
-name given by the Romans to the lake of Como. It is evident that it
-is here a slip of the pen since the the words in the MS. are: _"Come
-Lago di Lario o'l Magare e di Como,"_ In the MS. after line 16 we
-come upon a digression treating of the weight of water; this has
-here been omitted. It is 11 lines long.] and of Fiesole, and of
-Perugia, and others.
-
-And if you should say that the shells were carried by the waves,
-being empty and dead, I say that where the dead went they were not
-far removed from the living; for in these mountains living ones are
-found, which are recognisable by the shells being in pairs; and they
-are in a layer where there are no dead ones; and a little higher up
-they are found, where they were thrown by the waves, all the dead
-ones with their shells separated, near to where the rivers fell into
-the sea, to a great depth; like the Arno which fell from the
-Gonfolina near to Monte Lupo [Footnote: _Monte Lupo_, compare 970,
-13; it is between Empoli and Florence.], where it left a deposit of
-gravel which may still be seen, and which has agglomerated; and of
-stones of various districts, natures, and colours and hardness,
-making one single conglomerate. And a little beyond the sandstone
-conglomerate a tufa has been formed, where it turned towards Castel
-Florentino; farther on, the mud was deposited in which the shells
-lived, and which rose in layers according to the levels at which the
-turbid Arno flowed into that sea. And from time to time the bottom
-of the sea was raised, depositing these shells in layers, as may be
-seen in the cutting at Colle Gonzoli, laid open by the Arno which is
-wearing away the base of it; in which cutting the said layers of
-shells are very plainly to be seen in clay of a bluish colour, and
-various marine objects are found there. And if the earth of our
-hemisphere is indeed raised by so much higher than it used to be, it
-must have become by so much lighter by the waters which it lost
-through the rift between Gibraltar and Ceuta; and all the more the
-higher it rose, because the weight of the waters which were thus
-lost would be added to the earth in the other hemisphere. And if the
-shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been
-mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in
-regular steps and layers-- as we see them now in our time.
-
-The marine shells were not produced away from the sea.
-
-988.
-
-As to those who say that shells existed for a long time and were
-born at a distance from the sea, from the nature of the place and of
-the cycles, which can influence a place to produce such
-creatures--to them it may be answered: such an influence could not
-place the animals all on one line, except those of the same sort and
-age; and not the old with the young, nor some with an operculum and
-others without their operculum, nor some broken and others whole,
-nor some filled with sea-sand and large and small fragments of other
-shells inside the whole shells which remained open; nor the claws of
-crabs without the rest of their bodies; nor the shells of other
-species stuck on to them like animals which have moved about on
-them; since the traces of their track still remain, on the outside,
-after the manner of worms in the wood which they ate into. Nor would
-there be found among them the bones and teeth of fish which some
-call arrows and others serpents' tongues, nor would so many
-[Footnote: I. Scilla argued against this hypothesis, which was still
-accepted in his days; see: _La vana Speculazione, Napoli_ 1670.]
-portions of various animals be found all together if they had not
-been thrown on the sea shore. And the deluge cannot have carried
-them there, because things that are heavier than water do not float
-on the water. But these things could not be at so great a height if
-they had not been carried there by the water, such a thing being
-impossible from their weight. In places where the valleys have not
-been filled with salt sea water shells are never to be seen; as is
-plainly visible in the great valley of the Arno above Gonfolina; a
-rock formerly united to Monte Albano, in the form of a very high
-bank which kept the river pent up, in such a way that before it
-could flow into the sea, which was afterwards at its foot, it formed
-two great lakes; of which the first was where we now see the city of
-Florence together with Prato and Pistoia, and Monte Albano. It
-followed the rest of its bank as far as where Serravalle now stands.
->From the Val d'Arno upwards, as far as Arezzo, another lake was
-formed, which discharged its waters into the former lake. It was
-closed at about the spot where now we see Girone, and occupied the
-whole of that valley above for a distance of 40 miles in length.
-This valley received on its bottom all the soil brought down by the
-turbid waters. And this is still to be seen at the foot of Prato
-Magno; it there lies very high where the rivers have not worn it
-away. Across this land are to be seen the deep cuts of the rivers
-that have passed there, falling from the great mountain of Prato
-Magno; in these cuts there are no vestiges of any shells or of
-marine soil. This lake was joined with that of Perugia [Footnote:
-See PI. CXIII.]
-
-A great quantity of shells are to be seen where the rivers flow into
-the sea, because on such shores the waters are not so salt owing to
-the admixture of the fresh water, which is poured into it. Evidence
-of this is to be seen where, of old, the Appenines poured their
-rivers into the Adriatic sea; for there in most places great
-quantities of shells are to be found, among the mountains, together
-with bluish marine clay; and all the rocks which are torn off in
-such places are full of shells. The same may be observed to have
-been done by the Arno when it fell from the rock of Gonfolina into
-the sea, which was not so very far below; for at that time it was
-higher than the top of San Miniato al Tedesco, since at the highest
-summit of this the shores may be seen full of shells and oysters
-within its flanks. The shells did not extend towards Val di Nievole,
-because the fresh waters of the Arno did not extend so far.
-
-That the shells were not carried away from the sea by the deluge,
-because the waters which came from the earth although they drew the
-sea towards the earth, were those which struck its depths; because
-the water which goes down from the earth, has a stronger current
-than that of the sea, and in consequence is more powerful, and it
-enters beneath the sea water and stirs the depths and carries with
-it all sorts of movable objects which are to be found in the earth,
-such as the above-mentioned shells and other similar things. And in
-proportion as the water which comes from the land is muddier than
-sea water it is stronger and heavier than this; therefore I see no
-way of getting the said shells so far in land, unless they had been
-born there. If you were to tell me that the river Loire [Footnote:
-Leonardo has written Era instead of Loera or Loira--perhaps under
-the mistaken idea that _Lo_ was an article.],which traverses France
-covers when the sea rises more than eighty miles of country, because
-it is a district of vast plains, and the sea rises about 20 braccia,
-and shells are found in this plain at the distance of 80 miles from
-the sea; here I answer that the flow and ebb in our Mediterranean
-Sea does not vary so much; for at Genoa it does not rise at all, and
-at Venice but little, and very little in Africa; and where it varies
-little it covers but little of the country.
-
-The course of the water of a river always rises higher in a place
-where the current is impeded; it behaves as it does where it is
-reduced in width to pass under the arches of a bridge.
-
-Further researches (989-991).
-
-989.
-
-A CONFUTATION OF THOSE WHO SAY THAT SHELLS MAY HAVE BEEN CARRIED TO
-A DISTANCE OF MANY DAYS' JOURNEY FROM THE SEA BY THE DELUGE, WHICH
-WAS SO HIGH AS TO BE ABOVE THOSE HEIGHTS.
-
-I say that the deluge could not carry objects, native to the sea, up
-to the mountains, unless the sea had already increased so as to
-create inundations as high up as those places; and this increase
-could not have occurred because it would cause a vacuum; and if you
-were to say that the air would rush in there, we have already
-concluded that what is heavy cannot remain above what is light,
-whence of necessity we must conclude that this deluge was caused by
-rain water, so that all these waters ran to the sea, and the sea did
-not run up the mountains; and as they ran to the sea, they thrust
-the shells from the shore of the sea and did not draw them to wards
-themselves. And if you were then to say that the sea, raised by the
-rain water, had carried these shells to such a height, we have
-already said that things heavier than water cannot rise upon it, but
-remain at the bottom of it, and do not move unless by the impact of
-the waves. And if you were to say that the waves had carried them to
-such high spots, we have proved that the waves in a great depth move
-in a contrary direction at the bottom to the motion at the top, and
-this is shown by the turbidity of the sea from the earth washed down
-near its shores. Anything which is lighter than the water moves with
-the waves, and is left on the highest level of the highest margin of
-the waves. Anything which is heavier than the water moves, suspended
-in it, between the surface and the bottom; and from these two
-conclusions, which will be amply proved in their place, we infer
-that the waves of the surface cannot convey shells, since they are
-heavier than water.
-
-If the deluge had to carry shells three hundred and four hundred
-miles from the sea, it would have carried them mixed with various
-other natural objects heaped together; and we see at such distances
-oysters all together, and sea-snails, and cuttlefish, and all the
-other shells which congregate together, all to be found together and
-dead; and the solitary shells are found wide apart from each other,
-as we may see them on sea-shores every day. And if we find oysters
-of very large shells joined together and among them very many which
-still have the covering attached, indicating that they were left
-here by the sea, and still living when the strait of Gibraltar was
-cut through; there are to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and
-Piacenza, a multitude of shells and corals, full of holes, and still
-sticking to the rocks there. When I was making the great horse for
-Milan, a large sack full was brought to me in my workshop by certain
-peasants; these were found in that place and among them were many
-preserved in their first freshness.
-
-Under ground, and under the foundations of buildings, timbers are
-found of wrought beams and already black. Such were found in my time
-in those diggings at Castel Fiorentino. And these had been in that
-deep place before the sand carried by the Arno into the sea, then
-covering the plain, had heen raised to such a height; and before the
-plains of Casentino had been so much lowered, by the earth being
-constantly carried down from them.
-
-[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
-
-And if you were to say that these shells were created, and were
-continually being created in such places by the nature of the spot,
-and of the heavens which might have some influence there, such an
-opinion cannot exist in a brain of much reason; because here are the
-years of their growth, numbered on their shells, and there are large
-and small ones to be seen which could not have grown without food,
-and could not have fed without motion--and here they could not move
-[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
-
-990.
-
-That in the drifts, among one and another, there are still to be
-found the traces of the worms which crawled upon them when they were
-not yet dry. And all marine clays still contain shells, and the
-shells are petrified together with the clay. From their firmness and
-unity some persons will have it that these animals were carried up
-to places remote from the sea by the deluge. Another sect of
-ignorant persons declare that Nature or Heaven created them in these
-places by celestial influences, as if in these places we did not
-also find the bones of fishes which have taken a long time to grow;
-and as if, we could not count, in the shells of cockles and snails,
-the years and months of their life, as we do in the horns of bulls
-and oxen, and in the branches of plants that have never been cut in
-any part. Besides, having proved by these signs the length of their
-lives, it is evident, and it must be admitted, that these animals
-could not live without moving to fetch their food; and we find in
-them no instrument for penetrating the earth or the rock where we
-find them enclosed. But how could we find in a large snail shell the
-fragments and portions of many other sorts of shells, of various
-sorts, if they had not been thrown there, when dead, by the waves of
-the sea like the other light objects which it throws on the earth?
-Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between layer and
-layer of stone, if this had not formerly been covered on the shore
-by a layer of earth thrown up by the sea, and which was afterwards
-petrified? And if the deluge before mentioned had carried them to
-these parts of the sea, you might find these shells at the boundary
-of one drift but not at the boundary between many drifts. We must
-also account for the winters of the years during which the sea
-multiplied the drifts of sand and mud brought down by the
-neighbouring rivers, by washing down the shores; and if you chose to
-say that there were several deluges to produce these rifts and the
-shells among them, you would also have to affirm that such a deluge
-took place every year. Again, among the fragments of these shells,
-it must be presumed that in those places there were sea coasts,
-where all the shells were thrown up, broken, and divided, and never
-in pairs, since they are found alive in the sea, with two valves,
-each serving as a lid to the other; and in the drifts of rivers and
-on the shores of the sea they are found in fragments. And within the
-limits of the separate strata of rocks they are found, few in number
-and in pairs like those which were left by the sea, buried alive in
-the mud, which subsequently dried up and, in time, was petrified.
-
-991.
-
-And if you choose to say that it was the deluge which carried these
-shells away from the sea for hundreds of miles, this cannot have
-happened, since that deluge was caused by rain; because rain
-naturally forces the rivers to rush towards the sea with all the
-things they carry with them, and not to bear the dead things of the
-sea shores to the mountains. And if you choose to say that the
-deluge afterwards rose with its waters above the mountains, the
-movement of the sea must have been so sluggish in its rise against
-the currents of the rivers, that it could not have carried, floating
-upon it, things heavier than itself; and even if it had supported
-them, in its receding it would have left them strewn about, in
-various spots. But how are we to account for the corals which are
-found every day towards Monte Ferrato in Lombardy, with the holes of
-the worms in them, sticking to rocks left uncovered by the currents
-of rivers? These rocks are all covered with stocks and families of
-oysters, which as we know, never move, but always remain with one of
-their halves stuck to a rock, and the other they open to feed
-themselves on the animalcules that swim in the water, which, hoping
-to find good feeding ground, become the food of these shells. We do
-not find that the sand mixed with seaweed has been petrified,
-because the weed which was mingled with it has shrunk away, and this
-the Po shows us every day in the debris of its banks.
-
-Other problems (992-994).
-
-992.
-
-Why do we find the bones of great fishes and oysters and corals and
-various other shells and sea-snails on the high summits of mountains
-by the sea, just as we find them in low seas?
-
-993.
-
-You now have to prove that the shells cannot have originated if not
-in salt water, almost all being of that sort; and that the shells in
-Lombardy are at four levels, and thus it is everywhere, having been
-made at various times. And they all occur in valleys that open
-towards the seas.
-
-994.
-
->From the two lines of shells we are forced to say that the earth
-indignantly submerged under the sea and so the first layer was made;
-and then the deluge made the second.
-
-[Footnote: This note is in the early writing of about 1470--1480. On
-the same sheet are the passages No. 1217 and 1219. Compare also No.
-1339. All the foregoing chapters are from Manuscripts of about 1510.
-This explains the want of connection and the contradiction between
-this and the foregoing texts.]
-
-VII.
-
-ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-Constituents of the atmosphere.
-
-995.
-
-That the brightness of the air is occasioned by the water which has
-dissolved itself in it into imperceptible molecules. These, being
-lighted by the sun from the opposite side, reflect the brightness
-which is visible in the air; and the azure which is seen in it is
-caused by the darkness that is hidden beyond the air. [Footnote:
-Compare Vol. I, No. 300.]
-
-On the motion of air (996--999).
-
-996.
-
-That the return eddies of wind at the mouth of certain valleys
-strike upon the waters and scoop them out in a great hollow, whirl
-the water into the air in the form of a column, and of the colour of
-a cloud. And I saw this thing happen on a sand bank in the Arno,
-where the sand was hollowed out to a greater depth than the stature
-of a man; and with it the gravel was whirled round and flung about
-for a great space; it appeared in the air in the form of a great
-bell-tower; and the top spread like the branches of a pine tree, and
-then it bent at the contact of the direct wind, which passed over
-from the mountains.
-
-997.
-
-The element of fire acts upon a wave of air in the same way as the
-air does on water, or as water does on a mass of sand --that is
-earth; and their motions are in the same proportions as those of the
-motors acting upon them.
-
-998.
-
-OF MOTION.
-
-I ask whether the true motion of the clouds can be known by the
-motion of their shadows; and in like manner of the motion of the
-sun.
-
-999.
-
-To know better the direction of the winds. [Footnote: In connection
-with this text I may here mention a hygrometer, drawn and probably
-invented by Leonardo. A facsimile of this is given in Vol. I, p. 297
-with the note: _'Modi di pesare l'arie eddi sapere quando s'a
-arrompere il tepo'_ (Mode of weighing the air and of knowing when
-the weather will change); by the sponge _"Spugnea"_ is written.]
-
-The globe an organism.
-
-1000.
-
-Nothing originates in a spot where there is no sentient, vegetable
-and rational life; feathers grow upon birds and are changed every
-year; hairs grow upon animals and are changed every year, excepting
-some parts, like the hairs of the beard in lions, cats and their
-like. The grass grows in the fields, and the leaves on the trees,
-and every year they are, in great part, renewed. So that we might
-say that the earth has a spirit of growth; that its flesh is the
-soil, its bones the arrangement and connection of the rocks of which
-the mountains are composed, its cartilage the tufa, and its blood
-the springs of water. The pool of blood which lies round the heart
-is the ocean, and its breathing, and the increase and decrease of
-the blood in the pulses, is represented in the earth by the flow and
-ebb of the sea; and the heat of the spirit of the world is the fire
-which pervades the earth, and the seat of the vegetative soul is in
-the fires, which in many parts of the earth find vent in baths and
-mines of sulphur, and in volcanoes, as at Mount Aetna in Sicily, and
-in many other places.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 929.]
-
-_XVII._
-
-_Topographical Notes._
-
-_A large part of the texts published in this section might perhaps
-have found their proper place in connection with the foregoing
-chapters on Physical Geography. But these observations on Physical
-Geography, of whatever kind they may be, as soon as they are
-localised acquire a special interest and importance and particularly
-as bearing on the question whether Leonardo himself made the
-observations recorded at the places mentioned or merely noted the
-statements from hearsay. In a few instances he himself tells us that
-he writes at second hand. In some cases again, although the style
-and expressions used make it seem highly probable that he has
-derived his information from others-- though, as it seems to me,
-these cases are not very numerous--we find, on the other hand, among
-these topographical notes a great number of observations, about
-which it is extremely difficult to form a decided opinion. Of what
-the Master's life and travels may have been throughout his
-sixty-seven years of life we know comparatively little; for a long
-course of time, and particularly from about 1482 to 1486, we do not
-even know with certainty that he was living in Italy. Thus, from a
-biographical point of view a very great interest attaches to some of
-the topographical notes, and for this reason it seemed that it would
-add to their value to arrange them in a group by themselves.
-Leonardo's intimate knowledge with places, some of which were
-certainly remote from his native home, are of importance as
-contributing to decide the still open question as to the extent of
-Leonardo's travels. We shall find in these notes a confirmation of
-the view, that the MSS. in which the Topographical Notes occur are
-in only a very few instances such diaries as may have been in use
-during a journey. These notes are mostly found in the MSS. books of
-his later and quieter years, and it is certainly remarkable that
-Leonardo is very reticent as to the authorities from whom he quotes
-his facts and observations: For instance, as to the Straits of
-Gibraltar, the Nile, the Taurus Mountains and the Tigris and
-Euphrates. Is it likely that he, who declared that in all scientific
-research, his own experience should be the foundation of his
-statements (see XIX Philosophy No. 987--991,) should here have made
-an exception to this rule without mentioning it?_
-
-_As for instance in the discussion as to the equilibrium of the mass
-of water in the Mediterranean Sea--a subject which, it may be
-observed, had at that time attracted the interest and study of
-hardly any other observer. The acute remarks, in Nos. 985--993, on
-the presence of shells at the tops of mountains, suffice to
-prove--as it seems to me--that it was not in his nature to allow
-himself to be betrayed into wide generalisations, extending beyond
-the limits of his own investigations, even by such brilliant results
-of personal study._
-
-_Most of these Topographical Notes, though suggesting very careful
-and thorough research, do not however, as has been said, afford
-necessarily indisputable evidence that that research was Leonardo's
-own. But it must be granted that in more than one instance
-probability is in favour of this idea._
-
-_Among the passages which treat somewhat fully of the topography of
-Eastern places by far the most interesting is a description of the
-Taurus Mountains; but as this text is written in the style of a
-formal report and, in the original, is associated with certain
-letters which give us the history of its origin, I have thought it
-best not to sever it from that connection. It will be found under
-No. XXI (Letters)._
-
-_That Florence, and its neighbourhood, where Leonardo spent his
-early years, should be nowhere mentioned except in connection with
-the projects for canals, which occupied his attention for some short
-time during the first ten years of the XVIth century, need not
-surprise us. The various passages relating to the construction of
-canals in Tuscany, which are put together at the beginning, are
-immediately followed by those which deal with schemes for canals in
-Lombardy; and after these come notes on the city and vicinity of
-Milan as well as on the lakes of North Italy._
-
-_The notes on some towns of Central Italy which Leonardo visited in
-1502, when in the service of Cesare Borgia, are reproduced here in
-the same order as in the note book used during these travels (MS.
-L., Institut de France). These notes have but little interest in
-themselves excepting as suggesting his itinerary. The maps of the
-districts drawn by Leonardo at the time are more valuable (see No.
-1054 note). The names on these maps are not written from right to
-left, but in the usual manner, and we are permitted to infer that
-they were made in obedience to some command, possibly for the use of
-Cesare Borgia himself; the fact that they remained nevertheless in
-Leonardo's hands is not surprising when we remember the sudden
-political changes and warlike events of the period. There can be no
-doubt that these maps, which are here published for the first time,
-are original in the strictest sense of the word, that is to say
-drawn from observations of the places themselves; this is proved by
-the fact--among others--that we find among his manuscripts not only
-the finished maps themselves but the rough sketches and studies for
-them. And it would perhaps be difficult to point out among the
-abundant contributions to geographical knowledge published during
-the XVIth century, any maps at all approaching these in accuracy and
-finish._
-
-_The interesting map of the world, so far as it was then known,
-which is among the Leonardo MSS. at Windsor (published in the_
-'Archaeologia' _Vol. XI) cannot be attributed to the Master, as the
-Marchese Girolamo d'Adda has sufficiently proved; it has not
-therefore been reproduced here._
-
-_Such of Leonardo's observations on places in Italy as were made
-before or after his official travels as military engineer to Cesare
-Borgia, have been arranged in alphabetical order, under Nos.
-1034-1054. The most interesting are those which relate to the Alps
-and the Appenines, Nos. 1057-1068._
-
-_Most of the passages in which France is mentioned have hitherto
-remained unknown, as well as those which treat of the countries
-bordering on the Mediterranean, which come at the end of this
-section. Though these may be regarded as of a more questionable
-importance in their bearing on the biography of the Master than
-those which mention places in France, it must be allowed that they
-are interesting as showing the prominent place which the countries
-of the East held in his geographical studies. He never once alludes
-to the discovery of America._
-
-I.
-
-ITALY.
-
-Canals in connection with the Arno (1001-1008).
-
-1001.
-
-CANAL OF FLORENCE.
-
-Sluices should be made in the valley of la Chiana at Arezzo, so that
-when, in the summer, the Arno lacks water, the canal may not remain
-dry: and let this canal be 20 braccia wide at the bottom, and at the
-top 30, and 2 braccia deep, or 4, so that two of these braccia may
-flow to the mills and the meadows, which will benefit the country;
-and Prato, Pistoia and Pisa, as well as Florence, will gain two
-hundred thousand ducats a year, and will lend a hand and money to
-this useful work; and the Lucchese the same, for the lake of Sesto
-will be navigable; I shall direct it to Prato and Pistoia, and cut
-through Serravalle and make an issue into the lake; for there will
-be no need of locks or supports, which are not lasting and so will
-always be giving trouble in working at them and keeping them up.
-
-And know that in digging this canal where it is 4 braccia deep, it
-will cost 4 dinari the square braccio; for twice the depth 6 dinari,
-if you are making 4 braccia [Footnote: This passage is illustrated
-by a slightly sketched map, on which these places are indicated from
-West to East: Pisa, Luccha, Lago, Seravalle, Pistoja, Prato,
-Firenze.] and there are but 2 banks; that is to say one from the
-bottom of the trench to the surface of the edges of it, and the
-other from these edges to the top of the ridge of earth which will
-be raised on the margin of the bank. And if this bank were of double
-the depth only the first bank will be increased, that is 4 braccia
-increased by half the first cost; that is to say that if at first 4
-dinari were paid for 2 banks, for 3 it would come to 6, at 2 dinari
-the bank, if the trench measured 16 braccia at the bottom; again, if
-the trench were 16 braccia wide and 4 deep, coming to 4 lire for the
-work, 4 Milan dinari the square braccio; a trench which was 32
-braccia at the bottom would come to 8 dinari the square braccio.
-
-1002.
-
->From the wall of the Arno at [the gate of] la Giustizia to the bank
-of the Arno at Sardigna where the walls are, to the mills, is 7400
-braccia, that is 2 miles and 1400 braccia and beyond the Arno is
-5500 braccia.
-
-[Footnote: 2. _Giustizia_. By this the Porta della Giustizia seems
-to be meant; from the XVth to the XVIth centuries it was also
-commonly known as Porta Guelfa, Porta San Francesco del Renaio,
-Porta Nuova, and Porta Reale. It was close to the Arno opposite to
-the Porta San Niccolo, which still exists.]
-
-1003.
-
-By guiding the Arno above and below a treasure will be found in each
-acre of ground by whomsoever will.
-
-1004.
-
-The wall of the old houses runs towards the gate of San Nicolo.
-
-[Footnote: By the side of this text there is an indistinct sketch,
-resembling that given under No.973. On the bank is written the word
-_Casace_. There then follows in the original a passage of 12 lines
-in which the consequences of the windings of the river are
-discussed. A larger but equally hasty diagram on the same page
-represents the shores of the Arno inside Florence as in two parallel
-lines. Four horizontal lines indicate the bridges. By the side these
-measures are stated in figures: I. (at the Ponte alla Carraja):
-_230--largho br. 12 e 2 di spoda e 14 di pile e a 4 pilastri;_ 2.
-(at the Ponte S. Trinita); _l88--largho br. 15 e 2 di spode he 28
-di pilastri for delle spode e pilastri so 2;_ 3. (at the Ponte
-vecchio); _pote lung br. 152 e largo;_ 4. (at the Ponte alle
-Grazie): _290 ellargo 12 e 2 di spode e 6 di pili._
-
-There is, in MS. W. L. 2l2b, a sketched plan of Florence, with the
-following names of gates:
-_Nicholo--Saminiato--Giorgo--Ghanolini--Porta San Fredian
---Prato--Faenza--Ghallo--Pinti--Giustitia_.]
-
-1005.
-
-The ruined wall is 640 braccia; 130 is the wall remaining with the
-mill; 300 braccia were broken in 4 years by Bisarno.
-
-1006.
-
-They do not know why the Arno will never remain in a channel. It is
-because the rivers which flow into it deposit earth where they
-enter, and wear it away on the opposite side, bending the river in
-that direction. The Arno flows for 6 miles between la Caprona and
-Leghorn; and for 12 through the marshes, which extend 32 miles, and
-16 from La Caprona up the river, which makes 48; by the Arno from
-Florence beyond 16 miles; to Vico 16 miles, and the canal is 5; from
-Florence to Fucechio it is 40 miles by the river Arno.
-
-56 miles by the Arno from Florence to Vico; by the Pistoia canal it
-is 44 miles. Thus it is 12 miles shorter by the canal than by the
-Arno.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is written by the side of a map washed in
-Indian ink, of the course of the Arno; it is evidently a sketch for
-a completer map.
-
-These investigations may possibly be connected with the following
-documents. _Francesco Guiducci alla Balia di Firenze. Dal Campo
-contro Pisa_ 24 _Luglio_ 1503 (_Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Lettere
-alla Balia_; published by J. GAYE, _Carteggio inedito d'Artisti,
-Firenze_ 1840, _Tom. II_, p. 62): _Ex Castris, Franciscus
-Ghuiduccius,_ 24. _Jul._ 1503. _Appresso fu qui hieri con una di V.
-Signoria Alexandro degli Albizi insieme con Leonardo da Vinci et
-certi altri, et veduto el disegno insieme con el ghovernatore, doppo
-molte discussioni et dubii conclusesi che l'opera fussi molto al
-proposito, o si veramente Arno volgersi qui, o restarvi con un
-canale, che almeno vieterebbe che le colline da nemici non
-potrebbono essere offese; come tucto referiranno loro a bocha V. S._
-
-And, _Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Libro d'Entrata e Uscita di cassa
-de' Magnifici Signori di luglio e agosto_
-
-1503 _a_ 51 _T.: Andata di Leonardo al Campo sotto Pisa. Spese
-extraordinarie dieno dare a di XXVI di luglio L. LVI sol. XII per
-loro a Giovanni Piffero; e sono per tanti, asegnia avere spexi in
-vetture di sei chavalli a spese di vitto per andare chon Lionardo da
-Vinci a livellare Arno in quello di Pisa per levallo del lilo suo._
-(Published by MILANESI, _Archivio Storico Italiano, Serie III, Tom.
-XVI._} VASARI asserts: _(Leonardo) fu il primo ancora, che
-giovanetto discorresse sopra il fiume d'Arno per metterlo in canale
-da Pisa a Fiorenza_ (ed. SANSONI, IV, 20).
-
-The passage above is in some degree illustrated by the map on Pl.
-CXII, where the course of the Arno westward from Empoli is shown.]
-
-1007.
-
-The eddy made by the Mensola, when the Arno is low and the Mensola
-full.
-
-[Footnote: _Mensola_ is a mountain stream which falls into the Arno
-about a mile and a half above Florence.
-
-A=Arno, I=Isola, M=Mvgone, P=Pesa, N=Mesola.]
-
-1008.
-
-That the river which is to be turned from one place to another must
-be coaxed and not treated roughly or with violence; and to do this a
-sort of floodgate should be made in the river, and then lower down
-one in front of it and in like manner a third, fourth and fifth, so
-that the river may discharge itself into the channel given to it, or
-that by this means it may be diverted from the place it has damaged,
-as was done in Flanders--as I was told by Niccolo di Forsore.
-
-How to protect and repair the banks washed by the water, as below
-the island of Cocomeri.
-
-Ponte Rubaconte (Fig. 1); below [the palaces] Bisticci and Canigiani
-(Fig. 2). Above the flood gate of la Giustizia (Fig. 3); _a b_ is a
-sand bank opposite the end of the island of the Cocomeri in the
-middle of the Arno (Fig. 4). [Footnote: The course of the river Arno
-is also discussed in Nos. 987 and 988.]
-
-Canals in the Milanese (1009-1013).
-
-1009.
-
-The canal of San Cristofano at Milan made May 3rd 1509. [Footnote:
-This observation is written above a washed pen and ink drawing which
-has been published as Tav. VI in the _,,Saggio."_ The editors of
-that work explain the drawing as _"uno Studio di bocche per
-estrazione d'acqua."_]
-
-1010.
-
-OF THE CANAL OF MARTESANA.
-
-By making the canal of Martesana the water of the Adda is greatly
-diminished by its distribution over many districts for the
-irrigation of the fields. A remedy for this would be to make several
-little channels, since the water drunk up by the earth is of no more
-use to any one, nor mischief neither, because it is taken from no
-one; and by making these channels the water which before was lost
-returns again and is once more serviceable and useful to men.
-
-[Footnote: _"el navilio di Martagano"_ is also mentioned in a note
-written in red chalk, MS. H2 17a Leonardo has, as it seems, little
-to do with Lodovico il Moro's scheme to render this canal navigable.
-The canal had been made in 1460 by Bertonino da Novara. Il Moro
-issued his degree in 1493, but Leonardo's notes about this canal
-were, with the exception of one (No. 1343), written about sixteen
-years later.]
-
-1011.
-
-No canal which is fed by a river can be permanent if the river
-whence it originates is not wholly closed up, like the canal of
-Martesana which is fed by the Ticino.
-
-1012.
-
->From the beginning of the canal to the mill.
-
->From the beginning of the canal of Brivio to the mill of Travaglia
-is 2794 trabochi, that is 11176 braccia, which is more than 3 miles
-and two thirds; and here the canal is 57 braccia higher than the
-surface of the water of the Adda, giving a fall of two inches in
-every hundred trabochi; and at that spot we propose to take the
-opening of our canal.
-
-[Footnote: The following are written on the sketches: At the place
-marked _N: navilio da dacquiue_ (canal of running water); at _M:
-molin del Travaglia_ (Mill of Travaglia); at _R: rochetta ssanta
-maria_ (small rock of Santa Maria); at _A: Adda;_ at _L: Lagho di
-Lecho ringorgato alli 3 corni in Adda,--Concha perpetua_ (lake of
-Lecco overflowing at Tre Corni, in Adda,-- a permanent sluice). Near
-the second sketch, referring to the sluice near _Q: qui la chatena
-ttalie d'u peso_ (here the chain is in one piece). At _M_ in the
-lower sketch: _mol del travaglia, nel cavare la concha il tereno
-ara chotrapero co cassa d'acqua._ (Mill of Travaglia, in digging
-out the sluice the soil will have as a counterpoise a vessel of
-water).]
-
-1013.
-
-If it be not reported there that this is to be a public canal, it
-will be necessary to pay for the land; [Footnote 3: _il re_. Louis
-XII or Francis I of France. It is hardly possible to doubt that the
-canals here spoken of were intended to be in the Milanese. Compare
-with this passage the rough copy of a letter by Leonardo, to the
-_"Presidente dell' Ufficio regolatore dell' acqua"_ on No. 1350. See
-also the note to No. 745, 1. 12.] and the king will pay it by
-remitting the taxes for a year.
-
-Estimates and preparatory studies for canals (1014. 1015).
-
-1014.
-
-CANAL.
-
-The canal which may be 16 braccia wide at the bottom and 20 at the
-top, we may say is on the average 18 braccia wide, and if it is 4
-braccia deep, at 4 dinari the square braccia; it will only cost 900
-ducats, to excavate by the mile, if the square braccio is calculated
-in ordinary braccia; but if the braccia are those used in measuring
-land, of which every 4 are equal to 4 1/2 and if by the mile we
-understand three thousand ordinary braccia; turned into land
-braccia, these 3000 braccia will lack 1/4; there remain 2250
-braccia, which at 4 dinari the braccio will amount to 675 ducats a
-mile. At 3 dinari the square braccio, the mile will amount to 506
-1/4 ducats so that the excavation of 30 miles of the canal will
-amount to 15187 1/2 ducats.
-
-1015.
-
-To make the great canal, first make the smaller one and conduct into
-it the waters which by a wheel will help to fill the great one.
-
-Notes on buildings in Milan (1016-1019)
-
-1016.
-
-Indicate the centre of Milan.
-
-Moforte--porta resa--porta nova--strada nova--navilio--porta
-cumana--barco--porta giovia--porta vercellina--porta sco
-Anbrogio--porta Tesinese--torre dell' Imperatore-- porta
-Lodovica--acqua.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIX. The original sketch is here reduced to about
-half its size. The gates of the town are here named, beginning at
-the right hand and following the curved line. In the bird's eye view
-of Milan below, the cathedral is plainly recognisable in the middle;
-to the right is the tower of San Gottardo. The square, above the
-number 9147, is the Lazzaretto, which was begun in 1488. On the left
-the group of buildings of the _'Castello'_ will be noticed. On the
-sketched Plan of Florence (see No. 1004 note) Leonardo has written
-on the margin the following names of gates of Milan: Vercellina
---Ticinese--Ludovica--Romana--Orientale--
-Nova--Beatrice--Cumana--Compare too No. 1448, 11. 5, 12.]
-
-1017.
-
-The moat of Milan.
-
-Canal 2 braccia wide.
-
-The castle with the moats full.
-
-The filling of the moats of the Castle of Milan.
-
-1018.
-
-THE BATH.
-
-To heat the water for the stove of the Duchess take four parts of
-cold water to three parts of hot water.
-
-[Footnote: _Duchessa di Milano_, Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico
-il Moro to whom she was married, in 1491. She died in June 1497.]
-
-1019.
-
-In the Cathedral at the pulley of the nail of the cross.
-
-Item.
-
-To place the mass _v r_ in the...
-
-[Footnote: On this passage AMORETTI remarks _(Memorie Storiche_
-chap. IX): _Nell'anno stesso lo veggiamo formare un congegno di
-carucole e di corde, con cui trasportare in piu venerabile e piu
-sicuro luogo, cioe nell'ultima arcata della nave di mezzo della
-metropolitana, la sacra reliquia del Santo Chiodo, che ivi ancor si
-venera. Al fol. 15 del codice segnato Q. R. in 16, egli ci ha
-lasciata di tal congegno una doppia figura, cioe una di quattro
-carucole, e una di tre colle rispettive corde, soggiugnandovi: in
-Domo alla carucola del Chiodo della Croce._
-
-AMORETTI'S views as to the mark on the MS, and the date when it was
-written are, it may be observed, wholly unfounded. The MS. L, in
-which it occurs, is of the year 1502, and it is very unlikely that
-Leonardo was in Milan at that time; this however would not prevent
-the remark, which is somewhat obscure, from applying to the
-Cathedral at Milan.]
-
-1020.
-
-OF THE FORCE OF THE VACUUM FORMED IN A MOMENT.
-
-I saw, at Milan, a thunderbolt fall on the tower della Credenza on
-its Northern side, and it descended with a slow motion down that
-side, and then at once parted from that tower and carried with it
-and tore away from that wall a space of 3 braccia wide and two deep;
-and this wall was 4 braccia thick and was built of thin and small
-old bricks; and this was dragged out by the vacuum which the flame
-of the thunderbolt had caused, &c.
-
-[Footnote: With reference to buildings at Milan see also Nos. 751
-and 756, and Pl. XCV, No. 2 (explained on p. 52), Pl. C (explained
-on pages 60-62). See also pages 25, 39 and 40.]
-
-Remarks on natural phenomena in and near Milan (1021. 1022).
-
-1021.
-
-I have already been to see a great variety (of atmospheric effects).
-And lately over Milan towards Lago Maggiore I saw a cloud in the
-form of an immense mountain full of rifts of glowing light, because
-the rays of the sun, which was already close to the horizon and red,
-tinged the cloud with its own hue. And this cloud attracted to it
-all the little clouds that were near while the large one did not
-move from its place; thus it retained on its summit the reflection
-of the sunlight till an hour and a half after sunset, so immensely
-large was it; and about two hours after sunset such a violent wind
-arose, that it was really tremendous and unheard of.
-
-[Footnote: _di arie_ is wanting in the original but may safely be
-inserted in the context, as the formation of clouds is under
-discussion before this text.]
-
-1022.
-
-On the 10th day of December at 9 o'clock a. m. fire was set to the
-place.
-
-On the l8th day of December 1511 at 9 o'clock a. m. this second fire
-was kindled by the Swiss at Milan at the place called DCXC.
-[Footnote: With these two texts, (l. 1--2 and l. 3--5 are in the
-original side by side) there are sketches of smoke wreaths in red
-chalk.]
-
-Note on Pavia.
-
-1023.
-
-The chimneys of the castle of Pavia have 6 rows of openings and from
-each to the other is one braccio.
-
-[Footnote: Other notes relating to Pavia occur on p. 43 and p. 53
-(Pl. XCVIII, No. 3). Compare No. 1448, 26.]
-
-Notes on the Sforzesca near Vigevano (1024-1028).
-
-1024.
-
-On the 2nd day of February 1494. At Sforzesca I drew twenty five
-steps, 2/3 braccia to each, and 8 braccia wide.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 2. The rest of the notes on this page
-refer to the motion of water. On the lower sketch we read: 4 _br._
-(four braccia) and _giara_ (for _ghiaja_, sand, gravel).]
-
-1025.
-
-The vineyards of Vigevano on the 20th day of March 1494.
-
-[Footnote: On one side there is an effaced sketch in red chalk.]
-
-1026.
-
-To lock up a butteris at Vigevano.
-
-1027.
-
-Again if the lowest part of the bank which lies across the current
-of the waters is made in deep and wide steps, after the manner of
-stairs, the waters which, in their course usually fall
-perpendicularly from the top of such a place to the bottom, and wear
-away the foundations of this bank can no longer descend with a blow
-of too great a force; and I find the example of this in the stairs
-down which the water falls in the fields at Sforzesca at Vigevano
-over which the running water falls for a height of 50 braccia.
-
-1028.
-
-Stair of Vigevano below La Sforzesca, 130 steps, 1/4 braccio high
-and 1/2 braccio wide, down which the water falls, so as not to wear
-away anything at the end of its fall; by these steps so much soil
-has come down that it has dried up a pool; that is to say it has
-filled it up and a pool of great depth has been turned into meadows.
-
-Notes on the North Italian lake. (1029-1033)
-
-1029.
-
-In many places there are streams of water which swell for six hours
-and ebb for six hours; and I, for my part, have seen one above the
-lake of Como called Fonte Pliniana, which increases and ebbs, as I
-have said, in such a way as to turn the stones of two mills; and
-when it fails it falls so low that it is like looking at water in a
-deep pit.
-
-[Footnote: The fountain is known by this name to this day: it is
-near Torno, on the Eastern shore of Como. The waters still rise and
-fall with the flow and ebb of the tide as Pliny described it (Epist.
-IV, 30; Hist. Nat. II, 206).]
-
-1030.
-
-LAKE OF COMO. VALLEY OF CHIAVENNA.
-
-Above the lake of Como towards Germany is the valley of Chiavenna
-where the river Mera flows into this lake. Here are barren and very
-high mountains, with huge rocks. Among these mountains are to be
-found the water-birds called gulls. Here grow fir trees, larches and
-pines. Deer, wildgoats, chamois, and terrible bears. It is
-impossible to climb them without using hands and feet. The peasants
-go there at the time of the snows with great snares to make the
-bears fall down these rocks. These mountains which very closely
-approach each other are parted by the river. They are to the right
-and left for the distance of 20 miles throughout of the same nature.
->From mile to mile there are good inns. Above on the said river there
-are waterfalls of 400 braccia in height, which are fine to see; and
-there is good living at 4 soldi the reckoning. This river brings
-down a great deal of timber.
-
-VAL SASINA.
-
-Val Sasina runs down towards Italy; this is almost the same form and
-character. There grow here many _mappello_ and there are great ruins
-and falls of water [Footnote 14: The meaning of _mappello_ is
-unknown.].
-
-VALLEY OF INTROZZO.
-
-This valley produces a great quantity of firs, pines and larches;
-and from here Ambrogio Fereri has his timber brought down; at the
-head of the Valtellina are the mountains of Bormio, terrible and
-always covered with snow; marmots (?) are found there.
-
-BELLAGGIO.
-
-Opposite the castle Bellaggio there is the river Latte, which falls
-from a height of more than 100 braccia from the source whence it
-springs, perpendicularly, into the lake with an inconceivable roar
-and noise. This spring flows only in August and September.
-
-VALTELLINA.
-
-Valtellina, as it is called, is a valley enclosed in high and
-terrible mountains; it produces much strong wine, and there is so
-much cattle that the natives conclude that more milk than wine grows
-there. This is the valley through which the Adda passes, which first
-runs more than 40 miles through Germany; this river breeds the fish
-_temolo_ which live on silver, of which much is to be found in its
-sands. In this country every one can sell bread and wine, and the
-wine is worth at most one soldo the bottle and a pound of veal one
-soldo, and salt ten dinari and butter the same and their pound is 30
-ounces, and eggs are one soldo the lot.
-
-1031.
-
-At BORMIO.
-
-At Bormio are the baths;--About eight miles above Como is the
-Pliniana, which increases and ebbs every six hours, and its swell
-supplies water for two mills; and its ebbing makes the spring dry
-up; two miles higher up there is Nesso, a place where a river falls
-with great violence into a vast rift in the mountain. These
-excursions are to be made in the month of May. And the largest bare
-rocks that are to be found in this part of the country are the
-mountains of Mandello near to those of Lecco, and of Gravidona
-towards Bellinzona, 30 miles from Lecco, and those of the valley of
-Chiavenna; but the greatest of all is that of Mandello, which has at
-its base an opening towards the lake, which goes down 200 steps, and
-there at all times is ice and wind.
-
-IN VAL SASINA.
-
-In Val Sasina, between Vimognio and Introbbio, to the right hand,
-going in by the road to Lecco, is the river Troggia which falls from
-a very high rock, and as it falls it goes underground and the river
-ends there. 3 miles farther we find the buildings of the mines of
-copper and silver near a place called Pra' Santo Pietro, and mines
-of iron and curious things. La Grigna is the highest mountain there
-is in this part, and it is quite bare.
-
-[Footnote: 1030 and 1031. From the character of the handwriting we
-may conclude that these observations were made in Leonardo's youth;
-and I should infer from their contents, that they were notes made in
-anticipation of a visit to the places here described, and derived
-from some person (unknown to us) who had given him an account of
-them.]
-
-1032.
-
-The lake of Pusiano flows into the lake of Segrino [Footnote 3: The
-statement about the lake Segrino is incorrect; it is situated in the
-Valle Assina, above the lake of Pusiano.] and of Annone and of Sala.
-The lake of Annone is 22 braccia higher at the surface of its water
-than the surface of the water of the lake of Lecco, and the lake of
-Pusiano is 20 braccia higher than the lake of Annone, which added to
-the afore said 22 braccia make 42 braccia and this is the greatest
-height of the surface of the lake of Pusiano above the surface of
-the lake of Lecco.
-
-[Footnote: This text has in the original a slight sketch to
-illustrate it.]
-
-1033.
-
-At Santa Maria in the Valley of Ravagnate [Footnote 2: _Ravagnate_
-(Leonardo writes _Ravagna_) in the Brianza is between Oggiono and
-Brivio, South of the lake of Como. M. Ravaisson avails himself of
-this note to prove his hypothesis that Leonardo paid two visits to
-France. See Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1881 pag. 528:
-
-_Au recto du meme feuillet, on lit encore une note relative a une
-vallee "nemonti brigatia"; il me semble qu'il s'agit bien des monts
-de Briancon, le Brigantio des anciens. Briancon est sur la route de
-Lyon en Italie. Ce fut par le mont Viso que passerent, en aout 1515,
-les troupes francaises qui allaient remporter la victoire de
-Marignan.
-
-Leonard de Vinci, ingenieur de Francois Ier, comme il l'avait ete de
-Louis XII, aurait-il ete pour quelque chose dans le plan du celebre
-passage des Alpes, qui eut lieu en aout 1515, et a la suite duquel
-on le vit accompagner partout le chevaleresque vainqueur? Auraitil
-ete appele par le jeune roi, de Rome ou l'artiste etait alors, des
-son avenement au trone?_] in the mountains of Brianza are the rods
-of chestnuts of 9 braccia and one out of an average of 100 will be
-14 braccia.
-
-At Varallo di Ponbia near to Sesto on the Ticino the quinces are
-white, large and hard.
-
-[Footnote 5: Varallo di Ponbia, about ten miles South of Arona is
-distinct from Varallo the chief town in the Val di Sesia.]
-
-Notes on places in Central Italy, visited in 1502 (1034-1054).
-
-1034.
-
-Pigeon-house at Urbino, the 30th day of July 1502. [Footnote: An
-indistinct sketch is introduced with this text, in the original, in
-which the word _Scolatoro_ (conduit) is written.]
-
-1035.
-
-Made by the sea at Piombino. [Footnote: Below the sketch there are
-eleven lines of text referring to the motion of waves.]
-
-1036.
-
-Acquapendente is near Orvieto. [Footnote: _Acquapendente_ is about
-10 miles West of Orvieto, and is to the right in the map on Pl.
-CXIII, near the lake of Bolsena.]
-
-1037.
-
-The rock of Cesena. [Footnote: See Pl. XCIV No. 1, the lower sketch.
-The explanation of the upper sketch is given on p. 29.]
-
-1038.
-
-Siena, _a b_ 4 braccia, _a c_ 10 braccia. Steps at [the castle of]
-Urbino. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3; compare also No. 765.]
-
-1039.
-
-The bell of Siena, that is the manner of its movement, and the place
-of the attachment of the clapper. [Footnote: The text is accompanied
-by an indistinct sketch.]
-
-1040.
-
-On St. Mary's day in the middle of August, at Cesena, 1502.
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 4.]
-
-1041.
-
-Stairs of the [palace of the] Count of Urbino,--rough. [Footnote:
-The text is accompanied by a slight sketch.]
-
-1042.
-
-At the fair of San Lorenzo at Cesena. 1502.
-
-1043.
-
-Windows at Cesena. [Footnote: There are four more lines of text
-which refer to a slightly sketched diagram.]
-
-1044.
-
-At Porto Cesenatico, on the 6th of September 1502 at 9 o'clock a. m.
-
-The way in which bastions ought to project beyond the walls of the
-towers to defend the outer talus; so that they may not be taken by
-artillery.
-
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch, accompanies this passage.]
-
-1045.
-
-The rock of the harbour of Cesena is four points towards the South
-West from Cesena.
-
-1046.
-
-In Romagna, the realm of all stupidity, vehicles with four wheels
-are used, of which O the two in front are small and two high ones
-are behind; an arrangement which is very unfavourable to the motion,
-because on the fore wheels more weight is laid than on those behind,
-as I showed in the first of the 5th on "Elements".
-
-1047.
-
-Thus grapes are carried at Cesena. The number of the diggers of the
-ditches is [arranged] pyramidically. [Footnote: A sketch,
-representing a hook to which two bunches of grapes are hanging,
-refers to these first two lines. Cesena is mentioned again Fol. 82a:
-_Carro da Cesena_ (a cart from Cesena).]
-
-1048.
-
-There might be a harmony of the different falls of water as you saw
-them at the fountain of Rimini on the 8th day of August, 1502.
-
-1049.
-
-The fortress at Urbino. [Footnote: 1049. In the original the text is
-written inside the sketch in the place here marked _n_.]
-
-1050.
-
-Imola, as regards Bologna, is five points from the West, towards the
-North West, at a distance of 20 miles.
-
-Castel San Piero is seen from Imola at four points from the West
-towards the North West, at a distance of 7 miles.
-
-Faenza stands with regard to Imola between East and South East at a
-distance of ten miles. Forli stands with regard to Faenza between
-South East and East at a distance of 20 miles from Imola and ten
-from Faenza.
-
-Forlimpopoli lies in the same direction at 25 miles from Imola.
-
-Bertinoro, as regards Imola, is five points from the East to wards
-the South East, at 27 miles.
-
-1051.
-
-Imola as regards Bologna is five points from the West towards the
-North West at a distance of 20 miles.
-
-Castel San Pietro lies exactly North West of Imola, at a distance of
-7 miles.
-
-Faenza, as regards Imola lies exactly half way between the East and
-South East at a distance of 10 miles; and Forli lies in the same
-direction from Imola at a distance of 20 miles; and Forlimpopolo
-lies in the same direction from Forli at a distance of 25 miles.
-
-Bertinoro is seen from Imola two points from the East towards the
-South East at a distance of 27 miles.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo inserted this passage on the margin of the
-circular plan, in water colour, of Imola--see Pl. CXI No. 1.--In the
-original the fields surrounding the town are light green; the moat,
-which surrounds the fortifications and the windings of the river
-Santerno, are light blue. The parts, which have come out blackish
-close to the river are yellow ochre in the original. The dark groups
-of houses inside the town are red. At the four points of the compass
-drawn in the middle of the town Leonardo has written (from right to
-left): _Mezzodi_ (South) at the top; to the left _Scirocho_ (South
-east), _levante_ (East), _Greco_ (North East), _Septantrione_
-(North), _Maesstro_ (North West), _ponente_ (West) _Libecco_ (South
-West). The arch in which the plan is drawn is, in the original, 42
-centimetres across.
-
-At the beginning of October 1502 Cesare Borgia was shut up in Imola
-by a sudden revolt of the Condottieri, and it was some weeks before
-he could release himself from this state of siege (see Gregorovius,
-_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, Vol. VII, Book XIII, 5,
-5).
-
-Besides this incident Imola plays no important part in the history
-of the time. I therefore think myself fully justified in connecting
-this map, which is at Windsor, with the siege of 1502 and with
-Leonardo's engagements in the service of Cesare Borgia, because a
-comparison of these texts, Nos. 1050 and 1051, raise, I believe, the
-hypothesis to a certainty.]
-
-1052.
-
->From Bonconventi to Casa Nova are 10 miles, from Casa Nova to Chiusi
-9 miles, from Chiusi to Perugia, from, Perugia to Santa Maria degli
-Angeli, and then to Fuligno. [Footnote: Most of the places here
-described lie within the district shown in the maps on Pl. CXIII.]
-
-1053.
-
-On the first of August 1502, the library at Pesaro.
-
-1054.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-On the tops and sides of hills foreshorten the shape of the ground
-and its divisions, but give its proper shape to what is turned
-towards you. [Footnote: This passage evidently refers to the making
-of maps, such as Pl. CXII, CXIII, and CXIV. There is no mention of
-such works, it is true, excepting in this one passage of MS. L. But
-this can scarcely be taken as evidence against my view that Leonardo
-busied himself very extensively at that time in the construction of
-maps; and all the less since the foregoing chapters clearly prove
-that at a time so full of events Leonardo would only now and then
-commit his observations to paper, in the MS. L.
-
-By the side of this text we find, in the original, a very indistinct
-sketch, perhaps a plan of a position. Instead of this drawing I have
-here inserted a much clearer sketch of a position from the same MS.,
-L. 82b and 83a. They are the only drawings of landscape, it may be
-noted, which occur at all in that MS.]
-
-Alessandria in Piedmont (1055. 1056).
-
-1055.
-
-At Candia in Lombardy, near Alessandria della Paglia, in making a
-well for Messer Gualtieri [Footnote 2: Messer Gualtieri, the same
-probably as is mentioned in Nos. 672 and 1344.] of Candia, the
-skeleton of a very large boat was found about 10 braccia
-underground; and as the timber was black and fine, it seemed good to
-the said Messer Gualtieri to have the mouth of the well lengthened
-in such a way as that the ends of the boat should be uncovered.
-
-1056.
-
-At Alessandria della Paglia in Lombardy there are no stones for
-making lime of, but such as are mixed up with an infinite variety of
-things native to the sea, which is now more than 200 miles away.
-
-The Alps (1057-1062).
-
-1057.
-
-At Monbracco, above Saluzzo,--a mile above the Certosa, at the foot
-of Monte Viso, there is a quarry of flakey stone, which is as white
-as Carrara marble, without a spot, and as hard as porphyry or even
-harder; of which my worthy gossip, Master Benedetto the sculptor,
-has promised to give me a small slab, for the colours, the second
-day of January 1511.
-
-[Footnote: Saluzzo at the foot of the Alps South of Turin.]
-
-[Footnote 9. 10.: _Maestro Benedetto scultore_; probably some native
-of Northern Italy acquainted with the place here described. Hardly
-the Florentine sculptor Benedetto da Majano. Amoretti had published
-this passage, and M. Ravaisson who gave a French translation of it
-in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1881, pag. 528), remarks as
-follows: _Le maitre sculpteur que Leonard appelle son "compare" ne
-serait-il pas Benedetto da Majano, un de ceux qui jugerent avec lui
-de la place a donner au David de Michel-Ange, et de qui le Louvre a
-acquis recemment un buste d'apres Philippe Strozzi?_ To this it may
-be objected that Benedetto da Majano had already lain in his grave
-fourteen years, in the year 1511, when he is supposed to have given
-the promise to Leonardo. The colours may have been given to the
-sculptor Benedetto and the stone may have been in payment for them.
->From the description of the stone here given we may conclude that it
-is repeated from hearsay of the sculptor's account of it. I do not
-understand how, from this observation, it is possible to conclude
-that Leonardo was on the spot.]
-
-1058.
-
-That there are springs which suddenly break forth in earthquakes or
-other convulsions and suddenly fail; and this happened in a mountain
-in Savoy where certain forests sank in and left a very deep gap, and
-about four miles from here the earth opened itself like a gulf in
-the mountain, and threw out a sudden and immense flood of water
-which scoured the whole of a little valley of the tilled soil,
-vineyards and houses, and did the greatest mischief, wherever it
-overflowed.
-
-1059.
-
-The river Arve, a quarter of a mile from Geneva in Savoy, where the
-fair is held on midsummerday in the village of Saint Gervais.
-
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch is to be seen by the text.]
-
-1060.
-
-And this may be seen, as I saw it, by any one going up Monbroso
-[Footnote: I have vainly enquired of every available authority for a
-solution of the mystery as to what mountain is intended by the name
-Monboso (Comp. Vol. I Nos. 300 and 301). It seems most obvious to
-refer it to Monte Rosa. ROSA derived from the Keltic ROS which
-survives in Breton and in Gaelic, meaning, in its first sense, a
-mountain spur, but which also--like HORN--means a very high peak;
-thus Monte Rosa would mean literally the High Peak.], a peak of the
-Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain gives
-birth to the 4 rivers which flow in four different directions
-through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base at so
-great a height as this, which lifts itself above almost all the
-clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
-when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
-that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
-clouds, which does not happen more than twice in an age, an enormous
-mass of ice would be piled up there by the layers of hail, and in
-the middle of July I found it very considerable; and I saw the sky
-above me quite dark, and the sun as it fell on the mountain was far
-brighter here than in the plains below, because a smaller extent of
-atmosphere lay between the summit of the mountain and the sun.
-[Footnote 6: _in una eta._ This is perhaps a slip of the pen on
-Leonardo's part and should be read _estate_ (summer).]
-
-Leic. 9b]
-
-1061.
-
-In the mountains of Verona the red marble is found all mixed with
-cockle shells turned into stone; some of them have been filled at
-the mouth with the cement which is the substance of the stone; and
-in some parts they have remained separate from the mass of the rock
-which enclosed them, because the outer covering of the shell had
-interposed and had not allowed them to unite with it; while in other
-places this cement had petrified those which were old and almost
-stripped the outer skin.
-
-1062.
-
-Bridge of Goertz-Wilbach (?).
-
-[Footnote: There is a slight sketch with this text, Leonardo seems
-to have intended to suggest, with a few pen-strokes, the course of
-the Isonzo and of the Wipbach in the vicinity of Gorizia (Goerz). He
-himself says in another place that he had been in Friuli (see No.
-1077 1. 19).]
-
-The Appenins (1063-1068).
-
-1063.
-
-That part of the earth which was lightest remained farthest from the
-centre of the world; and that part of the earth became the lightest
-over which the greatest quantity of water flowed. And therefore that
-part became lightest where the greatest number of rivers flow; like
-the Alps which divide Germany and France from Italy; whence issue
-the Rhone flowing Southwards, and the Rhine to the North. The Danube
-or Tanoia towards the North East, and the Po to the East, with
-innumerable rivers which join them, and which always run turbid with
-the soil carried by them to the sea.
-
-The shores of the sea are constantly moving towards the middle of
-the sea and displace it from its original position. The lowest
-portion of the Mediterranean will be reserved for the bed and
-current of the Nile, the largest river that flows into that sea. And
-with it are grouped all its tributaries, which at first fell into
-the sea; as may be seen with the Po and its tributaries, which first
-fell into that sea, which between the Appenines and the German Alps
-was united to the Adriatic sea.
-
-That the Gallic Alps are the highest part of Europe.
-
-1064.
-
-And of these I found some in the rocks of the high Appenines and
-mostly at the rock of La Vernia. [Footnote 6: _Sasso della Vernia._
-The frowning rock between the sources of the Arno and the Tiber, as
-Dante describes this mountain, which is 1269 metres in height.
-
-This note is written by the side of that given as No. 1020; but
-their connection does not make it clear what Leonardo's purpose was
-in writing it.]
-
-1065.
-
-At Parma, at 'La Campana' on the twenty-fifth of October 1514.
-[Footnote 2: _Capano_, an Inn.]
-
-A note on the petrifactions, or fossils near Parma will be found
-under No. 989.]
-
-1066.
-
-A method for drying the marsh of Piombino. [Footnote: There is a
-slight sketch with this text in the original.--Piombino is also
-mentioned in Nos. 609, l. 55-58 (compare Pl. XXXV, 3, below). Also
-in No. 1035.]
-
-1067.
-
-The shepherds in the Romagna at the foot of the Apennines make
-peculiar large cavities in the mountains in the form of a horn, and
-on one side they fasten a horn. This little horn becomes one and the
-same with the said cavity and thus they produce by blowing into it a
-very loud noise. [Footnote: As to the Romagna see also No. 1046.]
-
-1068.
-
-A spring may be seen to rise in Sicily which at certain times of the
-year throws out chesnut leaves in quantities; but in Sicily chesnuts
-do not grow, hence it is evident that that spring must issue from
-some abyss in Italy and then flow beneath the sea to break forth in
-Sicily. [Footnote: The chesnut tree is very common in Sicily. In
-writing _cicilia_ Leonardo meant perhaps Cilicia.]
-
-II.
-
-FRANCE.
-
-1069.
-
-   GERMANY.                     FRANCE.
-
-a. Austria,                 a. Picardy.
-b. Saxony.                  b. Normandy.
-c. Nuremberg.               c. Dauphine.
-d. Flanders.
-
-               SPAIN.
-
-            a. Biscay.
-            b. Castille.
-            c. Galicia.
-            d. Portugal.
-            e. Taragona.
-            f. Granada.
-
-[Footnote: Two slightly sketched maps, one of Europe the other of
-Spain, are at the side of these notes.]
-
-1070.
-
-Perpignan. Roanne. Lyons. Paris. Ghent. Bruges. Holland.
-
-[Footnote: _Roana_ does not seem to mean here Rouen in Normandy, but
-is probably Roanne (Rodumna) on the upper Loire, Lyonnais (Dep. du
-Loire). This town is now unimportant, but in Leonardo's time was
-still a place of some consequence.]
-
-1071.
-
-At Bordeaux in Gascony the sea rises about 40 braccia before its
-ebb, and the river there is filled with salt water for more than a
-hundred and fifty miles; and the vessels which are repaired there
-rest high and dry on a high hill above the sea at low tide.
-[Footnote 2: This is obviously an exaggeration founded on inaccurate
-information. Half of 150 miles would be nearer the mark.]
-
-1072.
-
-The Rhone issues from the lake of Geneva and flows first to the West
-and then to the South, with a course of 400 miles and pours its
-waters into the Mediterranean.
-
-1073.
-
-_c d_ is the garden at Blois; _a b_ is the conduit of Blois, made in
-France by Fra Giocondo, _b c_ is what is wanting in the height of
-that conduit, _c d_ is the height of the garden at Blois, _e f_ is
-the siphon of the conduit, _b c_, _e f_, _f g_ is where the siphon
-discharges into the river. [Footnote: The tenor of this note (see
-lines 2 and 3) seems to me to indicate that this passage was not
-written in France, but was written from oral information. We have no
-evidence as to when this note may have been written beyond the
-circumstance that Fra Giocondo the Veronese Architect left France
-not before the year 1505. The greater part of the magnificent
-Chateau of Blois has now disappeared. Whether this note was made for
-a special purpose is uncertain. The original form and extent of the
-Chateau is shown in Androvet, _Les plus excellents Bastiments de
-France, Paris MDCVII,_ and it may be observed that there is in the
-middle of the garden a Pavilion somewhat similar to that shown on
-Pl. LXXXVIII No. 7.
-
-See S. DE LA SAUSSAYE, _Histoire du Chateau de Blois 4eme edition
-Blois et Paris_ p. 175: _En mariant sa fille ainee a Francois, comte
-d'Angouleme, Louis XII lui avait constitue en dot les comtes de
-Blois, d'Asti, de Coucy, de Montfort, d'Etampes et de Vertus. Une
-ordonnance de Francois I. lui laissa en_ 1516 _l'administration du
-comte de Blois.
-
-Le roi fit commencer, dans la meme annee, les travaux de celle belle
-partie du chateau, connue sous le nom d'aile de Francois I, et dont
-nous avons donne la description au commencement de ce livre. Nous
-trouvons en effet, dans les archives du Baron de Foursanvault, une
-piece qui en fixe parfaitement la date. On y lit: "Je, Baymon
-Philippeaux, commis par le Roy a tenir le compte et fair le payement
-des bastiments, ediffices et reparacions que le dit seigneur fait
-faire en son chastu de Blois, confesse avoir eu et receu ... la
-somme de trois mille livres tournois ... le cinquieme jour de
-juillet, l'an mil cinq cent et seize._ P. 24: _Les jardins avaient
-ete decores avec beaucoup de luxe par les differents possesseurs du
-chateau. Il ne reste de tous les batiments qu'ils y eleverent que
-ceux des officiers charges de l'ad_ministration et de la culture des
-jardins, et un pavilion carre en pierre et en brique flanque de
-terrasses a chacun de ses angles. Quoique defigure par des mesures
-elevees sur les terrasses, cet edifice est tris-digne d'interet par
-l'originalite du plan, la decoration architecturale et le souvenir
-d'Anne de Bretagne qui le fit construire._ Felibien describes the
-garden as follows: _Le jardin haut etait fort bien dresse par grands
-compartimens de toutes sortes de figures, avec des allees de
-meuriers blancs et des palissades de coudriers. Deux grands berceaux
-de charpenterie separoient toute la longueur et la largeur du
-jardin, et dans les quatres angles des allees, ou ces berceaux se
-croissent, il y auoit 4 cabinets, de mesme charpenterie ... Il y a
-pas longtemps qu'il y auoit dans ce mesme jardin, a l'endroit ou se
-croissent les allees du milieu, un edifice de figure octogone, de
-plus de 7 thoises de diametre et de plus de neuf thoises de haut;
-avec 4 enfoncements en forme de niches dans les 4 angles des allies.
-Ce bastiment.... esloit de charpente mais d'un extraordinairement
-bien travaille. On y voyait particulierement la cordiliere qui
-regnati tout autour en forme de cordon. Car la Reyne affectait de la
-mettre nonseulement a ses armes et a ses chiffres mais de la faire
-representer en divers manieres dans tous les ouvrages qu'on lui
-faisait pour elle ... le bastiment estati couvert en forme de dome
-qui dans son milieu avait encore un plus petit dome, ou lanterne
-vitree au-dessus de laquelle estait une figure doree representant
-Saint Michel. Les deux domes estoient proprement couvert d'ardoise
-et de plomb dore par dehors; par dedans ils esloient lambrissez
-d'une menuiserie tres delicate. Au milieu de ce Salon il y avait un
-grand bassin octogone de marbre blanc, dont toutes les faces
-estoient enrichies de differentes sculptures, avec les armes et les
-chiffres du Roy Louis XII et de la Reine Anne, Dans ce bassin il y
-en avait un autre pose sur un piedestal lequel auoit sept piedz de
-diametre. Il estait de figure ronde a godrons, avec des masques et
-d'autres ornements tres scauamment taillez. Du milieu de ce
-deuxiesme bassin s'y levoit un autre petit piedestal qui portait un
-troisiesme bassin de trois pieds de diametre, aussy parfaitement
-bien taille; c'estoit de ce dernier bassin que jallissoit l'eau qui
-se rependoit en suitte dans les deux autres bassins. Les beaux
-ouvrages faits d'un marbre esgalement blanc et poli, furent brisez
-par la pesanteur de tout l'edifice, que les injures de l'air
-renverserent de fond en comble.]
-
-1074.
-
-The river Loire at Amboise.
-
-The river is higher within the bank _b d_ than outside that bank.
-
-The island where there is a part of Amboise.
-
-This is the river that passes through Amboise; it passes at _a b c
-d_, and when it has passed the bridge it turns back, against the
-original current, by the channel _d e_, _b f_ in contact with the
-bank which lies between the two contrary currents of the said river,
-_a b_, _c d_, and _d e_, _b f_. It then turns down again by the
-channel _f l_, _g h_, _n m_, and reunites with the river from which
-it was at first separated, which passes by _k n_, which makes _k m_,
-_r t_. But when the river is very full it flows all in one channel
-passing over the bank _b d_. [Footnote: See Pl. CXV. Lines 1-7 are
-above, lines 8-10 in the middle of the large island and the word
-_Isola_ is written above _d_ in the smaller island; _a_ is written
-on the margin on the bank of the river above 1. I; in the
-reproduction it is not visible. As may be seen from the last
-sentence, the observation was made after long study of the river's
-course, when Leonardo had resided for some time at, or near,
-Amboise.]
-
-1075.
-
-The water may be dammed up above the level of Romorantin to such a
-height, that in its fall it may be used for numerous mills.
-
-1075.
-
-The river at Villefranche may be conducted to Romorantin which may
-be done by the inhabitants; and the timber of which their houses are
-built may be carried in boats to Romorantin [Footnote: Compare No.
-744.]. The river may be dammed up at such a height that the waters
-may be brought back to Romorantin with a convenient fall.
-
-1076.
-
-As to whether it is better that the water should all be raised in a
-single turn or in two?
-
-The answer is that in one single turn the wheel could not support
-all the water that it can raise in two turns, because at the half
-turn of the wheel it would be raising 100 pounds and no more; and if
-it had to raise the whole, 200 pounds in one turn, it could not
-raise them unless the wheel were of double the diameter and if the
-diameter were doubled, the time of its revolution would be doubled;
-therefore it is better and a greater advantage in expense to make
-such a wheel of half the size (?) the land which it would water and
-would render the country fertile to supply food to the inhabitants,
-and would make navigable canals for mercantile purposes.
-
-The way in which the river in its flow should scour its own channel.
-
-By the ninth of the third; the more rapid it is, the more it wears
-away its channel; and, by the converse proposition, the slower the
-water the more it deposits that which renders it turbid.
-
-And let the sluice be movable like the one I arranged in Friuli
-[Footnote 19: This passage reveals to us the fact that Leonardo had
-visited the country of Friuli and that he had stayed there for some
-time. Nothing whatever was known of this previously.], where when
-one sluice was opened the water which passed through it dug out the
-bottom. Therefore when the rivers are flooded, the sluices of the
-mills ought to be opened in order that the whole course of the river
-may pass through falls to each mill; there should be many in order
-to give a greater impetus, and so all the river will be scoured. And
-below the site of each of the two mills there may be one of the said
-sluice falls; one of them may be placed below each mill.
-
-1078.
-
-A trabocco is four braccia, and one mile is three thousand of the
-said braccia. Each braccio is divided into 12 inches; and the water
-in the canals has a fall in every hundred trabocchi of two of these
-inches; therefore 14 inches of fall are necessary in two thousand
-eight hundred braccia of flow in these canals; it follows that 15
-inches of fall give the required momentum to the currents of the
-waters in the said canals, that is one braccio and a half in the
-mile. And from this it may be concluded that the water taken from
-the river of Ville-franche and lent to the river of Romorantin
-will..... Where one river by reason of its low level cannot flow
-into the other, it will be necessary to dam it up, so that it may
-acquire a fall into the other, which was previously the higher.
-
-The eve of Saint Antony I returned from Romorantin to Amboise, and
-the King went away two days before from Romorantin.
-
->From Romorantin as far as the bridge at Saudre it is called the
-Saudre, and from that bridge as far as Tours it is called the Cher.
-
-I would test the level of that channel which is to lead from the
-Loire to Romorantin, with a channel one braccio wide and one braccio
-deep.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 6-18 are partly reproduced in the facsimile on p.
-254, and the whole of lines 19-25.
-
-The following names are written along the rivers on the larger
-sketch, _era f_ (the Loire) _scier f_ (the Cher) three times. _Pote
-Sodro_ (bridge of the Soudre). _Villa francha_ (Villefranche)
-_banco_ (sandbank) _Sodro_ (Soudre). The circle below shows the
-position of Romorantin. The words '_orologio del sole_' written
-below do not belong to the map of the rivers. The following names
-are written by the side of the smaller sketch-map:--_tors_ (Tours),
-_Abosa_ (Amboise) _bres_--for Bles (Blois) _mo rica_ (Montrichard).
-_Lione_ (Lyons). This map was also published in the 'Saggio'
-(Milano, 1872) Pl. XXII, and the editors remark: _Forse la linia
-retta che va da Amboise a Romorantin segna l'andamento proposto d'un
-Canale, che poi rembra prolungarsi in giu fin dove sta scritto
-Lione._
-
-M. Ravaisson has enlarged on this idea in the Gazette des Beaux Arts
-(1881 p. 530): _Les traces de Leonard permettent d'entrevoir que le
-canal commencant soit aupres de Tours, soit aupres de Blois et
-passant par Romorantin, avec port d'embarquement a Villefranche,
-devait, au dela de Bourges, traverser l'Allier au-dessous des
-affluents de la Dore et de la Sioule, aller par Moulins jusqu' a
-Digoin; enfin, sur l'autre rive de la Loire, depasser les monts du
-Charolais et rejoindre la Saone aupres de Macon._ It seems to me
-rash, however, to found so elaborate an hypothesis on these sketches
-of rivers. The slight stroke going to _Lione_ is perhaps only an
-indication of the direction.--With regard to the Loire compare also
-No. 988. l. 38.]
-
-1079.
-
-THE ROAD TO ORLEANS
-
-At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/3 from the South to
-the South East. At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/5 from
-the South to the South East. Between the South West and South, to
-the East bearing to the South; from the South towards the East 1/8;
-thence to the West, between the South and South West; at the South.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning is obscure; a more important passage
-referring to France is to be found under No. 744]
-
-On the Germans (1080. 1081).
-
-1080.
-
-The way in which the Germans closing up together cross and
-interweave their broad leather shields against the enemy, stooping
-down and putting one of the ends on the ground while they hold the
-rest in their hand. [Footnote: Above the text is a sketch of a few
-lines crossing each other and the words _de ponderibus_. The meaning
-of the passage is obscure.]
-
-1081.
-
-The Germans are wont to annoy a garrison with the smoke of feathers,
-sulphur and realgar, and they make this smoke last 7 or 8 hours.
-Likewise the husks of wheat make a great and lasting smoke; and also
-dry dung; but this must be mixed with olive husks, that is olives
-pressed for oil and from which the oil has been extracted.
-[Footnote: There is with this passage a sketch of a round tower
-shrouded in smoke.]
-
-The Danube.
-
-1082.
-
-That the valleys were formerly in great part covered by lakes the
-soil of which always forms the banks of rivers,--and by seas, which
-afterwards, by the persistent wearing of the rivers, cut through the
-mountains and the wandering courses of the rivers carried away the
-other plains enclosed by the mountains; and the cutting away of the
-mountains is evident from the strata in the rocks, which correspond
-in their sections as made by the courses of the rivers [Footnote 4:
-_Emus_, the Balkan; _Dardania_, now Servia.], The Haemus mountains
-which go along Thrace and Dardania and join the Sardonius mountains
-which, going on to the westward change their name from Sardus to
-Rebi, as they come near Dalmatia; then turning to the West cross
-Illyria, now called Sclavonia, changing the name of Rebi to Albanus,
-and going on still to the West, they change to Mount Ocra in the
-North; and to the South above Istria they are named Caruancas; and
-to the West above Italy they join the Adula, where the Danube rises
-[8], which stretches to the East and has a course of 1500 miles; its
-shortest line is about l000 miles, and the same or about the same is
-that branch of the Adula mountains changed as to their name, as
-before mentioned. To the North are the Carpathians, closing in the
-breadth of the valley of the Danube, which, as I have said extends
-eastward, a length of about 1000 miles, and is sometimes 200 and in
-some places 300 miles wide; and in the midst flows the Danube, the
-principal river of Europe as to size. The said Danube runs through
-the middle of Austria and Albania and northwards through Bavaria,
-Poland, Hungary, Wallachia and Bosnia and then the Danube or Donau
-flows into the Black Sea, which formerly extended almost to Austria
-and occupied the plains through which the Danube now courses; and
-the evidence of this is in the oysters and cockle shells and
-scollops and bones of great fishes which are still to be found in
-many places on the sides of those mountains; and this sea was formed
-by the filling up of the spurs of the Adula mountains which then
-extended to the East joining the spurs of the Taurus which extend to
-the West. And near Bithynia the waters of this Black Sea poured into
-the Propontis [Marmora] falling into the Aegean Sea, that is the
-Mediterranean, where, after a long course, the spurs of the Adula
-mountains became separated from those of the Taurus. The Black Sea
-sank lower and laid bare the valley of the Danube with the above
-named countries, and the whole of Asia Minor beyond the Taurus range
-to the North, and the plains from mount Caucasus to the Black Sea to
-the West, and the plains of the Don this side--that is to say, at
-the foot of the Ural mountains. And thus the Black Sea must have
-sunk about 1000 braccia to uncover such vast plains.
-
-[Footnote 8: _Danubio_, in the original _Reno_; evidently a mistake
-as we may infer from _come dissi_ l. 10 &c.]
-
-III.
-
-THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN END OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
-
-The straits of Gibraltar (1083-1085).
-
-1083.
-
-WHY THE SEA MAKES A STRONGER CURRENT IN THE STRAITS OF SPAIN THAN
-ELSEWHERE.
-
-A river of equal depth runs with greater speed in a narrow space
-than in a wide one, in proportion to the difference between the
-wider and the narrower one.
-
-This proposition is clearly proved by reason confirmed by
-experiment. Supposing that through a channel one mile wide there
-flows one mile in length of water; where the river is five miles
-wide each of the 5 square miles will require 1/5 of itself to be
-equal to the square mile of water required in the sea, and where the
-river is 3 miles wide each of these square miles will require the
-third of its volume to make up the amount of the square mile of the
-narrow part; as is demonstrated in _f g h_ at the mile marked _n_.
-
-[Footnote: In the place marked A in the diagram _Mare Mediterano_
-(Mediterranean Sea) is written in the original. And at B, _stretto
-di Spugna_ (straits of Spain, _i.e._ Gibraltar). Compare No. 960.]
-
-1084.
-
-WHY THE CURRENT OF GIBRALTAR IS ALWAYS GREATER TO THE WEST THAN TO
-THE EAST.
-
-The reason is that if you put together the mouths of the rivers
-which discharge into the Mediterranean sea, you would find the sum
-of water to be larger than that which this sea pours through the
-straits into the ocean. You see Africa discharging its rivers that
-run northwards into this sea, and among them the Nile which runs
-through 3000 miles of Africa; there is also the Bagrada river and
-the Schelif and others. [Footnote 5: _Bagrada_ (Leonardo writes
-Bragada) in Tunis, now Medscherda; _Mavretano_, now Schelif.]
-Likewise Europe pours into it the Don and the Danube, the Po, the
-Rhone, the Arno, and the Tiber, so that evidently these rivers, with
-an infinite number of others of less fame, make its great breadth
-and depth and current; and the sea is not wider than 18 miles at the
-most westerly point of land where it divides Europe from Africa.
-
-1085.
-
-The gulf of the Mediterranean, as an inland sea, received the
-principal waters of Africa, Asia and Europe that flowed towards it;
-and its waters came up to the foot of the mountains that surrounded
-it and made its shores. And the summits of the Apennines stood up
-out of this sea like islands, surrounded by salt water. Africa
-again, behind its Atlas mountains did not expose uncovered to the
-sky the surface of its vast plains about 3000 miles in length, and
-Memphis [Footnote 6: _Mefi._ Leonardo can only mean here the citadel
-of Cairo on the Mokattam hills.] was on the shores of this sea, and
-above the plains of Italy, where now birds fly in flocks, fish were
-wont to wander in large shoals.
-
-1086.
-
-Tunis.
-
-The greatest ebb made anywhere by the Mediterranean is above Tunis,
-being about two and a half braccia and at Venice it falls two
-braccia. In all the rest of the Mediterranean sea the fall is little
-or none.
-
-1087.
-
-Libya.
-
-Describe the mountains of shifting deserts; that is to say the
-formation of waves of sand borne by the wind, and of its mountains
-and hills, such as occur in Libya. Examples may be seen on the wide
-sands of the Po and the Ticino, and other large rivers.
-
-1088.
-
-Majorca.
-
-Circumfulgore is a naval machine. It was an invention of the men of
-Majorca. [Footnote: The machine is fully described in the MS. and
-shown in a sketch.]
-
-1089.
-
-The Tyrrhene Sea.
-
-Some at the Tyrrhene sea employ this method; that is to say they
-fastened an anchor to one end of the yard, and to the other a cord,
-of which the lower end was fastened to an anchor; and in battle they
-flung this anchor on to the oars of the opponent's boat and by the
-use of a capstan drew it to the side; and threw soft soap and tow,
-daubed with pitch and set ablaze, on to that side where the anchor
-hung; so that in order to escape that fire, the defenders of that
-ship had to fly to the opposite side; and in doing this they aided
-to the attack, because the galley was more easily drawn to the side
-by reason of the counterpoise. [Footnote: This text is illustrated
-in the original by a pen and ink sketch.]
-
-IV.
-
-THE LEVANT.
-
-The Levantine Sea.
-
-1090.
-
-On the shores of the Mediterranean 300 rivers flow, and 40, 200
-ports. And this sea is 3000 miles long. Many times has the increase
-of its waters, heaped up by their backward flow and the blowing of
-the West winds, caused the overflow of the Nile and of the rivers
-which flow out through the Black Sea, and have so much raised the
-seas that they have spread with vast floods over many countries. And
-these floods take place at the time when the sun melts the snows on
-the high mountains of Ethiopia that rise up into the cold regions of
-the air; and in the same way the approach of the sun acts on the
-mountains of Sarmatia in Asia and on those in Europe; so that the
-gathering together of these three things are, and always have been,
-the cause of tremendous floods: that is, the return flow of the sea
-with the West wind and the melting of the snows. So every river will
-overflow in Syria, in Samaria, in Judea between Sinai and the
-Lebanon, and in the rest of Syria between the Lebanon and the Taurus
-mountains, and in Cilicia, in the Armenian mountains, and in
-Pamphilia and in Lycia within the hills, and in Egypt as far as the
-Atlas mountains. The gulf of Persia which was formerly a vast lake
-of the Tigris and discharged into the Indian Sea, has now worn away
-the mountains which formed its banks and laid them even with the
-level of the Indian ocean. And if the Mediterranean had continued
-its flow through the gulf of Arabia, it would have done the same,
-that is to say, would have reduced the level of the Mediterranean to
-that of the Indian Sea.
-
-The Red Sea. (1091. 1092).
-
-1091.
-
-For a long time the water of the Mediterranean flowed out through
-the Red Sea, which is 100 miles wide and 1500 long, and full of
-reefs; and it has worn away the sides of Mount Sinai, a fact which
-testifies, not to an inundation from the Indian sea beating on these
-coasts, but to a deluge of water which carried with it all the
-rivers which abound round the Mediterranean, and besides this there
-is the reflux of the sea; and then, a cutting being made to the West
-3000 miles away from this place, Gibraltar was separated from Ceuta,
-which had been joined to it. And this passage was cut very low down,
-in the plains between Gibraltar and the ocean at the foot of the
-mountain, in the low part, aided by the hollowing out of some
-valleys made by certain rivers, which might have flowed here.
-Hercules [Footnote 9: Leonardo seems here to mention Hercules half
-jestingly and only in order to suggest to the reader an allusion to
-the legend of the pillars of Hercules.] came to open the sea to the
-westward and then the sea waters began to pour into the Western
-Ocean; and in consequence of this great fall, the Red Sea remained
-the higher; whence the water, abandoning its course here, ever after
-poured away through the Straits of Spain.
-
-1092.
-
-The surface of the Red Sea is on a level with the ocean.
-
-A mountain may have fallen and closed the mouth of the Red Sea and
-prevented the outlet of the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean Sea
-thus overfilled had for outlet the passage below the mountains of
-Gades; for, in our own times a similar thing has been seen [Footnote
-6: Compare also No. 1336, ll. 30, 35 and 36.-- Paolo Giovio, the
-celebrated historian (born at Como in 1483) reports that in 1513 at
-the foot of the Alps, above Bellinzona, on the road to Switzerland,
-a mountain fell with a very great noise, in consequence of an
-earthquake, and that the mass of rocks, which fell on the left
-(Western) side blocked the river Breno (T. I p. 218 and 345 of D.
-Sauvage's French edition, quoted in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire des
-tremblements de terre de la peninsule italique; Academie Royale de
-Belgique._ T. XXII).--]; a mountain fell seven miles across a valley
-and closed it up and made a lake. And thus most lakes have been made
-by mountains, as the lake of Garda, the lakes of Como and Lugano,
-and the Lago Maggiore. The Mediterranean fell but little on the
-confines of Syria, in consequence of the Gaditanean passage, but a
-great deal in this passage, because before this cutting was made the
-Mediterranean sea flowed to the South East, and then the fall had to
-be made by its run through the Straits of Gades.
-
-At _a_ the water of the Mediterranean fell into the ocean.
-
-All the plains which lie between the sea and mountains were formerly
-covered with salt water.
-
-Every valley has been made by its own river; and the proportion
-between valleys is the same as that between river and river.
-
-The greatest river in our world is the Mediterranean river, which
-moves from the sources of the Nile to the Western ocean.
-
-And its greatest height is in Outer Mauritania and it has a course
-of ten thousand miles before it reunites with its ocean, the father
-of the waters.
-
-That is 3000 miles for the Mediterranean, 3000 for the Nile, as far
-as discovered and 3000 for the Nile which flows to the East, &c.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CXI 2, a sketch of the shores of the
-Mediterranean Sea, where lines 11 to 16 may be seen. The large
-figures 158 are not in Leonardo's writing. The character of the
-writing leads us to conclude that this text was written later than
-the foregoing. A slight sketch of the Mediterranean is also to be
-found in MS. I', 47a.]
-
-The Nile (1093-1098).
-
-1093.
-
-Therefore we must conclude those mountains to be of the greatest
-height, above which the clouds falling in snow give rise to the
-Nile.
-
-1094.
-
-The Egyptians, the Ethiopians, and the Arabs, in crossing the Nile
-with camels, are accustomed to attach two bags on the sides of the
-camel's bodies that is skins in the form shown underneath.
-
-In these four meshes of the net the camels for baggage place their
-feet.
-
-[Footnote: Unfortunately both the sketches which accompany this
-passage are too much effaced to be reproduced. The upper represents
-the two sacks joined by ropes, as here described, the other shows
-four camels with riders swimming through a river.]
-
-1095.
-
-The Tigris passes through Asia Minor and brings with it the water of
-three lakes, one after the other of various elevations; the first
-being Munace and the middle Pallas and the lowest Triton. And the
-Nile again springs from three very high lakes in Ethiopia, and runs
-northwards towards the sea of Egypt with a course of 4000 miles, and
-by the shortest and straightest line it is 3000 miles. It is said
-that it issues from the Mountains of the Moon, and has various
-unknown sources. The said lakes are about 4000 braccia above the
-surface of the sphere of water, that is 1 mile and 1/3, giving to
-the Nile a fall of 1 braccia in every mile.
-
-[Footnote 5: _Incogniti principio._ The affluents of the lakes are
-probably here intended. Compare, as to the Nile, Nos. 970, 1063 and
-1084.]
-
-1096.
-
-Very many times the Nile and other very large rivers have poured out
-their whole element of water and restored it to the sea.
-
-1097.
-
-Why does the inundation of the Nile occur in the summer, coming from
-torrid countries?
-
-1098.
-
-It is not denied that the Nile is constantly muddy in entering the
-Egyptian sea and that its turbidity is caused by soil that this
-river is continually bringing from the places it passes; which soil
-never returns in the sea which receives it, unless it throws it on
-its shores. You see the sandy desert beyond Mount Atlas where
-formerly it was covered with salt water.
-
-Customs of Asiatic Nations (1099. 1100).
-
-1099.
-
-The Assyrians and the people of Euboea accustom their horses to
-carry sacks which they can at pleasure fill with air, and which in
-case of need they carry instead of the girth of the saddle above and
-at the side, and they are well covered with plates of cuir bouilli,
-in order that they may not be perforated by flights of arrows. Thus
-they have not on their minds their security in flight, when the
-victory is uncertain; a horse thus equipped enables four or five men
-to cross over at need.
-
-1100.
-
-SMALL BOATS.
-
-The small boats used by the Assyrians were made of thin laths of
-willow plaited over rods also of willow, and bent into the form of a
-boat. They were daubed with fine mud soaked with oil or with
-turpentine, and reduced to a kind of mud which resisted the water
-and because pine would split; and always remained fresh; and they
-covered this sort of boats with the skins of oxen in safely crossing
-the river Sicuris of Spain, as is reported by Lucant; [Footnote 7:
-See Lucan's Pharsalia IV, 130: _Utque habuit ripas Sicoris camposque
-reliquit, Primum cana salix madefacto vimine parvam Texitur in
-puppim, calsoque inducto juvenco Vectoris patiens tumidum supernatat
-amnem. Sic Venetus stagnante Pado, fusoque Britannus Navigat oceano,
-sic cum tenet omnia Nilus, Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymbo papyro.
-His ratibus transjecta manus festinat utrimque Succisam cavare nemus
-]
-
-The Spaniards, the Scythians and the Arabs, when they want to make a
-bridge in haste, fix hurdlework made of willows on bags of ox-hide,
-and so cross in safety.
-
-Rhodes (1101. 1102).
-
-1101.
-
-In [fourteen hundred and] eighty nine there was an earthquake in the
-sea of Atalia near Rhodes, which opened the sea--that is its
-bottom--and into this opening such a torrent of water poured that
-for more than three hours the bottom of the sea was uncovered by
-reason of the water which was lost in it, and then it closed to the
-former level.
-
-[Footnote: _Nello ottanto_ 9. It is scarcely likely that Leonardo
-should here mean 89 AD. Dr. H. MULLER- STRUBING writes to me as
-follows on this subject: "With reference to Rhodes Ross says (_Reise
-auf den Griechischen Inseln, III_ 70 _ff_. 1840), that ancient
-history affords instances of severe earthquakes at Rhodes, among
-others one in the second year of the 138th Olympiad=270 B. C.; a
-remarkably violent one under Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) and
-again under Constantine and later. But Leonardo expressly speaks of
-an earthquake "_nel mar di Atalia presso a Rodi_", which is
-singular. The town of Attalia, founded by Attalus, which is what he
-no doubt means, was in Pamphylia and more than 150 English miles
-East of Rhodes in a straight line. Leake and most other geographers
-identify it with the present town of Adalia. Attalia is rarely
-mentioned by the ancients, indeed only by Strabo and Pliny and no
-earthquake is spoken of. I think therefore you are justified in
-assuming that Leonardo means 1489". In the elaborate catalogue of
-earthquakes in the East by Sciale Dshelal eddin Sayouthy (an
-unpublished Arabic MS. in the possession of Prof. SCHEFER, (Membre
-de l'Institut, Paris) mention is made of a terrible earthquake in
-the year 867 of the Mohamedan Era corresponding to the year 1489,
-and it is there stated that a hundred persons were killed by it in
-the fortress of Kerak. There are three places of this name. Kerak on
-the sea of Tiberias, Kerak near Tahle on the Libanon, which I
-visited in the summer of l876--but neither of these is the place
-alluded to. Possibly it may be the strongly fortified town of
-Kerak=Kir Moab, to the West of the Dead Sea. There is no notice
-about this in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire sur les tremblements de terres
-ressentis dans la peninsule turco- hellenique et en Syrie (Memoires
-couronnes et memoires des savants etrangers, Academie Royale de
-Belgique, Tome XXIII)._]
-
-1102.
-
-Rhodes has in it 5000 houses.
-
-Cyprus (1103. 1104).
-
-1103.
-
-SITE FOR [A TEMPLE OF] VENUS.
-
-You must make steps on four sides, by which to mount to a meadow
-formed by nature at the top of a rock which may be hollowed out and
-supported in front by pilasters and open underneath in a large
-portico,
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXIII. Compare also p. 33 of this Vol. The
-standing male figure at the side is evidently suggested by Michael
-Angelo's David. On the same place a slight sketch of horses seems to
-have been drawn first; there is no reason for assuming that the text
-and this sketch, which have no connection with each other, are of
-the same date.
-
-_Sito di Venere._ By this heading Leonardo appears to mean Cyprus,
-which was always considered by the ancients to be the home and birth
-place of Aphrodite (Kirpic in Homer).]
-
-in which the water may fall into various vases of granite,
-porphyryand serpentine, within semi-circular recesses; and the water
-may overflow from these. And round this portico towards the North
-there should be a lake with a little island in the midst of which
-should be a thick and shady wood; the waters at the top of the
-pilasters should pour into vases at their base, from whence they
-should flow in little channels.
-
-Starting from the shore of Cilicia towards the South you discover
-the beauties of the island of Cyprus.
-
-The Caspian Sea (1105. 1106).
-
-1104.
-
->From the shore of the Southern coast of Cilicia may be seen to the
-South the beautiful island of Cyprus, which was the realm of the
-goddess Venus, and many navigators being attracted by her beauty,
-had their ships and rigging broken amidst the reefs, surrounded by
-the whirling waters. Here the beauty of delightful hills tempts
-wandering mariners to refresh themselves amidst their flowery
-verdure, where the winds are tempered and fill the island and the
-surrounding seas with fragrant odours. Ah! how many a ship has here
-been sunk. Ah! how many a vessel broken on these rocks. Here might
-be seen barks without number, some wrecked and half covered by the
-sand; others showing the poop and another the prow, here a keel and
-there the ribs; and it seems like a day of judgment when there
-should be a resurrection of dead ships, so great is the number of
-them covering all the Northern shore; and while the North gale makes
-various and fearful noises there.
-
-1105.
-
-Write to Bartolomeo the Turk as to the flow and ebb of the Black
-sea, and whether he is aware if there be such a flow and ebb in the
-Hyrcanean or Caspian sea. [Footnote: The handwriting of this note
-points to a late date.]
-
-1106.
-
-WHY WATER IS FOUND AT THE TOP OF MOUNTAINS.
-
->From the straits of Gibraltar to the Don is 3500 miles, that is one
-mile and 1/6, giving a fall of one braccio in a mile to any water
-that moves gently. The Caspian sea is a great deal higher; and none
-of the mountains of Europe rise a mile above the surface of our
-seas; therefore it might be said that the water which is on the
-summits of our mountains might come from the height of those seas,
-and of the rivers which flow into them, and which are still higher.
-
-The sea of Azov.
-
-1107.
-
-Hence it follows that the sea of Azov is the highest part of the
-Mediterranean sea, being at a distance of 3500 miles from the
-Straits of Gibraltar, as is shown by the map for navigation; and it
-has 3500 braccia of descent, that is, one mile and 1/6; therefore it
-is higher than any mountains which exist in the West.
-
-[Footnote: The passage before this, in the original, treats of the
-exit of the waters from Lakes in general.]
-
-The Dardanelles.
-
-1108.
-
-In the Bosphorus the Black Sea flows always into the Egean sea, and
-the Egean sea never flows into it. And this is because the Caspian,
-which is 400 miles to the East, with the rivers which pour into it,
-always flows through subterranean caves into this sea of Pontus; and
-the Don does the same as well as the Danube, so that the waters of
-Pontus are always higher than those of the Egean; for the higher
-always fall towards the lower, and never the lower towards the
-higher.
-
-Constantinople.
-
-1109.
-
-The bridge of Pera at Constantinople, 40 braccia wide, 70 braccia
-high above the water, 600 braccia long; that is 400 over the sea and
-200 on the land, thus making its own abutments.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 1. In 1453 by order of Sultan Mohamed II.
-the Golden Horn was crossed by a pontoon bridge laid on barrels (see
-Joh. Dukas' History of the Byzantine Empire XXXVIII p. 279). --The
-biographers of Michelangelo, Vasari as well as Condivi, relate that
-at the time when Michelangelo suddenly left Rome, in 1506, he
-entertained some intention of going to Constantinople, there to
-serve the Sultan, who sought to engage him, by means of certain
-Franciscan Monks, for the purpose of constructing a bridge to
-connect Constantinople with Pera. See VASARI, _Vite_ (ed. Sansoni
-VII, 168): _Michelangelo, veduto questa furia del papa, dubitando di
-lui, ebbe, secondo che si dice, voglia di andarsene in
-Gostantinopoli a servire il Turco, per mezzo di certi frati di San
-Francesco, che desiderava averlo per fare un ponte che passassi da
-Gostantinopoli a Pera._ And CONDIVI, _Vita di M. Buonaroti chap._
-30_; Michelangelo allora vedendosi condotto a questo, temendo
-dell'ira del papa, penso d'andarsene in Levante; massimamente
-essendo stato dal Turco ricercato con grandissime promesse per mezzo
-di certi frati di San Francesco, per volersene servire in fare un
-ponte da Costantinopoli a Pera ed in altri affari._ Leonardo's plan
-for this bridge was made in 1502. We may therefore conclude that at
-about that time the Sultan Bajazet II. had either announced a
-competition in this matter, or that through his agents Leonardo had
-first been called upon to carry out the scheme.]
-
-The Euphrates.
-
-1110.
-
-If the river will turn to the rift farther on it will never return
-to its bed, as the Euphrates does, and this may do at Bologna the
-one who is disappointed for his rivers.
-
-Centrae Asia.
-
-1111.
-
-Mounts Caucasus, Comedorum, and Paropemisidae are joined together
-between Bactria and India, and give birth to the river Oxus which
-takes its rise in these mountains and flows 500 miles towards the
-North and as many towards the West, and discharges its waters into
-the Caspian sea; and is accompanied by the Oxus, Dargados, Arthamis,
-Xariaspes, Dargamaim, Ocus and Margus, all very large rivers. From
-the opposite side towards the South rises the great river Indus
-which sends its waters for 600 miles Southwards and receives as
-tributaries in this course the rivers Xaradrus, Hyphasis, Vadris,
-Vandabal Bislaspus to the East, Suastes and Coe to the West, uniting
-with these rivers, and with their waters it flows 800 miles to the
-West; then, turning back by the Arbiti mountains makes an elbow and
-turns Southwards, where after a course of about 100 miles it finds
-the Indian Sea, in which it pours itself by seven branches. On the
-side of the same mountains rises the great Ganges, which river flows
-Southwards for 500 miles and to the Southwest a thousand ... and
-Sarabas, Diarnuna, Soas and Scilo, Condranunda are its tributaries.
-It flows into the Indian sea by many mouths.
-
-On the natives of hot countries.
-
-1112.
-
-Men born in hot countries love the night because it refreshes them
-and have a horror of light because it burns them; and therefore they
-are of the colour of night, that is black. And in cold countries it
-is just the contrary.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch here inserted is in MS. H3 55b.]
-
-_XVIII._
-
-_Naval Warfare.--Mechanical Appliances.--Music._
-
-_Such theoretical questions, as have been laid before the reader in
-Sections XVI and XVII, though they were the chief subjects of
-Leonardo's studies of the sea, did not exclusively claim his
-attention. A few passages have been collected at the beginning of
-this section, which prove that he had turned his mind to the
-practical problems of navigation, and more especially of naval
-warfare. What we know for certain of his life gives us no data, it
-is true, as to when or where these matters came under his
-consideration; but the fact remains certain both from these notes in
-his manuscripts, and from the well known letter to Ludovico il Moro
-(No._ 1340_), in which he expressly states that he is as capable as
-any man, in this very department._
-
-_The numerous notes as to the laws and rationale of the flight of
-birds, are scattered through several note-books. An account of these
-is given in the Bibliography of the manuscripts at the end of this
-work. It seems probable that the idea which led him to these
-investigations was his desire to construct a flying or aerial
-machine for man. At the same time it must be admitted that the notes
-on the two subjects are quite unconnected in the manuscripts, and
-that those on the flight of birds are by far the most numerous and
-extensive. The two most important passages that treat of the
-construction of a flying machine are those already published as Tav.
-XVI, No._ 1 _and Tav. XVIII in the_ "Saggio delle opere di Leonardo
-da Vinci" _(Milan_ 1872_). The passages--Nos._ 1120-1125--_here
-printed for the first time and hitherto unknown--refer to the same
-subject and, with the exception of one already published in the
-Saggio-- No._ 1126--_they are, so far as I know, the only notes,
-among the numerous observations on the flight of birds, in which the
-phenomena are incidentally and expressly connected with the idea of
-a flying machine._
-
-_The notes on machines of war, the construction of fortifications,
-and similar matters which fall within the department of the
-Engineer, have not been included in this work, for the reasons given
-on page_ 26 _of this Vol. An exception has been made in favour of
-the passages Nos._ 1127 _and_ 1128, _because they have a more
-general interest, as bearing on the important question: whence the
-Master derived his knowledge of these matters. Though it would be
-rash to assert that Leonardo was the first to introduce the science
-of mining into Italy, it may be confidently said that he is one of
-the earliest writers who can be proved to have known and understood
-it; while, on the other hand, it is almost beyond doubt that in the
-East at that time, the whole science of besieging towns and mining
-in particular, was far more advanced than in Europe. This gives a
-peculiar value to the expressions used in No._ 1127.
-
-_I have been unable to find in the manuscripts any passage whatever
-which throws any light on Leonardo's great reputation as a musician.
-Nothing therein illustrates VASARPS well-known statement:_ Avvenne
-che morto Giovan Galeazze duca di Milano, e creato Lodovico Sforza
-nel grado medesimo anno 1494, fu condotto a Milano con gran
-riputazione Lionardo al duca, il quale molto si dilettava del suono
-della lira, perche sonasse; e Lionardo porto quello strumento
-ch'egli aveva di sua mano fabbricato d'argento gran parte, in forma
-d'un teschio di cavallo, cosa bizzarra e nuova, acciocche l'armonia
-fosse con maggior tuba e piu sonora di voce; laonde supero tutti i
-musici che quivi erano concorsi a sonare.
-
-_The only notes on musical matters are those given as Nos._ 1129
-_and_ 1130, _which explain certain arrangements in instruments._
-
-The ship's logs of Vitruvius, of Alberti and of Leonardo
-
-1113.
-
-ON MOVEMENTS;--TO KNOW HOW MUCH A SHIP ADVANCES IN AN HOUR.
-
-The ancients used various devices to ascertain the distance gone by
-a ship each hour, among which Vitruvius [Footnote 6: See VITRUVIUS,
-_De Architectura lib. X._ C. 14 (p. 264 in the edition of Rose and
-Muller- Strubing). The German edition published at Bale in 1543 has,
-on fol. 596, an illustration of the contrivance, as described by
-Vitruvius.] gives one in his work on Architecture which is just as
-fallacious as all the others; and this is a mill wheel which touches
-the waves of the sea at one end and in each complete revolution
-describes a straight line which represents the circumference of the
-wheel extended to a straightness. But this invention is of no worth
-excepting on the smooth and motionless surface of lakes. But if the
-water moves together with the ship at an equal rate, then the wheel
-remains motionless; and if the motion of the water is more or less
-rapid than that of the ship, then neither has the wheel the same
-motion as the ship so that this invention is of but little use.
-There is another method tried by experiment with a known distance
-between one island and another; and this is done by a board or under
-the pressure of wind which strikes on it with more or less
-swiftness. This is in Battista Alberti [Footnote 25: LEON BATTISTA
-ALBERTI, _De Architectura lib. V._, c. 12 treats '_de le navi e
-parti loro_', but there is no reference to the machine, mentioned by
-Leonardo. Alberti says here: _Noi abbiamo trattato lungamente in
-altro luogo de' modi de le navi, ma in questo luogo ne abbiamo detto
-quel tanto che si bisogna_. To this the following note is added in
-the most recent Italian edition: _Questo libro e tuttora inedito e
-porta il titolo, secondo Gesnero di_ '_Liber navis_'.].
-
-Battista Alberti's method which is made by experiment on a known
-distance between one island and another. But such an invention does
-not succeed excepting on a ship like the one on which the experiment
-was made, and it must be of the same burden and have the same sails,
-and the sails in the same places, and the size of the waves must be
-the same. But my method will serve for any ship, whether with oars
-or sails; and whether it be small or large, broad or long, or high
-or low, it always serves [Footnote 52: Leonardo does not reveal the
-method invented by him.].
-
-Methods of staying and moving in water
-
-1114.
-
-How an army ought to cross rivers by swimming with air-bags ... How
-fishes swim [Footnote 2: Compare No. 821.]; of the way in which they
-jump out of the water, as may be seen with dolphins; and it seems a
-wonderful thing to make a leap from a thing which does not resist
-but slips away. Of the swimming of animals of a long form, such as
-eels and the like. Of the mode of swimming against currents and in
-the rapid falls of rivers. Of the mode of swimming of fishes of a
-round form. How it is that animals which have not long hind quartres
-cannot swim. How it is that all other animals which have feet with
-toes, know by nature how to swim, excepting man. In what way man
-ought to learn to swim. Of the way in which man may rest on the
-water. How man may protect himself against whirlpools or eddies in
-the water, which drag him down. How a man dragged to the bottom must
-seek the reflux which will throw him up from the depths. How he
-ought to move his arms. How to swim on his back. How he can and how
-he cannot stay under water unless he can hold his breath [13]. How
-by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under
-water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under
-water, or how long I can stay without eating; and I do not publish
-nor divulge these by reason of the evil nature of men who would use
-them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea, by sending
-ships to the bottom, and sinking them together with the men in them.
-And although I will impart others, there is no danger in them;
-because the mouth of the tube, by which you breathe, is above the
-water supported on bags or corks [19].
-
-[Footnote: L. 13-19 will also be found in Vol. I No. 1.]
-
-On naval warfare (1115. 1116).
-
-1115.
-
-Supposing in a battle between ships and galleys that the ships are
-victorious by reason of the high of heir tops, you must haul the
-yard up almost to the top of the mast, and at the extremity of the
-yard, that is the end which is turned towards the enemy, have a
-small cage fastened, wrapped up below and all round in a great
-mattress full of cotton so that it may not be injured by the bombs;
-then, with the capstan, haul down the opposite end of this yard and
-the top on the opposite side will go up so high, that it will be far
-above the round-top of the ship, and you will easily drive out the
-men that are in it. But it is necessary that the men who are in the
-galley should go to the opposite side of it so as to afford a
-counterpoise to the weight of the men placed inside the cage on the
-yard.
-
-1116.
-
-If you want to build an armada for the sea employ these ships to ram
-in the enemy's ships. That is, make ships 100 feet long and 8 feet
-wide, but arranged so that the left hand rowers may have their oars
-to the right side of the ship, and the right hand ones to the left
-side, as is shown at M, so that the leverage of the oars may be
-longer. And the said ship may be one foot and a half thick, that is
-made with cross beams within and without, with planks in contrary
-directions. And this ship must have attached to it, a foot below the
-water, an iron-shod spike of about the weight and size of an anvil;
-and this, by force of oars may, after it has given the first blow,
-be drawn back, and driven forward again with fury give a second
-blow, and then a third, and so many as to destroy the other ship.
-
-The use of swimming belts.
-
-1117.
-
-A METHOD OF ESCAPING IN A TEMPEST AND SHIPWRECK AT SEA.
-
-Have a coat made of leather, which must be double across the breast,
-that is having a hem on each side of about a finger breadth. Thus it
-will be double from the waist to the knee; and the leather must be
-quite air-tight. When you want to leap into the sea, blow out the
-skirt of your coat through the double hems of the breast; and jump
-into the sea, and allow yourself to be carried by the waves; when
-you see no shore near, give your attention to the sea you are in,
-and always keep in your mouth the air-tube which leads down into the
-coat; and if now and again you require to take a breath of fresh
-air, and the foam prevents you, you may draw a breath of the air
-within the coat.
-
-[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_, Tav. II. B. Fig. 5, gives
-the same figure, somewhat altered. 6. _La canna dell' aria_. Compare
-Vol. I. No. I. Note]
-
-On the gravity of water.
-
-1118.
-
-If the weight of the sea bears on its bottom, a man, lying on that
-bottom and having l000 braccia of water on his back, would have
-enough to crush him.
-
-Diving apparatus and Skating (1119-1121).
-
-1119.
-
-Of walking under water. Method of walking on water.
-
-[Footnote: The two sketches belonging to this passage are given by
-AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_. Tav. II, Fig. 3 and 4.]
-
-1120.
-
-Just as on a frozen river a man may run without moving his feet, so
-a car might be made that would slide by itself.
-
-[Footnote: The drawings of carts by the side of this text have no
-direct connection with the problem as stated in words.--Compare No.
-1448, l. 17.]
-
-1121.
-
-A definition as to why a man who slides on ice does not fall.
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch accompanies the passage, in the
-original.]
-
-On Flying machines (1122-1126).
-
-1122.
-
-Man when flying must stand free from the waist upwards so as to be
-able to balance himself as he does in a boat so that the centre of
-gravity in himself and in the machine may counterbalance each other,
-and be shifted as necessity demands for the changes of its centre of
-resistance.
-
-1123.
-
-Remember that your flying machine must imitate no other than the
-bat, because the web is what by its union gives the armour, or
-strength to the wings.
-
-If you imitate the wings of feathered birds, you will find a much
-stronger structure, because they are pervious; that is, their
-feathers are separate and the air passes through them. But the bat
-is aided by the web that connects the whole and is not pervious.
-
-1124.
-
-TO ESCAPE THE PERIL OF DESTRUCTION.
-
-Destruction to such a machine may occur in two ways; of which the
-first is the breaking of the machine. The second would be when the
-machine should turn on its edge or nearly on its edge, because it
-ought always to descend in a highly oblique direction, and almost
-exactly balanced on its centre. As regards the first--the breaking
-of the machine--, that may be prevented by making it as strong as
-possible; and in whichever direction it may tend to turn over, one
-centre must be very far from the other; that is, in a machine 30
-braccia long the centres must be 4 braccia one from the other.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1428.]
-
-1125.
-
-Bags by which a man falling from a height of 6 braccia may avoid
-hurting himself, by a fall whether into water or on the ground; and
-these bags, strung together like a rosary, are to be fixed on one's
-back.
-
-1126.
-
-An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to
-the object. You may see that the beating of its wings against the
-air supports a heavy eagle in the highest and rarest atmosphere,
-close to the sphere of elemental fire. Again you may see the air in
-motion over the sea, fill the swelling sails and drive heavily laden
-ships. From these instances, and the reasons given, a man with wings
-large enough and duly connected might learn to overcome the
-resistance of the air, and by conquering it, succeed in subjugating
-it and rising above it. [Footnote: A parachute is here sketched,
-with an explanatory remark. It is reproduced on Tav. XVI in the
-Saggio, and in: _Leonardo da Vinci als Ingenieur etc., Ein Beitrag
-zur Geschichte der Technik und der induktiven Wissenschaften, von
-Dr. Hermann Grothe, Berlin_ 1874, p. 50.]
-
-Of mining.
-
-1127.
-
-If you want to know where a mine runs, place a drum over all the
-places where you suspect that it is being made, and upon this drum
-put a couple of dice, and when you are over the spot where they are
-mining, the dice will jump a little on the drum at every blow which
-is given underground in the mining.
-
-There are persons who, having the convenience of a river or a lake
-in their lands, have made, close to the place where they suspect
-that a mine is being made, a great reservoir of water, and have
-countermined the enemy, and having found them, have turned the water
-upon them and destroyed a great number in the mine.
-
-Of Greek fire.
-
-1128.
-
-GREEK FIRE.
-
-Take charcoal of willow, and saltpetre, and sulphuric acid, and
-sulphur, and pitch, with frankincense and camphor, and Ethiopian
-wool, and boil them all together. This fire is so ready to burn that
-it clings to the timbers even under water. And add to this
-composition liquid varnish, and bituminous oil, and turpentine and
-strong vinegar, and mix all together and dry it in the sun, or in an
-oven when the bread is taken out; and then stick it round hempen or
-other tow, moulding it into a round form, and studding it all over
-with very sharp nails. You must leave in this ball an opening to
-serve as a fusee, and cover it with rosin and sulphur.
-
-Again, this fire, stuck at the top of a long plank which has one
-braccio length of the end pointed with iron that it may not be burnt
-by the said fire, is good for avoiding and keeping off the ships, so
-as not to be overwhelmed by their onset.
-
-Again throw vessels of glass full of pitch on to the enemy's ships
-when the men in them are intent on the battle; and then by throwing
-similar burning balls upon them you have it in your power to burn
-all their ships.
-
-[Footnote: Venturi has given another short text about the Greek fire
-in a French translation (Essai Section XIV). He adds that the
-original text is to be found in MS. B. 30 (?). Libri speaks of it in
-a note as follows (_Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie
-Vol. II_ p. 129): _La composition du feu gregeois est une des chases
-qui ont ete les plus cherchees et qui sont encore les plus
-douteuses. On dit qu'il fut invente au septieme siecle de l'ere
-chretienne par l'architecte Callinique (Constantini Porphyrogenetae
-opera, Lugd. Batav._ 1617,-- _in-_8vo; p. 172, _de admin, imper.
-exp._ 48_), et il se trouve souvent mentionne par les Historiens
-Byzantins. Tantot on le langait avec des machines, comme on
-lancerait une banche, tantot on le soufflait avec de longs tubes,
-comme on soufflerait un gaz ou un liquide enflamme (Annae Comnenae
-Alexias_, p. 335, _lib. XI.--Aeliani et Leonis, imperatoris tactica,
-Lugd.-Bat._ 1613, _in_-4. part. 2 a, p. 322, _Leonis tact. cap._
-l9.--_Joinville, histoire du Saint Louis collect. Petitot tom. II,_
-p. 235). _Les ecrivains contemporains disent que l'eau ne pouvait
-pas eteindre ce feu, mais qu'avec du vinaigre et du sable on y
-parvenait. Suivant quelques historiens le feu gregeois etait compose
-de soufre et de resine. Marcus Graecus (Liber ignium, Paris,_ 1804,
-_in_-40_) donne plusieurs manieres de le faire qui ne sont pas tres
-intelligibles, mais parmi lesquelles on trouve la composition de la
-poudre a canon. Leonard de Vinci (MSS. de Leonard de Vinci, vol. B.
-f. 30,) dit qu'on le faisait avec du charbon de saule, du salpetre,
-de l'eau de vie, de la resine, du soufre, de la poix et du camphre.
-Mais il est probable que nous ne savons pas qu'elle etait sa
-composition, surtout a cause du secret qu'en faisaient les Grecs. En
-effet, l'empereur Constantin Porphyrogenete recommende a son fils de
-ne jamais en donner aux Barbares, et de leur repondre, s'ils en
-demandaient, qu'il avait ete apporti du ciel par un ange et que le
-secret en avait ete confie aux Chretiens (Constantini
-Porphyrogennetae opera,_ p. 26-27, _de admin. imper., cap. _12_)._]
-
-Of Music (1129. 1130).
-
-1129.
-
-A drum with cogs working by wheels with springs [2].
-
-[Footnote: This chapter consists of explanations of the sketches
-shown on Pl. CXXI. Lines 1 and 2 of the text are to be seen at the
-top at the left hand side of the first sketch of a drum. Lines 3-5
-refer to the sketch immediately below this. Line 6 is written as the
-side of the seventh sketch, and lines 7 and 8 at the side of the
-eighth. Lines 9-16 are at the bottom in the middle. The remainder of
-the text is at the side of the drawing at the bottom.]
-
-A square drum of which the parchment may be drawn tight or slackened
-by the lever _a b_ [5].
-
-A drum for harmony [6].
-
-[7] A clapper for harmony; that is, three clappers together.
-
-[9] Just as one and the same drum makes a deep or acute sound
-according as the parchments are more or less tightened, so these
-parchments variously tightened on one and the same drum will make
-various sounds [16].
-
-Keys narrow and close together; (bicchi) far apart; these will be
-right for the trumpet shown above.
-
-_a_ must enter in the place of the ordinary keys which have the ...
-in the openings of a flute.
-
-1130.
-
-Tymbals to be played like the monochord, or the soft flute.
-
-[6] Here there is to be a cylinder of cane after the manner of
-clappers with a musical round called a Canon, which is sung in four
-parts; each singer singing the whole round. Therefore I here make a
-wheel with 4 teeth so that each tooth takes by itself the part of a
-singer.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there are some more sketches, to which
-the text, from line 6, refers. They are studies for a contrivance
-exactly like the cylinder in our musical boxes.]
-
-1131.
-
-Of decorations.
-
-White and sky-blue cloths, woven in checks to make a decoration.
-
-Cloths with the threads drawn at _a b c d e f g h i k_, to go round
-the decoration.
-
-_XIX._
-
-_Philosophical Maxims. Morals. Polemics and Speculations_.
-
-_Vasari indulges in severe strictures on Leonardo's religious views.
-He speaks, among other things, of his_ "capricci nel filosofar delle
-cose naturali" _and says on this point:_ "Per il che fece nell'animo
-un concetto si eretico che e' non si accostava a qualsi voglia
-religione, stimando per avventura assai piu lo esser filosofo che
-cristiano" _(see the first edition of_ 'Le Vite'_). But this
-accusation on the part of a writer in the days of the Inquisition is
-not a very serious one--and the less so, since, throughout the
-manuscripts, we find nothing to support it._
-
-_Under the heading of "Philosophical Maxims" I have collected all
-the passages which can give us a clear comprehension of Leonardo's
-ideas of the world at large. It is scarcely necessary to observe
-that there is absolutely nothing in them to lead to the inference
-that he was an atheist. His views of nature and its laws are no
-doubt very unlike those of his contemporaries, and have a much
-closer affinity to those which find general acceptance at the
-present day. On the other hand, it is obvious from Leonardo's will
-(see No._ 1566_) that, in the year before his death, he had
-professed to adhere to the fundamental doctrines of the Roman
-Catholic faith, and this evidently from his own personal desire and
-impulse._
-
-_The incredible and demonstrably fictitious legend of Leonardo's
-death in the arms of Francis the First, is given, with others, by
-Vasari and further embellished by this odious comment:_ "Mostrava
-tuttavia quanto avea offeso Dio e gli uomini del mondo, non avendo
-operato nell'arte come si conveniva." _This last accusation, it may
-be remarked, is above all evidence of the superficial character of
-the information which Vasari was in a position to give about
-Leonardo. It seems to imply that Leonardo was disdainful of diligent
-labour. With regard to the second, referring to Leonardo's morality
-and dealings with his fellow men, Vasari himself nullifies it by
-asserting the very contrary in several passages. A further
-refutation may be found in the following sentence from the letter in
-which Melsi, the young Milanese nobleman, announces the Master's
-death to Leonardo's brothers:_ Credo siate certificati della morte
-di Maestro Lionardo fratello vostro, e mio quanto optimo padre, per
-la cui morte sarebbe impossibile che io potesse esprimere il dolore
-che io ho preso; e in mentre che queste mia membra si sosterranno
-insieme, io possedero una perpetua infelicita, e meritamente perche
-sviscerato et ardentissimo amore mi portava giornalmente. E dolto ad
-ognuno la perdita di tal uomo, quale non e piu in podesta della
-natura, ecc.
-
-_It is true that, in April_ 1476, _we find the names of Leonardo and
-Verrocchio entered in the_ "Libro degli Uffiziali di notte e de'
-Monasteri" _as breaking the laws; but we immediately after find the
-note_ "Absoluti cum condizione ut retamburentur" (Tamburini _was the
-name given to the warrant cases of the night police). The acquittal
-therefore did not exclude the possibility of a repetition of the
-charge. It was in fact repeated, two months later, and on this
-occasion the Master and his pupil were again fully acquitted.
-Verrocchio was at this time forty and Leonardo four-and-twenty. The
-documents referring to this affair are in the State Archives of
-Florence; they have been withheld from publication, but it seemed to
-me desirable to give the reader this brief account of the leading
-facts of the story, as the vague hints of it, which have recently
-been made public, may have given to the incident an aspect which it
-had not in reality, and which it does not deserve._
-
-_The passages here classed under the head "Morals" reveal Leonardo
-to us as a man whose life and conduct were unfailingly governed by
-lofty principles and aims. He could scarcely have recorded his stern
-reprobation and unmeasured contempt for men who do nothing useful
-and strive only for riches, if his own life and ambitions had been
-such as they have so often been misrepresented._
-
-_At a period like that, when superstition still exercised unlimited
-dominion over the minds not merely of the illiterate crowd, but of
-the cultivated and learned classes, it was very natural that
-Leonardo's views as to Alchemy, Ghosts, Magicians, and the like
-should be met with stern reprobation whenever and wherever he may
-have expressed them; this accounts for the argumentative tone of all
-his utterances on such subjects which I have collected in
-Subdivision III of this section. To these I have added some passages
-which throw light on Leonardo's personal views on the Universe. They
-are, without exception, characterised by a broad spirit of
-naturalism of which the principles are more strictly applied in his
-essays on Astronomy, and still more on Physical Geography._
-
-_To avoid repetition, only such notes on Philosophy, Morals and
-Polemics, have been included in this section as occur as independent
-texts in the original MSS. Several moral reflections have already
-been given in Vol. I, in section "Allegorical representations,
-Mottoes and Emblems". Others will be found in the following section.
-Nos._ 9 _to_ 12, _Vol. I, are also passages of an argumentative
-character. It did not seem requisite to repeat here these and
-similar passages, since their direct connection with the context is
-far closer in places where they have appeared already, than it would
-be here._
-
-I.
-
-PHILOSOPHICAL MAXIMS.
-
-Prayers to God (1132. 1133).
-
-1132.
-
-I obey Thee Lord, first for the love I ought, in all reason to bear
-Thee; secondly for that Thou canst shorten or prolong the lives of
-men.
-
-1133.
-
-A PRAYER.
-
-Thou, O God, dost sell us all good things at the price of labour.
-
-The powers of Nature (1134-1139).
-
-1134.
-
-O admirable impartiality of Thine, Thou first Mover; Thou hast not
-permitted that any force should fail of the order or quality of its
-necessary results.
-
-1135.
-
-Necessity is the mistress and guide of nature.
-
-Necessity is the theme and the inventress, the eternal curb and law
-of nature.
-
-1136.
-
-In many cases one and the same thing is attracted by two strong
-forces, namely Necessity and Potency. Water falls in rain; the earth
-absorbs it from the necessity for moisture; and the sun evaporates
-it, not from necessity, but by its power.
-
-1137.
-
-Weight, force and casual impulse, together with resistance, are the
-four external powers in which all the visible actions of mortals
-have their being and their end.
-
-1138.
-
-Our body is dependant on heaven and heaven on the Spirit.
-
-1139.
-
-The motive power is the cause of all life.
-
-Psychology (1140-1147).
-
-1140.
-
-And you, O Man, who will discern in this work of mine the wonderful
-works of Nature, if you think it would be a criminal thing to
-destroy it, reflect how much more criminal it is to take the life of
-a man; and if this, his external form, appears to thee marvellously
-constructed, remember that it is nothing as compared with the soul
-that dwells in that structure; for that indeed, be it what it may,
-is a thing divine. Leave it then to dwell in His work at His good
-will and pleasure, and let not your rage or malice destroy a
-life--for indeed, he who does not value it, does not himself deserve
-it [Footnote 19: In MS. II 15a is the note: _chi no stima la vita,
-non la merita._].
-
-[Footnote: This text is on the back of the drawings reproduced on
-Pl. CVII. Compare No. 798, 35 note on p. 111: Compare also No. 837
-and 838.]
-
-1141.
-
-The soul can never be corrupted with the corruption of the body,,
-but is in the body as it were the air which causes the sound of the
-organ, where when a pipe bursts, the wind would cease to have any
-good effect. [Footnote: Compare No. 845.]
-
-1142.
-
-The part always has a tendency to reunite with its whole in order to
-escape from its imperfection.
-
-The spirit desires to remain with its body, because, without the
-organic instruments of that body, it can neither act, nor feel
-anything.
-
-1143.
-
-If any one wishes to see how the soul dwells in its body, let him
-observe how this body uses its daily habitation; that is to say, if
-this is devoid of order and confused, the body will be kept in
-disorder and confusion by its soul.
-
-1144.
-
-Why does the eye see a thing more clearly in dreams than with the
-imagination being awake?
-
-1145.
-
-The senses are of the earth; Reason, stands apart in contemplation.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 842.]
-
-1146.
-
-Every action needs to be prompted by a motive.
-
-To know and to will are two operations of the human mind.
-
-Discerning, judging, deliberating are acts of the human mind.
-
-1147.
-
-All our knowledge has its origin in our preceptions.
-
-Science, its principles and rules (1148--1161)
-
-1148.
-
-Science is the observation of things possible, whether present or
-past; prescience is the knowledge of things which may come to pass,
-though but slowly.
-
-1149.
-
-Experience, the interpreter between formative nature and the human
-race, teaches how that nature acts among mortals; and being
-constrained by necessity cannot act otherwise than as reason, which
-is its helm, requires her to act.
-
-1150.
-
-Wisdom is the daughter of experience.
-
-1151.
-
-Nature is full of infinite causes that have never occured in
-experience.
-
-1152.
-
-Truth was the only daughter of Time.
-
-1153.
-
-Experience never errs; it is only your judgments that err by
-promising themselves effects such as are not caused by your
-experiments.
-
-Experience does not err; only your judgments err by expecting from
-her what is not in her power. Men wrongly complain of Experience;
-with great abuse they accuse her of leading them astray but they set
-Experience aside, turning from it with complaints as to our
-ignorance causing us to be carried away by vain and foolish desires
-to promise ourselves, in her name, things that are not in her power;
-saying that she is fallacious. Men are unjust in complaining of
-innocent Experience, constantly accusing her of error and of false
-evidence.
-
-1154.
-
-Instrumental or mechanical science is of all the noblest and the
-most useful, seeing that by means of this all animated bodies that
-have movement perform all their actions; and these movements are
-based on the centre of gravity which is placed in the middle
-dividing unequal weights, and it has dearth and wealth of muscles
-and also lever and counterlever.
-
-1155.
-
-OF MECHANICS.
-
-Mechanics are the Paradise of mathematical science, because here we
-come to the fruits of mathematics. [Footnote: Compare No. 660, 11.
-19--22 (Vol. I., p. 332). 1156.
-
-Every instrument requires to be made by experience.
-
-1157.
-
-The man who blames the supreme certainty of mathematics feeds on
-confusion, and can never silence the contradictions of sophistical
-sciences which lead to an eternal quackery.
-
-1158.
-
-There is no certainty in sciences where one of the mathematical
-sciences cannot be applied, or which are not in relation with these
-mathematics.
-
-1159.
-
-Any one who in discussion relies upon authority uses, not his
-understanding, but rather his memory. Good culture is born of a good
-disposition; and since the cause is more to be praised than the
-effect, I will rather praise a good disposition without culture,
-than good culture without the disposition.
-
-1160.
-
-Science is the captain, and practice the soldiers.
-
-1161.
-
-OF THE ERRORS OF THOSE WHO DEPEND ON PRACTICE WITHOUT SCIENCE.
-
-Those who fall in love with practice without science are like a
-sailor who enters a ship without a helm or a compass, and who never
-can be certain whither he is going.
-
-II.
-
-MORALS.
-
-What is life? (1162. 1163).
-
-1162.
-
-Now you see that the hope and the desire of returning home and to
-one's former state is like the moth to the light, and that the man
-who with constant longing awaits with joy each new spring time, each
-new summer, each new month and new year--deeming that the things he
-longs for are ever too late in coming--does not perceive that he is
-longing for his own destruction. But this desire is the very
-quintessence, the spirit of the elements, which finding itself
-imprisoned with the soul is ever longing to return from the human
-body to its giver. And you must know that this same longing is that
-quintessence, inseparable from nature, and that man is the image of
-the world.
-
-1163.
-
-O Time! consumer of all things; O envious age! thou dost destroy all
-things and devour all things with the relentless teeth of years,
-little by little in a slow death. Helen, when she looked in her
-mirror, seeing the withered wrinkles made in her face by old age,
-wept and wondered why she had twice been carried away.
-
-O Time! consumer of all things, and O envious age! by which all
-things are all devoured.
-
-Death.
-
-1164.
-
-Every evil leaves behind a grief in our memory, except the supreme
-evil, that is death, which destroys this memory together with life.
-
-How to spend life (1165-1170).
-
-1165.
-
-0 sleepers! what a thing is slumber! Sleep resembles death. Ah, why
-then dost thou not work in such wise as that after death thou mayst
-retain a resemblance to perfect life, when, during life, thou art in
-sleep so like to the hapless dead? [Footnote: Compare No. 676, Vol.
-I. p. 353.]
-
-1166.
-
-One pushes down the other.
-
-By these square-blocks are meant the life and the studies of men.
-
-1167.
-
-The knowledge of past times and of the places on the earth is both
-an ornament and nutriment to the human mind.
-
-1168.
-
-To lie is so vile, that even if it were in speaking well of godly
-things it would take off something from God's grace; and Truth is so
-excellent, that if it praises but small things they become noble.
-
-Beyond a doubt truth bears the same relation to falsehood as light
-to darkness; and this truth is in itself so excellent that, even
-when it dwells on humble and lowly matters, it is still infinitely
-above uncertainty and lies, disguised in high and lofty discourses;
-because in our minds, even if lying should be their fifth element,
-this does not prevent that the truth of things is the chief
-nutriment of superior intellects, though not of wandering wits.
-
-But you who live in dreams are better pleased by the sophistical
-reasons and frauds of wits in great and uncertain things, than by
-those reasons which are certain and natural and not so far above us.
-
-1169.
-
-Avoid studies of which the result dies with the worker.
-
-1170.
-
-Men are in error when they lament the flight of time, accusing it of
-being too swift, and not perceiving that it is sufficient as it
-passes; but good memory, with which nature has endowed us, causes
-things long past to seem present.
-
-1171.
-
-Learning acquired in youth arrests the evil of old age; and if you
-understand that old age has wisdom for its food, you will so conduct
-yourself in youth that your old age will not lack for nourishment.
-
-1172.
-
-The acquisition of any knowledge is always of use to the intellect,
-because it may thus drive out useless things and retain the good.
-
-For nothing can be loved or hated unless it is first known.
-
-1173.
-
-As a day well spent procures a happy sleep, so a life well employed
-procures a happy death.
-
-1174.
-
-The water you touch in a river is the last of that which has passed,
-and the first of that which is coming. Thus it is with time present.
-
-Life if well spent, is long.
-
-1175.
-
-Just as food eaten without caring for it is turned into loathsome
-nourishment, so study without a taste for it spoils memory, by
-retaining nothing which it has taken in.
-
-1176.
-
-Just as eating against one's will is injurious to health, so study
-without a liking for it spoils the memory, and it retains nothing it
-takes in.
-
-1177.
-
-On Mount Etna the words freeze in your mouth and you may make ice of
-them.[Footnote 2: There is no clue to explain this strange
-sentence.]
-
-Just as iron rusts unless it is used, and water putrifies or, in
-cold, turns to ice, so our intellect spoils unless it is kept in
-use.
-
-You do ill if you praise, and still worse if you reprove in a matter
-you do not understand.
-
-When Fortune comes, seize her in front with a sure hand, because
-behind she is bald.
-
-1178.
-
-It seems to me that men of coarse and clumsy habits and of small
-knowledge do not deserve such fine instruments nor so great a
-variety of natural mechanism as men of speculation and of great
-knowledge; but merely a sack in which their food may be stowed and
-whence it may issue, since they cannot be judged to be any thing
-else than vehicles for food; for it seems to me they have nothing
-about them of the human species but the voice and the figure, and
-for all the rest are much below beasts.
-
-1179.
-
-Some there are who are nothing else than a passage for food and
-augmentors of excrement and fillers of privies, because through them
-no other things in the world, nor any good effects are produced,
-since nothing but full privies results from them.
-
-On foolishness and ignorance (1180--1182).
-
-1180.
-
-The greatest deception men suffer is from their own opinions.
-
-1181.
-
-Folly is the shield of shame, as unreadiness is that of poverty
-glorified.
-
-1182.
-
-Blind ignorance misleads us thus and delights with the results of
-lascivious joys.
-
-Because it does not know the true light. Because it does not know
-what is the true light.
-
-Vain splendour takes from us the power of being .... behold! for its
-vain splendour we go into the fire, thus blind ignorance does
-mislead us. That is, blind ignorance so misleads us that ...
-
-O! wretched mortals, open your eyes.
-
-On riches (1183--1187).
-
-1183.
-
-That is not riches, which may be lost; virtue is our true good and
-the true reward of its possessor. That cannot be lost; that never
-deserts us, but when life leaves us. As to property and external
-riches, hold them with trembling; they often leave their possessor
-in contempt, and mocked at for having lost them.
-
-1184.
-
-Every man wishes to make money to give it to the doctors, destroyers
-of life; they then ought to be rich. [Footnote 2: Compare No. 856.]
-
-Man has much power of discourse which for the most part is vain and
-false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a
-small truth is better than a great lie.
-
-1185.
-
-He who possesses most must be most afraid of loss.
-
-1186.
-
-He who wishes to be rich in a day will be hanged in a year.
-
-1187.
-
-That man is of supreme folly who always wants for fear of wanting;
-and his life flies away while he is still hoping to enjoy the good
-things which he has with extreme labour acquired.
-
-Rules of Life (1188-1202).
-
-1188.
-
-If you governed your body by the rules of virtue you would not walk
-on all fours in this world.
-
-You grow in reputation like bread in the hands of a child.
-[Footnote: The first sentence is obscure. Compare Nos. 825, 826.]
-
-1189.
-
-Savage he is who saves himself.
-
-1190.
-
-We ought not to desire the impossible. [Footnote: The writing of
-this note, which is exceedingly minute, is reproduced in facsimile
-on Pl. XLI No. 5 above the first diagram.
-
-1191.
-
-Ask counsel of him who rules himself well.
-
-Justice requires power, insight, and will; and it resembles the
-queen-bee.
-
-He who does not punish evil commands it to be done.
-
-He who takes the snake by the tail will presently be bitten by it.
-
-The grave will fall in upon him who digs it.
-
-1192.
-
-The man who does not restrain wantonness, allies himself with
-beasts.
-
-You can have no dominion greater or less than that over yourself.
-
-He who thinks little, errs much.
-
-It is easier to contend with evil at the first than at the last.
-
-No counsel is more loyal than that given on ships which are in
-peril: He may expect loss who acts on the advice of an inexperienced
-youth.
-
-1193.
-
-Where there is most feeling, there is the greatest martyrdom;--a
-great martyr.
-
-1194.
-
-The memory of benefits is a frail defence against ingratitude.
-
-Reprove your friend in secret and praise him openly.
-
-Be not false about the past.
-
-1195.
-
-A SIMILE FOR PATIENCE.
-
-Patience serves us against insults precisely as clothes do against
-the cold. For if you multiply your garments as the cold increases,
-that cold cannot hurt you; in the same way increase your patience
-under great offences, and they cannot hurt your feelings.
-
-1196.
-
-To speak well of a base man is much the same as speaking ill of a
-good man.
-
-1197.
-
-Envy wounds with false accusations, that is with detraction, a thing
-which scares virtue.
-
-1198.
-
-We are deceived by promises and time disappoints us ... [Footnote 2:
-The rest of this passage may be rendered in various ways, but none
-of them give a satisfactory meaning.]
-
-1199.
-
-Fear arises sooner than any thing else.
-
-1200.
-
-Just as courage imperils life, fear protects it.
-
-Threats alone are the weapons of the threatened man.
-
-Wherever good fortune enters, envy lays siege to the place and
-attacks it; and when it departs, sorrow and repentance remain
-behind.
-
-He who walks straight rarely falls.
-
-It is bad if you praise, and worse if you reprove a thing, I mean,
-if you do not understand the matter well.
-
-It is ill to praise, and worse to reprimand in matters that you do
-not understand.
-
-1201.
-
-Words which do not satisfy the ear of the hearer weary him or vex
-him, and the symptoms of this you will often see in such hearers in
-their frequent yawns; you therefore, who speak before men whose good
-will you desire, when you see such an excess of fatigue, abridge
-your speech, or change your discourse; and if you do otherwise, then
-instead of the favour you desire, you will get dislike and
-hostility.
-
-And if you would see in what a man takes pleasure, without hearing
-him speak, change the subject of your discourse in talking to him,
-and when you presently see him intent, without yawning or wrinkling
-his brow or other actions of various kinds, you may be certain that
-the matter of which you are speaking is such as is agreeable to him
-&c.
-
-1202.
-
-The lover is moved by the beloved object as the senses are by
-sensible objects; and they unite and become one and the same thing.
-The work is the first thing born of this union; if the thing loved
-is base the lover becomes base.
-
-When the thing taken into union is perfectly adapted to that which
-receives it, the result is delight and pleasure and satisfaction.
-
-When that which loves is united to the thing beloved it can rest
-there; when the burden is laid down it finds rest there.
-
-Politics (1203. 1204).
-
-1203.
-
-There will be eternal fame also for the inhabitants of that town,
-constructed and enlarged by him.
-
-All communities obey and are led by their magnates, and these
-magnates ally themselves with the lords and subjugate them in two
-ways: either by consanguinity, or by fortune; by consanguinity, when
-their children are, as it were, hostages, and a security and pledge
-of their suspected fidelity; by property, when you make each of
-these build a house or two inside your city which may yield some
-revenue and he shall have...; 10 towns, five thousand houses with
-thirty thousand inhabitants, and you will disperse this great
-congregation of people which stand like goats one behind the other,
-filling every place with fetid smells and sowing seeds of pestilence
-and death;
-
-And the city will gain beauty worthy of its name and to you it will
-be useful by its revenues, and the eternal fame of its
-aggrandizement.
-
-[Footnote: These notes were possibly written in preparation for a
-letter. The meaning is obscure.]
-
-1204.
-
-To preserve Nature's chiefest boon, that is freedom, I can find
-means of offence and defence, when it is assailed by ambitious
-tyrants, and first I will speak of the situation of the walls, and
-also I shall show how communities can maintain their good and just
-Lords.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1266.]
-
-III.
-
-POLEMICS.--SPECULATION.
-
-Against Speculators (1205. 1206).
-
-1205.
-
-Oh! speculators on things, boast not of knowing the things that
-nature ordinarily brings about; but rejoice if you know the end of
-those things which you yourself devise.
-
-1206.
-
-Oh! speculators on perpetual motion how many vain projects of the
-like character you have created! Go and be the companions of the
-searchers for gold. [Footnote: Another short passage in MS. I,
-referring also to speculators, is given by LIBRI (_Hist, des
-Sciences math._ III, 228): _Sicche voi speculatori non vi fidate
-delli autori che anno sol col immaginatione voluto farsi interpreti
-tra la natura e l'omo, ma sol di quelli che non coi cienni della
-natura, ma cogli effetti delle sue esperienze anno esercitati i loro
-ingegni._]
-
-Against alchemists (1207. 1208).
-
-1207.
-
-The false interpreters of nature declare that quicksilver is the
-common seed of every metal, not remembering that nature varies the
-seed according to the variety of the things she desires to produce
-in the world.
-
-1208.
-
-And many have made a trade of delusions and false miracles,
-deceiving the stupid multitude.
-
-Against friars.
-
-1209.
-
-Pharisees--that is to say, friars.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 837, 11. 54-57, No. 1296 (p. 363 and 364),
-and No. 1305 (p. 370).]
-
-Against writers of epitomes.
-
-1210.
-
-Abbreviators do harm to knowledge and to love, seeing that the love
-of any thing is the offspring of this knowledge, the love being the
-more fervent in proportion as the knowledge is more certain. And
-this certainty is born of a complete knowledge of all the parts,
-which, when combined, compose the totality of the thing which ought
-to be loved. Of what use then is he who abridges the details of
-those matters of which he professes to give thorough information,
-while he leaves behind the chief part of the things of which the
-whole is composed? It is true that impatience, the mother of
-stupidity, praises brevity, as if such persons had not life long
-enough to serve them to acquire a complete knowledge of one single
-subject, such as the human body; and then they want to comprehend
-the mind of God in which the universe is included, weighing it
-minutely and mincing it into infinite parts, as if they had to
-dissect it!
-
-Oh! human stupidity, do you not perceive that, though you have been
-with yourself all your life, you are not yet aware of the thing you
-possess most of, that is of your folly? and then, with the crowd of
-sophists, you deceive yourselves and others, despising the
-mathematical sciences, in which truth dwells and the knowledge of
-the things included in them. And then you occupy yourself with
-miracles, and write that you possess information of those things of
-which the human mind is incapable and which cannot be proved by any
-instance from nature. And you fancy you have wrought miracles when
-you spoil a work of some speculative mind, and do not perceive that
-you are falling into the same error as that of a man who strips a
-tree of the ornament of its branches covered with leaves mingled
-with the scented blossoms or fruit....... [Footnote 48: _Givstino_,
-Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of the second century,
-who compiled an epitome from the general history written by Trogus
-Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus. The work of the latter
-writer no longer exist.] as Justinus did, in abridging the histories
-written by Trogus Pompeius, who had written in an ornate style all
-the worthy deeds of his forefathers, full of the most admirable and
-ornamental passages; and so composed a bald work worthy only of
-those impatient spirits, who fancy they are losing as much time as
-that which they employ usefully in studying the works of nature and
-the deeds of men. But these may remain in company of beasts; among
-their associates should be dogs and other animals full of rapine and
-they may hunt with them after...., and then follow helpless beasts,
-which in time of great snows come near to your houses asking alms as
-from their master....
-
-On spirits (1211--1213).
-
-1211.
-
-O mathematicians shed light on this error.
-
-The spirit has no voice, because where there is a voice there is a
-body, and where there is a body space is occupied, and this prevents
-the eye from seeing what is placed behind that space; hence the
-surrounding air is filled by the body, that is by its image.
-
-1212.
-
-There can be no voice where there is no motion or percussion of the
-air; there can be no percussion of the air where there is no
-instrument, there can be no instrument without a body; and this
-being so, a spirit can have neither voice, nor form, nor strength.
-And if it were to assume a body it could not penetrate nor enter
-where the passages are closed. And if any one should say that by
-air, compressed and compacted together, a spirit may take bodies of
-various forms and by this means speak and move with strength--to him
-I reply that when there are neither nerves nor bones there can be no
-force exercised in any kind of movement made by such imaginary
-spirits.
-
-Beware of the teaching of these speculators, because their reasoning
-is not confirmed by experience.
-
-1213.
-
-Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which
-deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which
-gives birth to simple and natural things. But it is all the more
-worthy of reprehension than alchemy, because it brings forth nothing
-but what is like itself, that is, lies; this does not happen in
-Alchemy which deals with simple products of nature and whose
-function cannot be exercised by nature itself, because it has no
-organic instruments with which it can work, as men do by means of
-their hands, who have produced, for instance, glass &c. but this
-Necromancy the flag and flying banner, blown by the winds, is the
-guide of the stupid crowd which is constantly witness to the
-dazzling and endless effects of this art; and there are books full,
-declaring that enchantments and spirits can work and speak without
-tongues and without organic instruments-- without which it is
-impossible to speak-- and can carry heaviest weights and raise
-storms and rain; and that men can be turned into cats and wolves and
-other beasts, although indeed it is those who affirm these things
-who first became beasts.
-
-And surely if this Necromancy did exist, as is believed by small
-wits, there is nothing on the earth that would be of so much
-importance alike for the detriment and service of men, if it were
-true that there were in such an art a power to disturb the calm
-serenity of the air, converting it into darkness and making
-coruscations or winds, with terrific thunder and lightnings rushing
-through the darkness, and with violent storms overthrowing high
-buildings and rooting up forests; and thus to oppose armies,
-crushing and annihilating them; and, besides these frightful storms
-may deprive the peasants of the reward of their labours.--Now what
-kind of warfare is there to hurt the enemy so much as to deprive him
-of the harvest? What naval warfare could be compared with this? I
-say, the man who has power to command the winds and to make ruinous
-gales by which any fleet may be submerged, --surely a man who could
-command such violent forces would be lord of the nations, and no
-human ingenuity could resist his crushing force. The hidden
-treasures and gems reposing in the body of the earth would all be
-made manifest to him. No lock nor fortress, though impregnable,
-would be able to save any one against the will of the necromancer.
-He would have himself carried through the air from East to West and
-through all the opposite sides of the universe. But why should I
-enlarge further upon this? What is there that could not be done by
-such a craftsman? Almost nothing, except to escape death. Hereby I
-have explained in part the mischief and the usefulness, contained in
-this art, if it is real; and if it is real why has it not remained
-among men who desire it so much, having nothing to do with any
-deity? For I know that there are numberless people who would, to
-satisfy a whim, destroy God and all the universe; and if this
-necromancy, being, as it were, so necessary to men, has not been
-left among them, it can never have existed, nor will it ever exist
-according to the definition of the spirit, which is invisible in
-substance; for within the elements there are no incorporate things,
-because where there is no body, there is a vacuum; and no vacuum can
-exist in the elements because it would be immediately filled up.
-Turn over.
-
-1214.
-
-OF SPIRITS.
-
-We have said, on the other side of this page, that the definition of
-a spirit is a power conjoined to a body; because it cannot move of
-its own accord, nor can it have any kind of motion in space; and if
-you were to say that it moves itself, this cannot be within the
-elements. For, if the spirit is an incorporeal quantity, this
-quantity is called a vacuum, and a vacuum does not exist in nature;
-and granting that one were formed, it would be immediately filled up
-by the rushing in of the element in which the vacuum had been
-generated. Therefore, from the definition of weight, which is
-this--Gravity is an accidental power, created by one element being
-drawn to or suspended in another--it follows that an element, not
-weighing anything compared with itself, has weight in the element
-above it and lighter than it; as we see that the parts of water have
-no gravity or levity compared with other water, but if you draw it
-up into the air, then it would acquire weight, and if you were to
-draw the air beneath the water then the water which remains above
-this air would acquire weight, which weight could not sustain itself
-by itself, whence collapse is inevitable. And this happens in water;
-wherever the vacuum may be in this water it will fall in; and this
-would happen with a spirit amid the elements, where it would
-continuously generate a vacuum in whatever element it might find
-itself, whence it would be inevitable that it should be constantly
-flying towards the sky until it had quitted these elements.
-
-AS TO WHETHER A SPIRIT HAS A BODY AMID THE ELEMENTS.
-
-We have proved that a spirit cannot exist of itself amid the
-elements without a body, nor can it move of itself by voluntary
-motion unless it be to rise upwards. But now we will say how such a
-spirit taking an aerial body would be inevitably melt into air;
-because if it remained united, it would be separated and fall to
-form a vacuum, as is said above; therefore it is inevitable, if it
-is to be able to remain suspended in the air, that it should absorb
-a certain quantity of air; and if it were mingled with the air, two
-difficulties arise; that is to say: It must rarefy that portion of
-the air with which it mingles; and for this cause the rarefied air
-must fly up of itself and will not remain among the air that is
-heavier than itself; and besides this the subtle spiritual essence
-disunites itself, and its nature is modified, by which that nature
-loses some of its first virtue. Added to these there is a third
-difficulty, and this is that such a body formed of air assumed by
-the spirits is exposed to the penetrating winds, which are
-incessantly sundering and dispersing the united portions of the air,
-revolving and whirling amidst the rest of the atmosphere; therefore
-the spirit which is infused in this
-
-1215.
-
-air would be dismembered or rent and broken up with the rending of
-the air into which it was incorporated.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT, HAVING TAKEN THIS BODY OF AIR, CAN MOVE OF
-ITSELF OR NOT.
-
-It is impossible that the spirit infused into a certain quantity of
-air, should move this air; and this is proved by the above passage
-where it is said: the spirit rarefies that portion of the air in
-which it incorporates itself; therefore this air will rise high
-above the other air and there will be a motion of the air caused by
-its lightness and not by a voluntary movement of the spirit, and if
-this air is encountered by the wind, according to the 3rd of this,
-the air will be moved by the wind and not by the spirit incorporated
-in it.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT CAN SPEAK OR NOT.
-
-In order to prove whether the spirit can speak or not, it is
-necessary in the first place to define what a voice is and how it is
-generated; and we will say that the voice is, as it were, the
-movement of air in friction against a dense body, or a dense body in
-friction against the air,--which is the same thing. And this
-friction of the dense and the rare condenses the rare and causes
-resistance; again, the rare, when in swift motion, and the rare in
-slow motion condense each other when they come in contact and make a
-noise and very great uproar; and the sound or murmur made by the
-rare moving through the rare with only moderate swiftness, like a
-great flame generating noises in the air; and the tremendous uproar
-made by the rare mingling with the rare, and when that air which is
-both swift and rare rushes into that which is itself rare and in
-motion, it is like the flame of fire which issues from a big gun and
-striking against the air; and again when a flame issues from the
-cloud, there is a concussion in the air as the bolt is generated.
-Therefore we may say that the spirit cannot produce a voice without
-movement of the air, and air in it there is none, nor can it emit
-what it has not; and if desires to move that air in which it is
-incorporated, it is necessary that the spirit should multiply
-itself, and that cannot multiply which has no quantity. And in the
-4th place it is said that no rare body can move, if it has not a
-stable spot, whence it may take its motion; much more is it so when
-an element has to move within its own element, which does not move
-of itself, excepting by uniform evaporation at the centre of the
-thing evaporated; as occurs in a sponge squeezed in the hand held
-under water; the water escapes in every direction with equal
-movement through the openings between the fingers of the hand in
-which it is squeezed.
-
-As to whether the spirit has an articulate voice, and whether the
-spirit can be heard, and what hearing is, and seeing; the wave of
-the voice passes through the air as the images of objects pass to
-the eye.
-
-Nonentity.
-
-1216.
-
-Every quantity is intellectually conceivable as infinitely
-divisible.
-
-[Amid the vastness of the things among which we live, the existence
-of nothingness holds the first place; its function extends over all
-things that have no existence, and its essence, as regards time,
-lies precisely between the past and the future, and has nothing in
-the present. This nothingness has the part equal to the whole, and
-the whole to the part, the divisible to the indivisible; and the
-product of the sum is the same whether we divide or multiply, and in
-addition as in subtraction; as is proved by arithmeticians by their
-tenth figure which represents zero; and its power has not extension
-among the things of Nature.]
-
-[What is called Nothingness is to be found only in time and in
-speech. In time it stands between the past and future and has no
-existence in the present; and thus in speech it is one of the things
-of which we say: They are not, or they are impossible.]
-
-With regard to time, nothingness lies between the past and the
-future, and has nothing to do with the present, and as to its nature
-it is to be classed among things impossible: hence, from what has
-been said, it has no existence; because where there is nothing there
-would necessarily be a vacuum.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 916.]
-
-Reflections on Nature (1217-1219).
-
-1217.
-
-EXAMPLE OF THE LIGHTNING IN CLOUDS.
-
-[O mighty and once living instrument of formative nature. Incapable
-of availing thyself of thy vast strength thou hast to abandon a life
-of stillness and to obey the law which God and time gave to
-procreative nature.]
-
-Ah! how many a time the shoals of terrified dolphins and the huge
-tunny-fish were seen to flee before thy cruel fury, to escape;
-whilst thy fulminations raised in the sea a sudden tempest with
-buffeting and submersion of ships in the great waves; and filling
-the uncovered shores with the terrified and desperate fishes which
-fled from thee, and left by the sea, remained in spots where they
-became the abundant prey of the people in the neighbourhood.
-
-O time, swift robber of all created things, how many kings, how many
-nations hast thou undone, and how many changes of states and of
-various events have happened since the wondrous forms of this fish
-perished here in this cavernous and winding recess. Now destroyed by
-time thou liest patiently in this confined space with bones stripped
-and bare; serving as a support and prop for the superimposed
-mountain.
-
-[Footnote: The character of the handwriting points to an early
-period of Leonardo's life. It has become very indistinct, and is at
-present exceedingly difficult to decipher. Some passages remain
-doubtful.]
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1339, written on the same sheet.]
-
-1218.
-
-The watery element was left enclosed between the raised banks of the
-rivers, and the sea was seen between the uplifted earth and the
-surrounding air which has to envelope and enclose the complicated
-machine of the earth, and whose mass, standing between the water and
-the element of fire, remained much restricted and deprived of its
-indispensable moisture; the rivers will be deprived of their waters,
-the fruitful earth will put forth no more her light verdure; the
-fields will no more be decked with waving corn; all the animals,
-finding no fresh grass for pasture, will die and food will then be
-lacking to the lions and wolves and other beasts of prey, and to men
-who after many efforts will be compelled to abandon their life, and
-the human race will die out. In this way the fertile and fruitful
-earth will remain deserted, arid and sterile from the water being
-shut up in its interior, and from the activity of nature it will
-continue a little time to increase until the cold and subtle air
-being gone, it will be forced to end with the element of fire; and
-then its surface will be left burnt up to cinder and this will be
-the end of all terrestrial nature. [Footnote: Compare No. 1339,
-written on the same sheet.]
-
-1219.
-
-Why did nature not ordain that one animal should not live by the
-death of another? Nature, being inconstant and taking pleasure in
-creating and making constantly new lives and forms, because she
-knows that her terrestrial materials become thereby augmented, is
-more ready and more swift in her creating, than time in his
-destruction; and so she has ordained that many animals shall be food
-for others. Nay, this not satisfying her desire, to the same end she
-frequently sends forth certain poisonous and pestilential vapours
-upon the vast increase and congregation of animals; and most of all
-upon men, who increase vastly because other animals do not feed upon
-them; and, the causes being removed, the effects would not follow.
-This earth therefore seeks to lose its life, desiring only continual
-reproduction; and as, by the argument you bring forward and
-demonstrate, like effects always follow like causes, animals are the
-image of the world.
-
-_XX._
-
-_Humorous Writings._
-
-_Just as Michaelangelo's occasional poems reflect his private life
-as well as the general disposition of his mind, we may find in the
-writings collected in this section, the transcript of Leonardo's
-fanciful nature, and we should probably not be far wrong in
-assuming, that he himself had recited these fables in the company of
-his friends or at the court festivals of princes and patrons._ Era
-tanto piacevole nella conversazione-- _so relates Vasari_--che
-tirava a se gli animi delle genti. _And Paulus Jovius says in his
-short biography of the artist:_ Fuit ingenio valde comi, nitido,
-liberali, vultu autem longe venustissimo, et cum elegantiae omnis
-deliciarumque maxime theatralium mirificus inventor ac arbiter
-esset, ad lyramque scito caneret, cunctis per omnem aetatem
-principibus mire placuit. _There can be no doubt that the fables are
-the original offspring of Leonardo's brain, and not borrowed from
-any foreign source; indeed the schemes and plans for the composition
-of fables collected in division V seem to afford an external proof
-of this, if the fables themselves did not render it self-evident.
-Several of them-- for instance No._ l279--_are so strikingly
-characteristic of Leonardo's views of natural science that we cannot
-do them justice till we are acquainted with his theories on such
-subjects; and this is equally true of the 'Prophecies'_.
-
-_I have prefixed to these quaint writings the 'Studies on the life
-and habits of animals' which are singular from their peculiar
-aphoristic style, and I have transcribed them in exactly the order
-in which they are written in MS. H. This is one of the very rare
-instances in which one subject is treated in a consecutive series of
-notes, all in one MS., and Leonardo has also departed from his
-ordinary habits, by occasionally not completing the text on the page
-it is begun. These brief notes of a somewhat mysterious bearing have
-been placed here, simply because they may possibly have been
-intended to serve as hints for fables or allegories. They can
-scarcely be regarded as preparatory for a natural history, rather
-they would seem to be extracts. On the one hand the names of some of
-the animals seem to prove that Leonardo could not here be recording
-observations of his own; on the other hand the notes on their habits
-and life appear to me to dwell precisely on what must have
-interested him most--so far as it is possible to form any complete
-estimate of his nature and tastes._
-
-_In No._ 1293 _lines_ 1-10, _we have a sketch of a scheme for
-grouping the Prophecies. I have not however availed myself of it as
-a clue to their arrangement here because, in the first place, the
-texts are not so numerous as to render the suggested classification
-useful to the reader, and, also, because in reading the long series,
-as they occur in the original, we may follow the author's mind; and
-here and there it is not difficult to see how one theme suggested
-another. I have however regarded Leonardo's scheme for the
-classification of the Prophecies as available for that of the Fables
-and Jests, and have adhered to it as far as possible._
-
-_Among the humourous writings I might perhaps have included the_
-'Rebusses', _of which there are several in the collection of
-Leonardo's drawings at Windsor; it seems to me not likely that many
-or all of them could be solved at the present day and the MSS. throw
-no light on them. Nor should I be justified if I intended to include
-in the literary works the well-known caricatures of human faces
-attributed to Leonardo-- of which, however, it may be incidentally
-observed, the greater number are in my opinion undoubtedly spurious.
-Two only have necessarily been given owing to their presence in
-text, which it was desired to reproduce: Vol. I page_ 326, _and Pl.
-CXXII. It can scarcely be doubted that some satirical intention is
-conveyed by the drawing on Pl. LXIV (text No. _688_).
-
-My reason for not presenting Leonardo to the reader as a poet is the
-fact that the maxims and morals in verse which have been ascribed to
-him, are not to be found in the manuscripts, and Prof. Uzielli has
-already proved that they cannot be by him. Hence it would seem that
-only a few short verses can be attributed to him with any
-certainty._
-
-I.
-
-STUDIES ON THE LIFE AND HABITS OF ANIMALS.
-
-1220.
-
-THE LOVE OF VIRTUE.
-
-The gold-finch is a bird of which it is related that, when it is
-carried into the presence of a sick person, if the sick man is going
-to die, the bird turns away its head and never looks at him; but if
-the sick man is to be saved the bird never loses sight of him but is
-the cause of curing him of all his sickness.
-
-Like unto this is the love of virtue. It never looks at any vile or
-base thing, but rather clings always to pure and virtuous things and
-takes up its abode in a noble heart; as the birds do in green woods
-on flowery branches. And this Love shows itself more in adversity
-than in prosperity; as light does, which shines most where the place
-is darkest.
-
-1221.
-
-ENVY.
-
-We read of the kite that, when it sees its young ones growing too
-big in the nest, out of envy it pecks their sides, and keeps them
-without food.
-
-CHEERFULNESS.
-
-Cheerfulness is proper to the cock, which rejoices over every little
-thing, and crows with varied and lively movements.
-
-SADNESS.
-
-Sadness resembles the raven, which, when it sees its young ones born
-white, departs in great grief, and abandons them with doleful
-lamentations, and does not feed them until it sees in them some few
-black feathers.
-
-1222.
-
-PEACE.
-
-We read of the beaver that when it is pursued, knowing that it is
-for the virtue [contained] in its medicinal testicles and not being
-able to escape, it stops; and to be at peace with its pursuers, it
-bites off its testicles with its sharp teeth, and leaves them to its
-enemies.
-
-RAGE.
-
-It is said of the bear that when it goes to the haunts of bees to
-take their honey, the bees having begun to sting him he leaves the
-honey and rushes to revenge himself. And as he seeks to be revenged
-on all those that sting him, he is revenged on none; in such wise
-that his rage is turned to madness, and he flings himself on the
-ground, vainly exasperating, by his hands and feet, the foes against
-which he is defending himself.
-
-1223.
-
-GRATITUDE.
-
-The virtue of gratitude is said to be more [developed] in the birds
-called hoopoes which, knowing the benefits of life and food, they
-have received from their father and their mother, when they see them
-grow old, make a nest for them and brood over them and feed them,
-and with their beaks pull out their old and shabby feathers; and
-then, with a certain herb restore their sight so that they return to
-a prosperous state.
-
-AVARICE.
-
-The toad feeds on earth and always remains lean; because it never
-eats enough:-- it is so afraid lest it should want for earth.
-
-1224.
-
-INGRATITUDE.
-
-Pigeons are a symbol of ingratitude; for when they are old enough no
-longer to need to be fed, they begin to fight with their father, and
-this struggle does not end until the young one drives the father out
-and takes the hen and makes her his own.
-
-CRUELTY.
-
-The basilisk is so utterly cruel that when it cannot kill animals by
-its baleful gaze, it turns upon herbs and plants, and fixing its
-gaze on them withers them up.
-
-1225.
-
-GENEROSITY.
-
-It is said of the eagle that it is never so hungry but that it will
-leave a part of its prey for the birds that are round it, which,
-being unable to provide their own food, are necessarily dependent on
-the eagle, since it is thus that they obtain food.
-
-DISCIPLINE.
-
-When the wolf goes cunningly round some stable of cattle, and by
-accident puts his foot in a trap, so that he makes a noise, he bites
-his foot off to punish himself for his folly.
-
-1226.
-
-FLATTERERS OR SYRENS.
-
-The syren sings so sweetly that she lulls the mariners to sleep;
-then she climbs upon the ships and kills the sleeping mariners.
-
-PRUDENCE.
-
-The ant, by her natural foresight provides in the summer for the
-winter, killing the seeds she harvests that they may not germinate,
-and on them, in due time she feeds.
-
-FOLLY.
-
-The wild bull having a horror of a red colour, the hunters dress up
-the trunk of a tree with red and the bull runs at this with great
-frenzy, thus fixing his horns, and forthwith the hunters kill him
-there.
-
-1227.
-
-JUSTICE.
-
-We may liken the virtue of Justice to the king of the bees which
-orders and arranges every thing with judgment. For some bees are
-ordered to go to the flowers, others are ordered to labour, others
-to fight with the wasps, others to clear away all dirt, others to
-accompagny and escort the king; and when he is old and has no wings
-they carry him. And if one of them fails in his duty, he is punished
-without reprieve.
-
-TRUTH.
-
-Although partridges steal each other's eggs, nevertheless the young
-born of these eggs always return to their true mother.
-
-1228.
-
-FIDELITY, OR LOYALTY.
-
-The cranes are so faithful and loyal to their king, that at night,
-when he is sleeping, some of them go round the field to keep watch
-at a distance; others remain near, each holding a stone in his foot,
-so that if sleep should overcome them, this stone would fall and
-make so much noise that they would wake up again. And there are
-others which sleep together round the king; and this they do every
-night, changing in turn so that their king may never find them
-wanting.
-
-FALSEHOOD.
-
-The fox when it sees a flock of herons or magpies or birds of that
-kind, suddenly flings himself on the ground with his mouth open to
-look as he were dead; and these birds want to peck at his tongue,
-and he bites off their heads.
-
-1229.
-
-LIES.
-
-The mole has very small eyes and it always lives under ground; and
-it lives as long as it is in the dark but when it comes into the
-light it dies immediately, because it becomes known;--and so it is
-with lies.
-
-VALOUR.
-
-The lion is never afraid, but rather fights with a bold spirit and
-savage onslaught against a multitude of hunters, always seeking to
-injure the first that injures him.
-
-FEAR OR COWARDICE.
-
-The hare is always frightened; and the leaves that fall from the
-trees in autumn always keep him in terror and generally put him to
-flight.
-
-1230.
-
-MAGNANIMITY.
-
-The falcon never preys but on large birds; and it will let itself
-die rather than feed on little ones, or eat stinking meat.
-
-VAIN GLORY.
-
-As regards this vice, we read that the peacock is more guilty of it
-than any other animal. For it is always contemplating the beauty of
-its tail, which it spreads in the form of a wheel, and by its cries
-attracts to itself the gaze of the creatures that surround it.
-
-And this is the last vice to be conquered.
-
-1231.
-
-CONSTANCY.
-
-Constancy may be symbolised by the phoenix which, knowing that by
-nature it must be resuscitated, has the constancy to endure the
-burning flames which consume it, and then it rises anew.
-
-INCONSTANCY.
-
-The swallow may serve for Inconstancy, for it is always in movement,
-since it cannot endure the smallest discomfort.
-
-CONTINENCE.
-
-The camel is the most lustful animal there is, and will follow the
-female for a thousand miles. But if you keep it constantly with its
-mother or sister it will leave them alone, so temperate is its
-nature.
-
-1232.
-
-INCONTINENCE.
-
-The unicorn, through its intemperance and not knowing how to control
-itself, for the love it bears to fair maidens forgets its ferocity
-and wildness; and laying aside all fear it will go up to a seated
-damsel and go to sleep in her lap, and thus the hunters take it.
-
-HUMILITY.
-
-We see the most striking example of humility in the lamb which will
-submit to any animal; and when they are given for food to imprisoned
-lions they are as gentle to them as to their own mother, so that
-very often it has been seen that the lions forbear to kill them.
-
-1233.
-
-PRIDE.
-
-The falcon, by reason of its haughtiness and pride, is fain to lord
-it and rule over all the other birds of prey, and longs to be sole
-and supreme; and very often the falcon has been seen to assault the
-eagle, the Queen of birds.
-
-ABSTINENCE.
-
-The wild ass, when it goes to the well to drink, and finds the water
-troubled, is never so thirsty but that it will abstain from
-drinking, and wait till the water is clear again.
-
-GLUTTONY.
-
-The vulture is so addicted to gluttony that it will go a thousand
-miles to eat a carrion [carcase]; therefore is it that it follows
-armies.
-
-1234.
-
-CHASTITY.
-
-The turtle-dove is never false to its mate; and if one dies the
-other preserves perpetual chastity, and never again sits on a green
-bough, nor ever again drinks of clear water.
-
-UNCHASTITY.
-
-The bat, owing to unbridled lust, observes no universal rule in
-pairing, but males with males and females with females pair
-promiscuously, as it may happen.
-
-MODERATION.
-
-The ermine out of moderation never eats but once in the day; it will
-rather let itself be taken by the hunters than take refuge in a
-dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity.
-
-1235.
-
-THE EAGLE.
-
-The eagle when it is old flies so high that it scorches its
-feathers, and Nature allowing that it should renew its youth, it
-falls into shallow water [Footnote 5: The meaning is obscure.]. And
-if its young ones cannot bear to gaze on the sun [Footnote 6: The
-meaning is obscure.]--; it does not feed them with any bird, that
-does not wish to die. Animals which much fear it do not approach its
-nest, although it does not hurt them. It always leaves part of its
-prey uneaten.
-
-LUMERPA,--FAME.
-
-This is found in Asia Major, and shines so brightly that it absorbs
-its own shadow, and when it dies it does not lose this light, and
-its feathers never fall out, but a feather pulled out shines no
-longer.
-
-1236.
-
-THE PELICAN.
-
-This bird has a great love for its young; and when it finds them in
-its nest dead from a serpent's bite, it pierces itself to the heart,
-and with its blood it bathes them till they return to life.
-
-THE SALAMANDER.
-
-This has no digestive organs, and gets no food but from the fire, in
-which it constantly renews its scaly skin.
-
-The salamander, which renews its scaly skin in the fire,--for
-virtue.
-
-THE CAMELEON.
-
-This lives on air, and there it is the prey of all the birds; so in
-order to be safer it flies above the clouds and finds an air so
-rarefied that it cannot support the bird that follows it.
-
-At that height nothing can go unless it has a gift from Heaven, and
-that is where the chameleon flies.
-
-1237.
-
-THE ALEPO, A FISH.
-
-The fish _alepo_ does not live out of water.
-
-THE OSTRICH.
-
-This bird converts iron into nourishment, and hatches its eggs by
-its gaze;--Armies under commanders.
-
-THE SWAN.
-
-The swan is white without any spot, and it sings sweetly as it dies,
-its life ending with that song.
-
-THE STORK.
-
-This bird, by drinking saltwater purges itself of distempers. If the
-male finds his mate unfaithful, he abandons her; and when it grows
-old its young ones brood over it, and feed it till it dies.
-
-1238.
-
-THE GRASSHOPPER.
-
-This silences the cuckoo with its song. It dies in oil and revives
-in vinegar. It sings in the greatest heats
-
-THE BAT.
-
-The more light there is the blinder this creature becomes; as those
-who gaze most at the sun become most dazzled.--For Vice, that cannot
-remain where Virtue appears.
-
-THE PARTRIDGE.
-
-This bird changes from the female into the male and forgets its
-former sex; and out of envy it steals the eggs from others and
-hatches them, but the young ones follow the true mother.
-
-THE SWALLOW.
-
-This bird gives sight to its blind young ones by means of celandine.
-
-1239.
-
-THE OYSTER.--FOR TREACHERY.
-
-This creature, when the moon is full opens itself wide, and when the
-crab looks in he throws in a piece of rock or seaweed and the oyster
-cannot close again, whereby it serves for food to that crab. This is
-what happens to him who opens his mouth to tell his secret. He
-becomes the prey of the treacherous hearer.
-
-THE BASILISK.--CRUELTY.
-
-All snakes flie from this creature; but the weasel attacks it by
-means of rue and kills it.
-
-THE ASP.
-
-This carries instantaneous death in its fangs; and, that it may not
-hear the charmer it stops its ears with its tail.
-
-1240.
-
-THE DRAGON.
-
-This creature entangles itself in the legs of the elephant which
-falls upon it, and so both die, and in its death it is avenged.
-
-THE VIPER.
-
-She, in pairing opens her mouth and at last clenches her teeth and
-kills her husband. Then the young ones, growing within her body rend
-her open and kill their mother.
-
-THE SCORPION.
-
-Saliva, spit out when fasting will kill a scorpion. This may be
-likened to abstinence from greediness, which removes and heals the
-ills which result from that gluttony, and opens the path of virtue.
-
-1241.
-
-THE CROCODILE. HYPOCRISY.
-
-This animal catches a man and straightway kills him; after he is
-dead, it weeps for him with a lamentable voice and many tears. Then,
-having done lamenting, it cruelly devours him. It is thus with the
-hypocrite, who, for the smallest matter, has his face bathed with
-tears, but shows the heart of a tiger and rejoices in his heart at
-the woes of others, while wearing a pitiful face.
-
-THE TOAD.
-
-The toad flies from the light of the sun, and if it is held there by
-force it puffs itself out so much as to hide its head below and
-shield itself from the rays. Thus does the foe of clear and radiant
-virtue, who can only be constrainedly brought to face it with puffed
-up courage.
-
-1242.
-
-THE CATERPILLAR.--FOR VIRTUE IN GENERAL.
-
-The caterpillar, which by means of assiduous care is able to weave
-round itself a new dwelling place with marvellous artifice and fine
-workmanship, comes out of it afterwards with painted and lovely
-wings, with which it rises towards Heaven.
-
-THE SPIDER.
-
-The spider brings forth out of herself the delicate and ingenious
-web, which makes her a return by the prey it takes.
-
-[Footnote: Two notes are underneath this text. The first: _'nessuna
-chosa e da ttemere piu che lla sozza fama'_ is a repetition of the
-first line of the text given in Vol. I No. 695.
-
-The second: _faticha fugga cholla fama in braccio quasi ochultata c_
-is written in red chalk and is evidently an incomplete sentence.]
-
-1243.
-
-THE LION.
-
-This animal, with his thundering roar, rouses his young the third
-day after they are born, teaching them the use of all their dormant
-senses and all the wild things which are in the wood flee away.
-
-This may be compared to the children of Virtue who are roused by the
-sound of praise and grow up in honourable studies, by which they are
-more and more elevated; while all that is base flies at the sound,
-shunning those who are virtuous.
-
-Again, the lion covers over its foot tracks, so that the way it has
-gone may not be known to its enemies. Thus it beseems a captain to
-conceal the secrets of his mind so that the enemy may not know his
-purpose.
-
-1244.
-
-THE TARANTULA.
-
-The bite of the tarantula fixes a man's mind on one idea; that is on
-the thing he was thinking of when he was bitten.
-
-THE SCREECH-OWL AND THE OWL.
-
-These punish those who are scoffing at them by pecking out their
-eyes; for nature has so ordered it, that they may thus be fed.
-
-1245.
-
-THE ELEPHANT.
-
-The huge elephant has by nature what is rarely found in man; that is
-Honesty, Prudence, Justice, and the Observance of Religion; inasmuch
-as when the moon is new, these beasts go down to the rivers, and
-there, solemnly cleansing themselves, they bathe, and so, having
-saluted the planet, return to the woods. And when they are ill,
-being laid down, they fling up plants towards Heaven as though they
-would offer sacrifice. --They bury their tusks when they fall out
-from old age.--Of these two tusks they use one to dig up roots for
-food; but they save the point of the other for fighting with; when
-they are taken by hunters and when worn out by fatigue, they dig up
-these buried tusks and ransom themselves.
-
-1246.
-
-They are merciful, and know the dangers, and if one finds a man
-alone and lost, he kindly puts him back in the road he has missed,
-if he finds the footprints of the man before the man himself. It
-dreads betrayal, so it stops and blows, pointing it out to the other
-elephants who form in a troop and go warily.
-
-These beasts always go in troops, and the oldest goes in front and
-the second in age remains the last, and thus they enclose the troop.
-Out of shame they pair only at night and secretly, nor do they then
-rejoin the herd but first bathe in the river. The females do not
-fight as with other animals; and it is so merciful that it is most
-unwilling by nature ever to hurt those weaker than itself. And if it
-meets in the middle of its way a flock of sheep
-
-1247.
-
-it puts them aside with its trunk, so as not to trample them under
-foot; and it never hurts any thing unless when provoked. When one
-has fallen into a pit the others fill up the pit with branches,
-earth and stones, thus raising the bottom that he may easily get
-out. They greatly dread the noise of swine and fly in confusion,
-doing no less harm then, with their feet, to their own kind than to
-the enemy. They delight in rivers and are always wandering about
-near them, though on account of their great weight they cannot swim.
-They devour stones, and the trunks of trees are their favourite
-food. They have a horror of rats. Flies delight in their smell and
-settle on their back, and the beast scrapes its skin making its
-folds even and kills them.
-
-1248.
-
-When they cross rivers they send their young ones up against the
-stream of the water; thus, being set towards the fall, they break
-the united current of the water so that the current does not carry
-them away. The dragon flings itself under the elephant's body, and
-with its tail it ties its legs; with its wings and with its arms it
-also clings round its ribs and cuts its throat with its teeth, and
-the elephant falls upon it and the dragon is burst. Thus, in its
-death it is revenged on its foe.
-
-THE DRAGON.
-
-These go in companies together, and they twine themselves after the
-manner of roots, and with their heads raised they cross lakes, and
-swim to where they find better pasture; and if they did not thus
-combine
-
-1249.
-
-they would be drowned, therefore they combine.
-
-THE SERPENT.
-
-The serpent is a very large animal. When it sees a bird in the air
-it draws in its breath so strongly that it draws the birds into its
-mouth too. Marcus Regulus, the consul of the Roman army was
-attacked, with his army, by such an animal and almost defeated. And
-this animal, being killed by a catapult, measured 123 feet, that is
-64 1/2 braccia and its head was high above all the trees in a wood.
-
-THE BOA(?)
-
-This is a very large snake which entangles itself round the legs of
-the cow so that it cannot move and then sucks it, in such wise that
-it almost dries it up. In the time of Claudius the Emperor, there
-was killed, on the Vatican Hill,
-
-1250.
-
-one which had inside it a boy, entire, that it had swallowed.
-
-THE MACLI.--CAUGHT WHEN ASLEEP.
-
-This beast is born in Scandinavia. It has the shape of a great
-horse, excepting that the great length of its neck and of its ears
-make a difference. It feeds on grass, going backwards, for it has so
-long an upper lip that if it went forwards it would cover up the
-grass. Its legs are all in one piece; for this reason when it wants
-to sleep it leans against a tree, and the hunters, spying out the
-place where it is wont to sleep, saw the tree almost through, and
-then, when it leans against it to sleep, in its sleep it falls, and
-thus the hunters take it. And every other mode of taking it is in
-vain, because it is incredibly swift in running.
-
-1251.
-
-THE BISON WHICH DOES INJURY IN ITS FLIGHT.
-
-This beast is a native of Paeonia and has a neck with a mane like a
-horse. In all its other parts it is like a bull, excepting that its
-horns are in a way bent inwards so that it cannot butt; hence it has
-no safety but in flight, in which it flings out its excrement to a
-distance of 400 braccia in its course, and this burns like fire
-wherever it touches.
-
-LIONS, PARDS, PANTHERS, TIGERS.
-
-These keep their claws in the sheath, and never put them out unless
-they are on the back of their prey or their enemy.
-
-THE LIONESS.
-
-When the lioness defends her young from the hand of the hunter, in
-order not to be frightened by the spears she keeps her eyes on the
-ground, to the end that she may not by her flight leave her young
-ones prisoners.
-
-1252.
-
-THE LION.
-
-This animal, which is so terrible, fears nothing more than the noise
-of empty carts, and likewise the crowing of cocks. And it is much
-terrified at the sight of one, and looks at its comb with a
-frightened aspect, and is strangely alarmed when its face is
-covered.
-
-THE PANTHER IN AFRICA.
-
-This has the form of the lioness but it is taller on its legs and
-slimmer and long bodied; and it is all white and marked with black
-spots after the manner of rosettes; and all animals delight to look
-upon these rosettes, and they would always be standing round it if
-it were not for the terror of its face;
-
-1253.
-
-therefore knowing this, it hides its face, and the surrounding
-animals grow bold and come close, the better to enjoy the sight of
-so much beauty; when suddenly it seizes the nearest and at once
-devours it.
-
-CAMELS.
-
-The Bactrian have two humps; the Arabian one only. They are swift in
-battle and most useful to carry burdens. This animal is extremely
-observant of rule and measure, for it will not move if it has a
-greater weight than it is used to, and if it is taken too far it
-does the same, and suddenly stops and so the merchants are obliged
-to lodge there.
-
-1254.
-
-THE TIGER.
-
-This beast is a native of Hyrcania, and it is something like the
-panther from the various spots on its skin. It is an animal of
-terrible swiftness; the hunter when he finds its young ones carries
-them off hastily, placing mirrors in the place whence he takes them,
-and at once escapes on a swift horse. The panther returning finds
-the mirrors fixed on the ground and looking into them believes it
-sees its young; then scratching with its paws it discovers the
-cheat. Forthwith, by means of the scent of its young, it follows the
-hunter, and when this hunter sees the tigress he drops one of the
-young ones and she takes it, and having carried it to the den she
-immediately returns to the hunter and does
-
-1255.
-
-the same till he gets into his boat.
-
-CATOBLEPAS.
-
-It is found in Ethiopia near to the source Nigricapo. It is not a
-very large animal, is sluggish in all its parts, and its head is so
-large that it carries it with difficulty, in such wise that it
-always droops towards the ground; otherwise it would be a great pest
-to man, for any one on whom it fixes its eyes dies immediately.
-[Footnote: Leonardo undoubtedly derived these remarks as to the
-Catoblepas from Pliny, Hist. Nat. VIII. 21 (al. 32): _Apud Hesperios
-Aethiopas fons est Nigris_ (different readings), _ut plerique
-existimavere, Nili caput.-----Juxta hunc fera appellatur catoblepas,
-modica alioquin, ceterisque membris iners, caput tantum praegrave
-aegre ferens; alias internecio humani generis, omnibus qui oculos
-ejus videre, confestim morientibus._ Aelian, _Hist. An._ gives a far
-more minute description of the creature, but he says that it poisons
-beasts not by its gaze, but by its venomous breath. Athenaeus 221 B,
-mentions both. If Leonardo had known of these two passages, he would
-scarcely have omitted the poisonous breath. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
-
-THE BASILISK.
-
-This is found in the province of Cyrenaica and is not more than 12
-fingers long. It has on its head a white spot after the fashion of a
-diadem. It scares all serpents with its whistling. It resembles a
-snake, but does not move by wriggling but from the centre forwards
-to the right. It is said that one
-
-1256.
-
-of these, being killed with a spear by one who was on horse-back,
-and its venom flowing on the spear, not only the man but the horse
-also died. It spoils the wheat and not only that which it touches,
-but where it breathes the grass dries and the stones are split.
-
-THE WEASEL.
-
-This beast finding the lair of the basilisk kills it with the smell
-of its urine, and this smell, indeed, often kills the weasel itself.
-
-THE CERASTES.
-
-This has four movable little horns; so, when it wants to feed, it
-hides under leaves all of its body except these little horns which,
-as they move, seem to the birds to be some small worms at play. Then
-they immediately swoop down to pick them and the Cerastes suddenly
-twines round them and encircles and devours them.
-
-1257.
-
-THE AMPHISBOENA.
-
-This has two heads, one in its proper place the other at the tail;
-as if one place were not enough from which to fling its venom.
-
-THE IACULUS.
-
-This lies on trees, and flings itself down like a dart, and pierces
-through the wild beast and kills them.
-
-THE ASP.
-
-The bite of this animal cannot be cured unless by immediately
-cutting out the bitten part. This pestilential animal has such a
-love for its mate that they always go in company. And if, by mishap,
-one of them is killed the other, with incredible swiftness, follows
-him who has killed it; and it is so determined and eager for
-vengeance that it overcomes every difficulty, and passing by every
-troop it seeks to hurt none but its enemy. And it will travel any
-distance, and it is impossible to avoid it unless by crossing water
-and by very swift flight. It has its eyes turned inwards, and large
-ears and it hears better than it sees.
-
-1258.
-
-THE ICHNEUMON.
-
-This animal is the mortal enemy of the asp. It is a native of Egypt
-and when it sees an asp near its place, it runs at once to the bed
-or mud of the Nile and with this makes itself muddy all over, then
-it dries itself in the sun, smears itself again with mud, and thus,
-drying one after the other, it makes itself three or four coatings
-like a coat of mail. Then it attacks the asp, and fights well with
-him, so that, taking its time it catches him in the throat and
-destroys him.
-
-THE CROCODILE.
-
-This is found in the Nile, it has four feet and lives on land and in
-water. No other terrestrial creature but this is found to have no
-tongue, and it only bites by moving its upper jaw. It grows to a
-length of forty feet and has claws and is armed with a hide that
-will take any blow. By day it is on land and at night in the water.
-It feeds on fishes, and going to sleep on the bank of the Nile with
-its mouth open, a bird called
-
-1259.
-
-trochilus, a very small bird, runs at once to its mouth and hops
-among its teeth and goes pecking out the remains of the food, and so
-inciting it with voluptuous delight tempts it to open the whole of
-its mouth, and so it sleeps. This being observed by the ichneumon it
-flings itself into its mouth and perforates its stomach and bowels,
-and finally kills it.
-
-THE DOLPHIN.
-
-Nature has given such knowledge to animals, that besides the
-consciousness of their own advantages they know the disadvantages of
-their foes. Thus the dolphin understands what strength lies in a cut
-from the fins placed on his chine, and how tender is the belly of
-the crocodile; hence in fighting with him it thrusts at him from
-beneath and rips up his belly and so kills him.
-
-The crocodile is a terror to those that flee, and a base coward to
-those that pursue him.
-
-1260.
-
-THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.
-
-This beast when it feels itself over-full goes about seeking thorns,
-or where there may be the remains of canes that have been split, and
-it rubs against them till a vein is opened; then when the blood has
-flowed as much as he needs, he plasters himself with mud and heals
-the wound. In form he is something like a horse with long haunches,
-a twisted tail and the teeth of a wild boar, his neck has a mane;
-the skin cannot be pierced, unless when he is bathing; he feeds on
-plants in the fields and goes into them backwards so that it may
-seem, as though he had come out.
-
-THE IBIS.
-
-This bird resembles a crane, and when it feels itself ill it fills
-its craw with water, and with its beak makes an injection of it.
-
-THE STAG.
-
-These creatures when they feel themselves bitten by the spider
-called father-long-legs, eat crabs and free themselves of the venom.
-
-1261.
-
-THE LIZARD.
-
-This, when fighting with serpents eats the sow-thistle and is free.
-
-THE SWALLOW.
-
-This [bird] gives sight to its blind young ones, with the juice of
-the celandine.
-
-THE WEASEL.
-
-This, when chasing rats first eats of rue.
-
-THE WILD BOAR.
-
-This beast cures its sickness by eating of ivy.
-
-THE SNAKE.
-
-This creature when it wants to renew itself casts its old skin,
-beginning with the head, and changing in one day and one night.
-
-THE PANTHER.
-
-This beast after its bowels have fallen out will still fight with
-the dogs and hunters.
-
-1262.
-
-THE CHAMELEON.
-
-This creature always takes the colour of the thing on which it is
-resting, whence it is often devoured together with the leaves on
-which the elephant feeds.
-
-THE RAVEN.
-
-When it has killed the Chameleon it takes laurel as a purge.
-
-1263.
-
-Moderation checks all the vices. The ermine will die rather than
-besmirch itself.
-
-OF FORESIGHT.
-
-The cock does not crow till it has thrice flapped its wings; the
-parrot in moving among boughs never puts its feet excepting where it
-has first put its beak. Vows are not made till Hope is dead.
-
-Motion tends towards the centre of gravity.
-
-1264.
-
-MAGNANIMITY.
-
-The falcon never seizes any but large birds and will sooner die than
-eat [tainted] meat of bad savour.
-
-II.
-
-FABLES.
-
-Fables on animals (1265-1270).
-
-1265.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-An oyster being turned out together with other fish in the house of
-a fisherman near the sea, he entreated a rat to take him to the sea.
-The rat purposing to eat him bid him open; but as he bit him the
-oyster squeezed his head and closed; and the cat came and killed
-him.
-
-1266.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The thrushes rejoiced greatly at seeing a man take the owl and
-deprive her of liberty, tying her feet with strong bonds. But this
-owl was afterwards by means of bird-lime the cause of the thrushes
-losing not only their liberty, but their life. This is said for
-those countries which rejoice in seeing their governors lose their
-liberty, when by that means they themselves lose all succour, and
-remain in bondage in the power of their enemies, losing their
-liberty and often their life.
-
-1267.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A dog, lying asleep on the fur of a sheep, one of his fleas,
-perceiving the odour of the greasy wool, judged that this must be a
-land of better living, and also more secure from the teeth and nails
-of the dog than where he fed on the dog; and without farther
-reflection he left the dog and went into the thick wool. There he
-began with great labour to try to pass among the roots of the hairs;
-but after much sweating had to give up the task as vain, because
-these hairs were so close that they almost touched each other, and
-there was no space where fleas could taste the skin. Hence, after
-much labour and fatigue, he began to wish to return to his dog, who
-however had already departed; so he was constrained after long
-repentance and bitter tears, to die of hunger.
-
-1268.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The vain and wandering butterfly, not content with being able to fly
-at its ease through the air, overcome by the tempting flame of the
-candle, decided to fly into it; but its sportive impulse was the
-cause of a sudden fall, for its delicate wings were burnt in the
-flame. And the hapless butterfly having dropped, all scorched, at
-the foot of the candlestick, after much lamentation and repentance,
-dried the tears from its swimming eyes, and raising its face
-exclaimed: O false light! how many must thou have miserably deceived
-in the past, like me; or if I must indeed see light so near, ought I
-not to have known the sun from the false glare of dirty tallow?
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The monkey, finding a nest of small birds, went up to it greatly
-delighted. But they, being already fledged, he could only succeed in
-taking the smallest; greatly delighted he took it in his hand and
-went to his abode; and having begun to look at the little bird he
-took to kissing it, and from excess of love he kissed it so much and
-turned it about and squeezed it till he killed it. This is said for
-those who by not punishing their children let them come to mischief.
-
-1269.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A rat was besieged in his little dwelling by a weasel, which with
-unwearied vigilance awaited his surrender, while watching his
-imminent peril through a little hole. Meanwhile the cat came by and
-suddenly seized the weasel and forthwith devoured it. Then the rat
-offered up a sacrifice to Jove of some of his store of nuts, humbly
-thanking His providence, and came out of his hole to enjoy his
-lately lost liberty. But he was instantly deprived of it, together
-with his life, by the cruel claws and teeth of the lurking cat.
-
-1270.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The ant found a grain of millet. The seed feeling itself taken
-prisoner cried out to her: "If you will do me the kindness to allow
-me accomplish my function of reproduction, I will give you a hundred
-such as I am." And so it was.
-
-A Spider found a bunch of grapes which for its sweetness was much
-resorted to by bees and divers kinds of flies. It seemed to her that
-she had found a most convenient spot to spread her snare, and having
-settled herself on it with her delicate web, and entered into her
-new habitation, there, every day placing herself in the openings
-made by the spaces between the grapes, she fell like a thief on the
-wretched creatures which were not aware of her. But, after a few
-days had passed, the vintager came, and cut away the bunch of grapes
-and put it with others, with which it was trodden; and thus the
-grapes were a snare and pitfall both for the treacherous spider and
-the betrayed flies.
-
-An ass having gone to sleep on the ice over a deep lake, his heat
-dissolved the ice and the ass awoke under water to his great grief,
-and was forthwith drowned.
-
-A falcon, unable to endure with patience the disappearance of a
-duck, which, flying before him had plunged under water, wished to
-follow it under water, and having soaked his feathers had to remain
-in the water while the duck rising to the air mocked at the falcon
-as he drowned.
-
-The spider wishing to take flies in her treacherous net, was cruelly
-killed in it by the hornet.
-
-An eagle wanting to mock at the owl was caught by the wings in
-bird-lime and was taken and killed by a man.
-
-Fables on lifeless objects (1271--1274).
-
-1271.
-
-The water finding that its element was the lordly ocean, was seized
-with a desire to rise above the air, and being encouraged by the
-element of fire and rising as a very subtle vapour, it seemed as
-though it were really as thin as air. But having risen very high, it
-reached the air that was still more rare and cold, where the fire
-forsook it, and the minute particles, being brought together, united
-and became heavy; whence its haughtiness deserting it, it betook
-itself to flight and it fell from the sky, and was drunk up by the
-dry earth, where, being imprisoned for a long time, it did penance
-for its sin.
-
-1272.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The razor having one day come forth from the handle which serves as
-its sheath and having placed himself in the sun, saw the sun
-reflected in his body, which filled him with great pride. And
-turning it over in his thoughts he began to say to himself: "And
-shall I return again to that shop from which I have just come?
-Certainly not; such splendid beauty shall not, please God, be turned
-to such base uses. What folly it would be that could lead me to
-shave the lathered beards of rustic peasants and perform such menial
-service! Is this body destined for such work? Certainly not. I will
-hide myself in some retired spot and there pass my life in tranquil
-repose." And having thus remained hidden for some months, one day he
-came out into the air, and issuing from his sheath, saw himself
-turned to the similitude of a rusty saw while his surface no longer
-reflected the resplendent sun. With useless repentance he vainly
-deplored the irreparable mischief saying to himself: "Oh! how far
-better was it to employ at the barbers my lost edge of such
-exquisite keenness! Where is that lustrous surface? It has been
-consumed by this vexatious and unsightly rust."
-
-The same thing happens to those minds which instead of exercise give
-themselves up to sloth. They are like the razor here spoken of, and
-lose the keenness of their edge, while the rust of ignorance spoils
-their form.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A stone of some size recently uncovered by the water lay on a
-certain spot somewhat raised, and just where a delightful grove
-ended by a stony road; here it was surrounded by plants decorated by
-various flowers of divers colours. And as it saw the great quantity
-of stones collected together in the roadway below, it began to wish
-it could let itself fall down there, saying to itself: "What have I
-to do here with these plants? I want to live in the company of
-those, my sisters." And letting itself fall, its rapid course ended
-among these longed for companions. When it had been there sometime
-it began to find itself constantly toiling under the wheels of the
-carts the iron-shoed feet of horses and of travellers. This one
-rolled it over, that one trod upon it; sometimes it lifted itself a
-little and then it was covered with mud or the dung of some animal,
-and it was in vain that it looked at the spot whence it had come as
-a place of solitude and tranquil place.
-
-Thus it happens to those who choose to leave a life of solitary
-comtemplation, and come to live in cities among people full of
-infinite evil.
-
-1273.
-
-Some flames had already lasted in the furnace of a glass-blower,
-when they saw a candle approaching in a beautiful and glittering
-candlestick. With ardent longing they strove to reach it; and one of
-them, quitting its natural course, writhed up to an unburnt brand on
-which it fed and passed at the opposite end out by a narrow chink to
-the candle which was near. It flung itself upon it, and with fierce
-jealousy and greediness it devoured it, having reduced it almost to
-death, and, wishing to procure the prolongation of its life, it
-tried to return to the furnace whence it had come. But in vain, for
-it was compelled to die, the wood perishing together with the
-candle, being at last converted, with lamentation and repentance,
-into foul smoke, while leaving all its sisters in brilliant and
-enduring life and beauty.
-
-1274.
-
-A small patch of snow finding itself clinging to the top of a rock
-which was lying on the topmost height of a very high mountain and
-being left to its own imaginings, it began to reflect in this way,
-saying to itself: "Now, shall not I be thought vain and proud for
-having placed myself--such a small patch of snow--in so lofty a
-spot, and for allowing that so large a quantity of snow as I have
-seen here around me, should take a place lower than mine? Certainly
-my small dimensions by no means merit this elevation. How easily may
-I, in proof of my insignificance, experience the same fate as that
-which the sun brought about yesterday to my companions, who were
-all, in a few hours, destroyed by the sun. And this happened from
-their having placed themselves higher than became them. I will flee
-from the wrath of the sun, and humble myself and find a place
-befitting my small importance." Thus, flinging itself down, it began
-to descend, hurrying from its high home on to the other snow; but
-the more it sought a low place the more its bulk increased, so that
-when at last its course was ended on a hill, it found itself no less
-in size than the hill which supported it; and it was the last of the
-snow which was destroyed that summer by the sun. This is said for
-those who, humbling themselves, become exalted.
-
-Fables on plants (1275-1279).
-
-1275.
-
-The cedar, being desirous of producing a fine and noble fruit at its
-summit, set to work to form it with all the strength of its sap. But
-this fruit, when grown, was the cause of the tall and upright
-tree-top being bent over.
-
-The peach, being envious of the vast quantity of fruit which she saw
-borne on the nut-tree, her neighbour, determined to do the same, and
-loaded herself with her own in such a way that the weight of the
-fruit pulled her up by the roots and broke her down to the ground.
-
-The nut-tree stood always by a road side displaying the wealth of
-its fruit to the passers by, and every one cast stones at it.
-
-The fig-tree, having no fruit, no one looked at it; then, wishing to
-produce fruits that it might be praised by men, it was bent and
-broken down by them.
-
-The fig-tree, standing by the side of the elm and seeing that its
-boughs were bare of fruit, yet that it had the audacity to keep the
-Sun from its own unripe figs with its branches, said to it: "Oh elm!
-art thou not ashamed to stand in front of me. But wait till my
-offspring are fully grown and you will see where you are!" But when
-her offspring were mature, a troop of soldiers coming by fell upon
-the fig-tree and her figs were all torn off her, and her boughs cut
-away and broken. Then, when she was thus maimed in all her limbs,
-the elm asked her, saying: "O fig-tree! which was best, to be
-without offspring, or to be brought by them into so miserable a
-plight!"
-
-1276.
-
-The plant complains of the old and dry stick which stands by its
-side and of the dry stakes that surround it.
-
-One keeps it upright, the other keeps it from low company.
-
-1277.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A nut, having been carried by a crow to the top of a tall campanile
-and released by falling into a chink from the mortal grip of its
-beak, it prayed the wall by the grace bestowed on it by God in
-allowing it to be so high and thick, and to own such fine bells and
-of so noble a tone, that it would succour it, and that, as it had
-not been able to fall under the verdurous boughs of its venerable
-father and lie in the fat earth covered up by his fallen leaves it
-would not abandon it; because, finding itself in the beak of the
-cruel crow, it had there made a vow that if it escaped from her it
-would end its life in a little hole. At these words the wall, moved
-to compassion, was content to shelter it in the spot where it had
-fallen; and after a short time the nut began to split open and put
-forth roots between the rifts of the stones and push them apart, and
-to throw out shoots from its hollow shell; and, to be brief, these
-rose above the building and the twisted roots, growing thicker,
-began to thrust the walls apart, and tear out the ancient stones
-from their old places. Then the wall too late and in vain bewailed
-the cause of its destruction and in a short time, it wrought the
-ruin of a great part of it.
-
-1278.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The privet feeling its tender boughs loaded with young fruit,
-pricked by the sharp claws and beak of the insolent blackbird,
-complained to the blackbird with pitious remonstrance entreating her
-that since she stole its delicious fruits she should not deprive it
-of the leaves with which it preserved them from the burning rays of
-the sun, and that she should not divest it of its tender bark by
-scratching it with her sharp claws. To which the blackbird replied
-with angry upbraiding: "O, be silent, uncultured shrub! Do you not
-know that Nature made you produce these fruits for my nourishment;
-do you not see that you are in the world [only] to serve me as food;
-do you not know, base creature, that next winter you will be food
-and prey for the Fire?" To which words the tree listened patiently,
-and not without tears. After a short time the blackbird was taken in
-a net and boughs were cut to make a cage, in which to imprison her.
-Branches were cut, among others from the pliant privet, to serve for
-the small rods of the cage; and seeing herself to be the cause of
-the Blackbird's loss of liberty it rejoiced and spoke as follows: "O
-Blackbird, I am here, and not yet burnt by fire as you said. I shall
-see you in prison before you see me burnt."
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The laurel and the myrtle seeing the pear tree cut down cried out
-with a loud voice: "O pear-tree! whither are you going? Where is the
-pride you had when you were covered with ripe fruits? Now you will
-no longer shade us with your mass of leaves." Then the pear-tree
-replied: "I am going with the husbandman who has cut me down and who
-will take me to the workshop of a good sculptor who by his art will
-make me take the form of Jove the god; and I shall be dedicated in a
-temple and adored by men in the place of Jove, while you are bound
-always to remain maimed and stripped of your boughs, which will be
-placed round me to do me honour.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The chesnut, seeing a man upon the fig-tree, bending its boughs down
-and pulling off the ripe fruits, which he put into his open mouth
-destroying and crushing them with his hard teeth, it tossed its long
-boughs and with a noisy rustle exclaimed: "O fig! how much less are
-you protected by nature than I. See how in me my sweet offspring are
-set in close array; first clothed in soft wrappers over which is the
-hard but softly lined husk; and not content with taking this care of
-me, and having given them so strong a shelter, on this she has
-placed sharp and close-set spines so that the hand of man cannot
-hurt me." Then the fig-tree and her offspring began to laugh and
-having laughed she said: "I know man to be of such ingenuity that
-with rods and stones and stakes flung up among your branches he will
-bereave you of your fruits; and when they are fallen, he will
-trample them with his feet or with stones, so that your offspring
-will come out of their armour, crushed and maimed; while I am
-touched carefully by their hands, and not like you with sticks and
-stones."
-
-1279.
-
-The hapless willow, finding that she could not enjoy the pleasure of
-seeing her slender branches grow or attain to the height she wished,
-or point to the sky, by reason of the vine and whatever other trees
-that grew near, but was always maimed and lopped and spoiled,
-brought all her spirits together and gave and devoted itself
-entirely to imagination, standing plunged in long meditation and
-seeking, in all the world of plants, with which of them she might
-ally herself and which could not need the help of her withes. Having
-stood for some time in this prolific imagination, with a sudden
-flash the gourd presented itself to her thoughts and tossing all her
-branches with extreme delight, it seemed to her that she had found
-the companion suited to her purpose, because the gourd is more apt
-to bind others than to need binding; having come to this conclusion
-she awaited eagerly some friendly bird who should be the mediator of
-her wishes. Presently seeing near her the magpie she said to him: "O
-gentle bird! by the memory of the refuge which you found this
-morning among my branches, when the hungry cruel, and rapacious
-falcon wanted to devour you, and by that repose which you have
-always found in me when your wings craved rest, and by the pleasure
-you have enjoyed among my boughs, when playing with your companions
-or making love--I entreat you find the gourd and obtain from her
-some of her seeds, and tell her that those that are born of them I
-will treat exactly as though they were my own flesh and blood; and
-in this way use all the words you can think of, which are of the
-same persuasive purport; though, indeed, since you are a master of
-language, I need not teach you. And if you will do me this service I
-shall be happy to have your nest in the fork of my boughs, and all
-your family without payment of any rent." Then the magpie, having
-made and confirmed certain new stipulations with the willow,--and
-principally that she should never admit upon her any snake or
-polecat, cocked his tail, and put down his head, and flung himself
-from the bough, throwing his weight upon his wings; and these,
-beating the fleeting air, now here, now there, bearing about
-inquisitively, while his tail served as a rudder to steer him, he
-came to a gourd; then with a handsome bow and a few polite words, he
-obtained the required seeds, and carried them to the willow, who
-received him with a cheerful face. And when he had scraped away with
-his foot a small quantity of the earth near the willow, describing a
-circle, with his beak he planted the grains, which in a short time
-began to grow, and by their growth and the branches to take up all
-the boughs of the willow, while their broad leaves deprived it of
-the beauty of the sun and sky. And not content with so much evil,
-the gourds next began, by their rude hold, to drag the ends of the
-tender shoots down towards the earth, with strange twisting and
-distortion.
-
-Then, being much annoyed, it shook itself in vain to throw off the
-gourd. After raving for some days in such plans vainly, because the
-firm union forbade it, seeing the wind come by it commended itself
-to him. The wind flew hard and opened the old and hollow stem of the
-willow in two down to the roots, so that it fell into two parts. In
-vain did it bewail itself recognising that it was born to no good
-end.
-
-III.
-
-JESTS AND TALES.
-
-1280.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A priest, making the rounds of his parish on Easter Eve, and
-sprinkling holy water in the houses as is customary, came to a
-painter's room, where he sprinkled the water on some of his
-pictures. The painter turned round, somewhat angered, and asked him
-why this sprinkling had been bestowed on his pictures; then said the
-priest, that it was the custom and his duty to do so, and that he
-was doing good; and that he who did good might look for good in
-return, and, indeed, for better, since God had promised that every
-good deed that was done on earth should be rewarded a hundred-fold
-from above. Then the painter, waiting till he went out, went to an
-upper window and flung a large pail of water on the priest's back,
-saying: "Here is the reward a hundred-fold from above, which you
-said would come from the good you had done me with your holy water,
-by which you have damaged my pictures."
-
-1281.
-
-When wine is drunk by a drunkard, that wine is revenged on the
-drinker.
-
-1282.
-
-Wine, the divine juice of the grape, finding itself in a golden and
-richly wrought cup, on the table of Mahomet, was puffed up with
-pride at so much honour; when suddenly it was struck by a contrary
-reflection, saying to itself: "What am I about, that I should
-rejoice, and not perceive that I am now near to my death and shall
-leave my golden abode in this cup to enter into the foul and fetid
-caverns of the human body, and to be transmuted from a fragrant and
-delicious liquor into a foul and base one. Nay, and as though so
-much evil as this were not enough, I must for a long time lie in
-hideous receptacles, together with other fetid and corrupt matter,
-cast out from human intestines." And it cried to Heaven, imploring
-vengeance for so much insult, and that an end might henceforth be
-put to such contempt; and that, since that country produced the
-finest and best grapes in the whole world, at least they should not
-be turned into wine. Then Jove made that wine drunk by Mahomet to
-rise in spirit to his brain; and that in so deleterious a manner
-that it made him mad, and gave birth to so many follies that when he
-had recovered himself, he made a law that no Asiatic should drink
-wine, and henceforth the vine and its fruit were left free.
-
-As soon as wine has entered the stomach it begins to ferment and
-swell; then the spirit of that man begins to abandon his body,
-rising as it were skywards, and the brain finds itself parting from
-the body. Then it begins to degrade him, and make him rave like a
-madman, and then he does irreparable evil, killing his friends.
-
-1283.
-
-An artizan often going to visit a great gentleman without any
-definite purpose, the gentleman asked him what he did this for. The
-other said that he came there to have a pleasure which his lordship
-could not have; since to him it was a satisfaction to see men
-greater than himself, as is the way with the populace; while the
-gentleman could only see men of less consequence than himself; and
-so lords and great men were deprived of that pleasure.
-
-1284.
-
-Franciscan begging Friars are wont, at certain times, to keep fasts,
-when they do not eat meat in their convents. But on journeys, as
-they live on charity, they have license to eat whatever is set
-before them. Now a couple of these friars on their travels, stopped
-at an inn, in company with a certain merchant, and sat down with him
-at the same table, where, from the poverty of the inn, nothing was
-served to them but a small roast chicken. The merchant, seeing this
-to be but little even for himself, turned to the friars and said:
-"If my memory serves me, you do not eat any kind of flesh in your
-convents at this season." At these words the friars were compelled
-by their rule to admit, without cavil, that this was the truth; so
-the merchant had his wish, and eat the chicken and the friars did
-the best they could. After dinner the messmates departed, all three
-together, and after travelling some distance they came to a river of
-some width and depth. All three being on foot--the friars by reason
-of their poverty, and the other from avarice--it was necessary by
-the custom of company that one of the friars, being barefoot, should
-carry the merchant on his shoulders: so having given his wooden
-shoes into his keeping, he took up his man. But it so happened that
-when the friar had got to the middle of the river, he again
-remembered a rule of his order, and stopping short, he looked up,
-like Saint Christopher, to the burden on his back and said: "Tell
-me, have you any money about you?"--"You know I have", answered the
-other, "How do you suppose that a Merchant like me should go about
-otherwise?" "Alack!" cried the friar, "our rules forbid as to carry
-any money on our persons," and forthwith he dropped him into the
-water, which the merchant perceived was a facetious way of being
-revenged on the indignity he had done them; so, with a smiling face,
-and blushing somewhat with shame, he peaceably endured the revenge.
-
-1285.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A man wishing to prove, by the authority of Pythagoras, that he had
-formerly been in the world, while another would not let him finish
-his argument, the first speaker said to the second: "It is by this
-token that I was formerly here, I remember that you were a miller."
-The other one, feeling himself stung by these words, agreed that it
-was true, and that by the same token he remembered that the speaker
-had been the ass that carried the flour.
-
-A JEST.
-
-It was asked of a painter why, since he made such beautiful figures,
-which were but dead things, his children were so ugly; to which the
-painter replied that he made his pictures by day, and his children
-by night.
-
-1286.
-
-A man saw a large sword which another one wore at his side. Said he
-"Poor fellow, for a long time I have seen you tied to that weapon;
-why do you not release yourself as your hands are untied, and set
-yourself free?" To which the other replied: "This is none of yours,
-on the contrary it is an old story." The former speaker, feeling
-stung, replied: "I know that you are acquainted with so few things
-in this world, that I thought anything I could tell you would be new
-to you."
-
-1287.
-
-A man gave up his intimacy with one of his friends because he often
-spoke ill of his other friends. The neglected friend one day
-lamenting to this former friend, after much complaining, entreated
-him to say what might be the cause that had made him forget so much
-friendship. To which he answered: "I will no longer be intimate with
-you because I love you, and I do not choose that you, by speaking
-ill of me, your friend, to others, should produce in others, as in
-me, a bad impression of yourself, by speaking evil to them of me,
-your friend. Therefore, being no longer intimate together, it will
-seem as though we had become enemies; and in speaking evil of me, as
-is your wont, you will not be blamed so much as if we continued
-intimate.
-
-1288.
-
-A man was arguing and boasting that he knew many and various tricks.
-Another among the bystanders said: "I know how to play a trick which
-will make whomsoever I like pull off his breeches." The first man--
-the boaster--said: "You won't make me pull off mine, and I bet you a
-pair of hose on it." He who proposed the game, having accepted the
-offer, produced breeches and drew them across the face of him who
-bet the pair of hose and won the bet [4].
-
-A man said to an acquaintance: "Your eyes are changed to a strange
-colour." The other replied: "It often happens, but you have not
-noticed it." "When does it happen?" said the former. "Every time
-that my eyes see your ugly face, from the shock of so unpleasing a
-sight they suddenly turn pale and change to a strange colour."
-
-A man said to another: "Your eyes are changed to a strange colour."
-The other replied: "It is because my eyes behold your strange ugly
-face."
-
-A man said that in his country were the strangest things in the
-world. Another answered: "You, who were born there, confirm this as
-true, by the strangeness of your ugly face."
-
-[Footnote: The joke turns, it appears, on two meanings of trarre and
-is not easily translated.]
-
-1289.
-
-An old man was publicly casting contempt on a young one, and boldly
-showing that he did not fear him; on which the young man replied
-that his advanced age served him better as a shield than either his
-tongue or his strength.
-
-1290.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A sick man finding himself in _articulo mortis_ heard a knock at the
-door, and asking one of his servants who was knocking, the servant
-went out, and answered that it was a woman calling herself Madonna
-Bona. Then the sick man lifting his arms to Heaven thanked God with
-a loud voice, and told the servants that they were to let her come
-in at once, so that he might see one good woman before he died,
-since in all his life he had never yet seen one.
-
-1291.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A man was desired to rise from bed, because the sun was already
-risen. To which he replied: "If I had as far to go, and as much to
-do as he has, I should be risen by now; but having but a little way
-to go, I shall not rise yet."
-
-1292.
-
-A man, seeing a woman ready to hold up the target for a jousting
-match, exclaimed, looking at the shield, and considering his spear:
-"Alack! this is too small a workman for so great a business."
-
-IV.
-
-PROPHECIES.
-
-1293.
-
-THE DIVISION OF THE PROPHECIES.
-
-First, of things relating to animals; secondly, of irrational
-creatures; thirdly of plants; fourthly, of ceremonies; fifthly, of
-manners; sixthly, of cases or edicts or quarrels; seventhly, of
-cases that are impossible in nature [paradoxes], as, for instance,
-of those things which, the more is taken from them, the more they
-grow. And reserve the great matters till the end, and the small
-matters give at the beginning. And first show the evils and then the
-punishment of philosophical things.
-
-(Of Ants.)
-
-These creatures will form many communities, which will hide
-themselves and their young ones and victuals in dark caverns, and
-they will feed themselves and their families in dark places for many
-months without any light, artificial or natural.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1--5l are in the original written in one column,
-beginning with the text of line 11. At the end of the column is the
-programme for the arrangement of the prophecies, placed here at the
-head: Lines 56--79 form a second column, lines 80--97 a third one
-(see the reproduction of the text on the facsimile PI. CXVIII).
-
-Another suggestion for the arrangement of the prophecies is to be
-found among the notes 55--57 on page 357.]
-
-(Of Bees.)
-
-And many others will be deprived of their store and their food, and
-will be cruelly submerged and drowned by folks devoid of reason. Oh
-Justice of God! Why dost thou not wake and behold thy creatures thus
-ill used?
-
-(Of Sheep, Cows, Goats and the like.)
-
-Endless multitudes of these will have their little children taken
-from them ripped open and flayed and most barbarously quartered.
-
-(Of Nuts, and Olives, and Acorns, and Chesnuts, and such like.)
-
-Many offspring shall be snatched by cruel thrashing from the very
-arms of their mothers, and flung on the ground, and crushed.
-
-(Of Children bound in Bundles.)
-
-O cities of the Sea! In you I see your citizens--both females and
-males--tightly bound, arms and legs, with strong withes by folks who
-will not understand your language. And you will only be able to
-assuage your sorrows and lost liberty by means of tearful complaints
-and sighing and lamentation among yourselves; for those who will
-bind you will not understand you, nor will you understand them.
-
-(Of Cats that eat Rats.)
-
-In you, O cities of Africa your children will be seen quartered in
-their own houses by most cruel and rapacious beasts of your own
-country.
-
-(Of Asses that are beaten.)
-
-[Footnote 48: Compare No. 845.] O Nature! Wherefore art thou so
-partial; being to some of thy children a tender and benign mother,
-and to others a most cruel and pitiless stepmother? I see children
-of thine given up to slavery to others, without any sort of
-advantage, and instead of remuneration for the good they do, they
-are paid with the severest suffering, and spend their whole life in
-benefitting those who ill treat them.
-
-(Of Men who sleep on boards of Trees.)
-
-Men shall sleep, and eat, and dwell among trees, in the forests and
-open country.
-
-(Of Dreaming.)
-
-Men will seem to see new destructions in the sky. The flames that
-fall from it will seem to rise in it and to fly from it with terror.
-They will hear every kind of animals speak in human language. They
-will instantaneously run in person in various parts of the world,
-without motion. They will see the greatest splendour in the midst of
-darkness. O! marvel of the human race! What madness has led you
-thus! You will speak with animals of every species and they with you
-in human speech. You will see yourself fall from great heights
-without any harm and torrents will accompany you, and will mingle
-with their rapid course.
-
-(Of Christians.)
-
-Many who hold the faith of the Son only build temples in the name of
-the Mother.
-
-(Of Food which has been alive.)
-
-[84] A great portion of bodies that have been alive will pass into
-the bodies of other animals; which is as much as to say, that the
-deserted tenements will pass piecemeal into the inhabited ones,
-furnishing them with good things, and carrying with them their
-evils. That is to say the life of man is formed from things eaten,
-and these carry with them that part of man which dies . . .
-
-1294.
-
-(Of Funeral Rites, and Processions, and Lights, and Bells, and
-Followers.)
-
-The greatest honours will be paid to men, and much pomp, without
-their knowledge.
-
-[Footnote: A facsimile of this text is on PI. CXVI below on the
-right, but the writing is larger than the other notes on the same
-sheet and of a somewhat different style. The ink is also of a
-different hue, as may be seen on the original sheet at Milan.]
-
-1295.
-
-(Of the Avaricious.)
-
-There will be many who will eagerly and with great care and
-solicitude follow up a thing, which, if they only knew its
-malignity, would always terrify them.
-
-(Of those men, who, the older they grow, the more avaricious they
-become, whereas, having but little time to stay, they should become
-more liberal.)
-
-We see those who are regarded as being most experienced and
-judicious, when they least need a thing, seek and cherish it with
-most avidity.
-
-(Of the Ditch.)
-
-Many will be busied in taking away from a thing, which will grow in
-proportion as it is diminished.
-
-(Of a Weight placed on a Feather-pillow.)
-
-And it will be seen in many bodies that by raising the head they
-swell visibly; and by laying the raised head down again, their size
-will immediately be diminished.
-
-(Of catching Lice.)
-
-And many will be hunters of animals, which, the fewer there are the
-more will be taken; and conversely, the more there are, the fewer
-will be taken.
-
-(Of Drawing Water in two Buckets with a single Rope.)
-
-And many will be busily occupied, though the more of the thing they
-draw up, the more will escape at the other end.
-
-(Of the Tongues of Pigs and Calves in Sausage-skins.)
-
-Oh! how foul a thing, that we should see the tongue of one animal in
-the guts of another.
-
-(Of Sieves made of the Hair of Animals.)
-
-We shall see the food of animals pass through their skin everyway
-excepting through their mouths, and penetrate from the outside
-downwards to the ground.
-
-(Of Lanterns.)
-
-[Footnote 35: Lanterns were in Italy formerly made of horn.] The
-cruel horns of powerful bulls will screen the lights of night
-against the wild fury of the winds.
-
-(Of Feather-beds.)
-
-Flying creatures will give their very feathers to support men.
-
-(Of Animals which walk on Trees--wearing wooden Shoes.)
-
-The mire will be so great that men will walk on the trees of their
-country.
-
-(Of the Soles of Shoes, which are made from the Ox.)
-
-And in many parts of the country men will be seen walking on the
-skins of large beasts.
-
-(Of Sailing in Ships.)
-
-There will be great winds by reason of which things of the East will
-become things of the West; and those of the South, being involved in
-the course of the winds, will follow them to distant lands.
-
-(Of Worshipping the Pictures of Saints.)
-
-Men will speak to men who hear not; having their eyes open, they
-will not see; they will speak to these, and they will not be
-answered. They will implore favours of those who have ears and hear
-not; they will make light for the blind.
-
-(Of Sawyers.)
-
-There will be many men who will move one against another, holding in
-their hands a cutting tool. But these will not do each other any
-injury beyond tiring each other; for, when one pushes forward the
-other will draw back. But woe to him who comes between them! For he
-will end by being cut in pieces.
-
-(Of Silk-spinning.)
-
-Dismal cries will be heard loud, shrieking with anguish, and the
-hoarse and smothered tones of those who will be despoiled, and at
-last left naked and motionless; and this by reason of the mover,
-which makes every thing turn round.
-
-(Of putting Bread into the Mouth of the Oven and taking it out
-again.)
-
-In every city, land, castle and house, men shall be seen, who for
-want of food will take it out of the mouths of others, who will not
-be able to resist in any way.
-
-(Of tilled Land.)
-
-The Earth will be seen turned up side down and facing the opposite
-hemispheres, uncovering the lurking holes of the fiercest animals.
-
-(Of Sowing Seed.)
-
-Then many of the men who will remain alive, will throw the victuals
-they have preserved out of their houses, a free prey to the birds
-and beasts of the earth, without taking any care of them at all.
-
-(Of the Rains, which, by making the Rivers muddy, wash away the
-Land.)
-
-[Footnote 81: Compare No. 945.] Something will fall from the sky
-which will transport a large part of Africa which lies under that
-sky towards Europe, and that of Europe towards Africa, and that of
-the Scythian countries will meet with tremendous revolutions
-[Footnote 84: Compare No. 945.].
-
-(Of Wood that burns.)
-
-The trees and shrubs in the great forests will be converted into
-cinder.
-
-(Of Kilns for Bricks and Lime.)
-
-Finally the earth will turn red from a conflagration of many days
-and the stones will be turned to cinders.
-
-(Of boiled Fish.)
-
-The natives of the waters will die in the boiling flood.
-
-(Of the Olives which fall from the Olive trees, shedding oil which
-makes light.)
-
-And things will fall with great force from above, which will give us
-nourishment and light.
-
-(Of Owls and screech owls and what will happen to certain birds.)
-
-Many will perish of dashing their heads in pieces, and the eyes of
-many will jump out of their heads by reason of fearful creatures
-come out of the darkness.
-
-(Of flax which works the cure of men.)
-
-That which was at first bound, cast out and rent by many and various
-beaters will be respected and honoured, and its precepts will be
-listened to with reverence and love.
-
-(Of Books which teach Precepts.)
-
-Bodies without souls will, by their contents give us precepts by
-which to die well.
-
-(Of Flagellants.)
-
-Men will hide themselves under the bark of trees, and, screaming,
-they will make themselves martyrs, by striking their own limbs.
-
-(Of the Handles of Knives made of the Horns of Sheep.)
-
-We shall see the horns of certain beasts fitted to iron tools, which
-will take the lives of many of their kind.
-
-(Of Night when no Colour can be discerned.)
-
-There will come a time when no difference can be discerned between
-colours, on the contrary, everything will be black alike.
-
-(Of Swords and Spears which by themselves never hurt any one.)
-
-One who by himself is mild enough and void of all offence will
-become terrible and fierce by being in bad company, and will most
-cruelly take the life of many men, and would kill many more if they
-were not hindered by bodies having no soul, that have come out of
-caverns--that is, breastplates of iron.
-
-(Of Snares and Traps.)
-
-Many dead things will move furiously, and will take and bind the
-living, and will ensnare them for the enemies who seek their death
-and destruction.
-
-(Of Metals.)
-
-That shall be brought forth out of dark and obscure caves, which
-will put the whole human race in great anxiety, peril and death. To
-many that seek them, after many sorrows they will give delight, and
-to those who are not in their company, death with want and
-misfortune. This will lead to the commission of endless crimes; this
-will increase and persuade bad men to assassinations, robberies and
-treachery, and by reason of it each will be suspicious of his
-partner. This will deprive free cities of their happy condition;
-this will take away the lives of many; this will make men torment
-each other with many artifices deceptions and treasons. O monstrous
-creature! How much better would it be for men that every thing
-should return to Hell! For this the vast forests will be devastated
-of their trees; for this endless animals will lose their lives.
-
-(Of Fire.)
-
-One shall be born from small beginnings which will rapidly become
-vast. This will respect no created thing, rather will it, by its
-power, transform almost every thing from its own nature into
-another.
-
-(Of Ships which sink.)
-
-Huge bodies will be seen, devoid of life, carrying, in fierce haste,
-a multitude of men to the destruction of their lives.
-
-(Of Oxen, which are eaten.)
-
-The masters of estates will eat their own labourers.
-
-(Of beating Beds to renew them.)
-
-Men will be seen so deeply ungrateful that they will turn upon that
-which has harboured them, for nothing at all; they will so load it
-with blows that a great part of its inside will come out of its
-place, and will be turned over and over in its body.
-
-(Of Things which are eaten and which first are killed.)
-
-Those who nourish them will be killed by them and afflicted by
-merciless deaths.
-
-(Of the Reflection of Walls of Cities in the Water of their
-Ditches.)
-
-The high walls of great cities will be seen up side down in their
-ditches.
-
-(Of Water, which flows turbid and mixed with Soil and Dust; and of
-Mist, which is mixed with the Air; and of Fire which is mixed with
-its own, and each with each.)
-
-All the elements will be seen mixed together in a great whirling
-mass, now borne towards the centre of the world, now towards the
-sky; and now furiously rushing from the South towards the frozen
-North, and sometimes from the East towards the West, and then again
-from this hemisphere to the other.
-
-(The World may be divided into two Hemispheres at any Point.)
-
-All men will suddenly be transferred into opposite hemispheres.
-
-(The division of the East from the West may be made at any point.)
-
-All living creatures will be moved from the East to the West; and in
-the same way from North to South, and vice versa.
-
-(Of the Motion of Water which carries wood, which is dead.)
-
-Bodies devoid of life will move by themselves and carry with them
-endless generations of the dead, taking the wealth from the
-bystanders.
-
-(Of Eggs which being eaten cannot form Chickens.)
-
-Oh! how many will they be that never come to the birth!
-
-(Of Fishes which are eaten unborn.)
-
-Endless generations will be lost by the death of the pregnant.
-
-(Of the Lamentation on Good Friday.)
-
-Throughout Europe there will be a lamentation of great nations over
-the death of one man who died in the East.
-
-(Of Dreaming.)
-
-Men will walk and not stir, they will talk to those who are not
-present, and hear those who do not speak.
-
-(Of a Man's Shadow which moves with him.)
-
-Shapes and figures of men and animals will be seen following these
-animals and men wherever they flee. And exactly as the one moves the
-other moves; but what seems so wonderful is the variety of height
-they assume.
-
-(Of our Shadow cast by the Sun, and our Reflection in the Water at
-one and the same time.)
-
-Many a time will one man be seen as three and all three move
-together, and often the most real one quits him.
-
-(Of wooden Chests which contain great Treasures.)
-
-Within walnuts and trees and other plants vast treasures will be
-found, which lie hidden there and well guarded.
-
-(Of putting out the Light when going to Bed.)
-
-Many persons puffing out a breath with too much haste, will thereby
-lose their sight, and soon after all consciousness.
-
-(Of the Bells of Mules, which are close to their Ears.)
-
-In many parts of Europe instruments of various sizes will be heard
-making divers harmonies, with great labour to those who hear them
-most closely.
-
-(Of Asses.)
-
-The severest labour will be repaid with hunger and thirst, and
-discomfort, and blows, and goadings, and curses, and great abuse.
-
-(Of Soldiers on horseback.)
-
-Many men will be seen carried by large animals, swift of pace, to
-the loss of their lives and immediate death.
-
-In the air and on earth animals will be seen of divers colours
-furiously carrying men to the destruction of their lives.
-
-(Of the Stars of Spurs.)
-
-By the aid of the stars men will be seen who will be as swift as any
-swift animal.
-
-(Of a Stick, which is dead.)
-
-The motions of a dead thing will make many living ones flee with
-pain and lamentation and cries.
-
-(Of Tinder.)
-
-With a stone and with iron things will be made visible which before
-were not seen.
-
-1296.
-
-(Of going in Ships.)
-
-We shall see the trees of the great forests of Taurus and of Sinai
-and of the Appenines and others, rush by means of the air, from East
-to West and from North to South; and carry, by means of the air,
-great multitudes of men. Oh! how many vows! Oh! how many deaths! Oh!
-how many partings of friends and relations! Oh! how many will those
-be who will never again see their own country nor their native land,
-and who will die unburied, with their bones strewn in various parts
-of the world!
-
-(Of moving on All Saints' Day.)
-
-Many will forsake their own dwellings and carry with them all their
-belongings and will go to live in other parts.
-
-(Of All Souls' Day.)
-
-How many will they be who will bewail their deceased forefathers,
-carrying lights to them.
-
-(Of Friars, who spending nothing but words, receive great gifts and
-bestow Paradise.)
-
-Invisible money will procure the triumph of many who will spend it.
-
-(Of Bows made of the Horns of Oxen.)
-
-Many will there be who will die a painful death by means of the
-horns of cattle.
-
-(Of writing Letters from one Country to another.)
-
-Men will speak with each other from the most remote countries, and
-reply.
-
-(Of Hemispheres, which are infinite; and which are divided by an
-infinite number of Lines, so that every Man always has one of these
-Lines between his Feet.)
-
-Men standing in opposite hemispheres will converse and deride each
-other and embrace each other, and understand each other's language.
-
-(Of Priests who say Mass.)
-
-There will be many men who, when they go to their labour will put on
-the richest clothes, and these will be made after the fashion of
-aprons [petticoats].
-
-(Of Friars who are Confessors.)
-
-And unhappy women will, of their own free will, reveal to men all
-their sins and shameful and most secret deeds.
-
-(Of Churches and the Habitations of Friars.)
-
-Many will there be who will give up work and labour and poverty of
-life and goods, and will go to live among wealth in splendid
-buildings, declaring that this is the way to make themselves
-acceptable to God.
-
-(Of Selling Paradise.)
-
-An infinite number of men will sell publicly and unhindered things
-of the very highest price, without leave from the Master of it;
-while it never was theirs nor in their power; and human justice will
-not prevent it.
-
-(Of the Dead which are carried to be buried.)
-
-The simple folks will carry vast quantities of lights to light up
-the road for those who have entirely lost the power of sight.
-
-(Of Dowries for Maidens.)
-
-And whereas, at first, maidens could not be protected against the
-violence of Men, neither by the watchfulness of parents nor by
-strong walls, the time will come when the fathers and parents of
-those girls will pay a large price to a man who wants to marry them,
-even if they are rich, noble and most handsome. Certainly this seems
-as though nature wished to eradicate the human race as being useless
-to the world, and as spoiling all created things.
-
-(Of the Cruelty of Man.)
-
-Animals will be seen on the earth who will always be fighting
-against each other with the greatest loss and frequent deaths on
-each side. And there will be no end to their malignity; by their
-strong limbs we shall see a great portion of the trees of the vast
-forests laid low throughout the universe; and, when they are filled
-with food the satisfaction of their desires will be to deal death
-and grief and labour and wars and fury to every living thing; and
-from their immoderate pride they will desire to rise towards heaven,
-but the too great weight of their limbs will keep them down. Nothing
-will remain on earth, or under the earth or in the waters which will
-not be persecuted, disturbed and spoiled, and those of one country
-removed into another. And their bodies will become the sepulture and
-means of transit of all they have killed.
-
-O Earth! why dost thou not open and engulf them in the fissures of
-thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of
-heaven such a cruel and horrible monster.
-
-1297.
-
-PROPHECIES.
-
-There will be many which will increase in their destruction.
-
-(The Ball of Snow rolling over Snow.)
-
-There will be many who, forgetting their existence and their name,
-will lie as dead on the spoils of other dead creatures.
-
-(Sleeping on the Feathers of Birds.)
-
-The East will be seen to rush to the West and the South to the North
-in confusion round and about the universe, with great noise and
-trembling or fury.
-
-(In the East wind which rushes to the West.)
-
-The solar rays will kindle fire on the earth, by which a thing that
-is under the sky will be set on fire, and, being reflected by some
-obstacle, it will bend downwards.
-
-(The Concave Mirror kindles a Fire, with which we heat the oven, and
-this has its foundation beneath its roof.)
-
-A great part of the sea will fly towards heaven and for a long time
-will not return. (That is, in Clouds.)
-
-There remains the motion which divides the mover from the thing
-moved.
-
-Those who give light for divine service will be destroyed.(The Bees
-which make the Wax for Candles)
-
-Dead things will come from underground and by their fierce movements
-will send numberless human beings out of the world. (Iron, which
-comes from under ground is dead but the Weapons are made of it which
-kill so many Men.)
-
-The greatest mountains, even those which are remote from the sea
-shore, will drive the sea from its place.
-
-(This is by Rivers which carry the Earth they wash away from the
-Mountains and bear it to the Sea-shore; and where the Earth comes
-the sea must retire.)
-
-The water dropped from the clouds still in motion on the flanks of
-mountains will lie still for a long period of time without any
-motion whatever; and this will happen in many and divers lands.
-
-(Snow, which falls in flakes and is Water.)
-
-The great rocks of the mountains will throw out fire; so that they
-will burn the timber of many vast forests, and many beasts both wild
-and tame.
-
-(The Flint in the Tinder-box which makes a Fire that consumes all
-the loads of Wood of which the Forests are despoiled and with this
-the flesh of Beasts is cooked.)
-
-Oh! how many great buildings will be ruined by reason of Fire.
-
-(The Fire of great Guns.)
-
-Oxen will be to a great extent the cause of the destruction of
-cities, and in the same way horses and buffaloes.
-
-(By drawing Guns.)
-
-1298.
-
-The Lion tribe will be seen tearing open the earth with their clawed
-paws and in the caves thus made, burying themselves together with
-the other animals that are beneath them.
-
-Animals will come forth from the earth in gloomy vesture, which will
-attack the human species with astonishing assaults, and which by
-their ferocious bites will make confusion of blood among those they
-devour.
-
-Again the air will be filled with a mischievous winged race which
-will assail men and beasts and feed upon them with much noise--
-filling themselves with scarlet blood.
-
-1299.
-
-Blood will be seen issuing from the torn flesh of men, and trickling
-down the surface.
-
-Men will have such cruel maladies that they will tear their flesh
-with their own nails. (The Itch.)
-
-Plants will be seen left without leaves, and the rivers standing
-still in their channels.
-
-The waters of the sea will rise above the high peaks of the
-mountains towards heaven and fall again on to the dwellings of men.
-(That is, in Clouds.)
-
-The largest trees of the forest will be seen carried by the fury of
-the winds from East to West. (That is across the Sea.)
-
-Men will cast away their own victuals. (That is, in Sowing.)
-
-1300.
-
-Human beings will be seen who will not understand each other's
-speech; that is, a German with a Turk.
-
-Fathers will be seen giving their daughters into the power of man
-and giving up all their former care in guarding them. (When Girls
-are married.)
-
-Men will come out their graves turned into flying creatures; and
-they will attack other men, taking their food from their very hand
-or table. (As Flies.)
-
-Many will there be who, flaying their mother, will tear the skin
-from her back. (Husbandmen tilling the Earth.)
-
-Happy will they be who lend ear to the words of the Dead. (Who read
-good works and obey them.)
-
-1031.
-
-Feathers will raise men, as they do birds, towards heaven (that is,
-by the letters which are written with quills.)
-
-The works of men's hands will occasion their death. (Swords and
-Spears.)
-
-Men out of fear will cling to the thing they most fear. (That is
-they will be miserable lest they should fall into misery.)
-
-Things that are separate shall be united and acquire such virtue
-that they will restore to man his lost memory; that is papyrus
-[sheets] which are made of separate strips and have preserved the
-memory of the things and acts of men.
-
-The bones of the Dead will be seen to govern the fortunes of him who
-moves them. (By Dice.)
-
-Cattle with their horns protect the Flame from its death. (In a
-Lantern [Footnote 13: See note page 357.].)
-
-The Forests will bring forth young which will be the cause of their
-death. (The handle of the hatchet.)
-
-1302.
-
-Men will deal bitter blows to that which is the cause of their life.
-(In thrashing Grain.)
-
-The skins of animals will rouse men from their silence with great
-outcries and curses. (Balls for playing Games.)
-
-Very often a thing that is itself broken is the occasion of much
-union. (That is the Comb made of split Cane which unites the threads
-of Silk.)
-
-The wind passing through the skins of animals will make men dance.
-(That is the Bag-pipe, which makes people dance.)
-
-1303.
-
-(Of Walnut trees, that are beaten.)
-
-Those which have done best will be most beaten, and their offspring
-taken and flayed or peeled, and their bones broken or crushed.
-
-(Of Sculpture.)
-
-Alas! what do I see? The Saviour cru- cified anew.
-
-(Of the Mouth of Man, which is a Sepulchre.)
-
-Great noise will issue from the sepulchres of those who died evil
-and violent deaths.
-
-(Of the Skins of Animals which have the sense of feeling what is in
-the things written.)
-
-The more you converse with skins covered with sentiments, the more
-wisdom will you acquire.
-
-(Of Priests who bear the Host in their body.)
-
-Then almost all the tabernacles in which dwells the Corpus Domini,
-will be plainly seen walking about of themselves on the various
-roads of the world.
-
-1304.
-
-And those who feed on grass will turn night into day (Tallow.)
-
-And many creatures of land and water will go up among the stars
-(that is Planets.)
-
-The dead will be seen carrying the living (in Carts and Ships in
-various places.)
-
-Food shall be taken out of the mouth of many ( the oven's mouth.)
-
-And those which will have their food in their mouth will be deprived
-of it by the hands of others (the oven.)
-
-1305.
-
-(Of Crucifixes which are sold.)
-
-I see Christ sold and crucified afresh, and his Saints suffering
-Martyrdom.
-
-(Of Physicians, who live by sickness.)
-
-Men will come into so wretched a plight that they will be glad that
-others will derive profit from their sufferings or from the loss of
-their real wealth, that is health.
-
-(Of the Religion of Friars, who live by the Saints who have been
-dead a great while.)
-
-Those who are dead will, after a thou- sand years be those who will
-give a livelihood to many who are living.
-
-(Of Stones converted into Lime, with which prison walls are made.)
-
-Many things that have been before that time destroyed by fire will
-deprive many men of liberty.
-
-1306.
-
-(Of Children who are suckled.)
-
-Many Franciscans, Dominicans and Benedictines will eat that which at
-other times was eaten by others, who for some months to come will
-not be able to speak.
-
-(Of Cockles and Sea Snails which are thrown up by the sea and which
-rot inside their shells.)
-
-How many will there be who, after they are dead, will putrefy inside
-their own houses, filling all the surrounding air with a fetid
-smell.
-
-1307.
-
-(Of Mules which have on them rich burdens of silver and gold.)
-
-Much treasure and great riches will be laid upon four-footed beasts,
-which will convey them to divers places.
-
-1308.
-
-(Of the Shadow cast by a man at night with a light.)
-
-Huge figures will appear in human shape, and the nearer you get to
-them, the more will their immense size diminish.
-
-[Footnote page 1307: It seems to me probable that this note, which
-occurs in the note book used in 1502, when Leonardo, in the service
-of Cesare Borgia, visited Urbino, was suggested by the famous
-pillage of the riches of the palace of Guidobaldo, whose treasures
-Cesare Borgia at once had carried to Cesena (see GREGOROVIUS,
-_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_. XIII, 5, 4). ]
-
-1309.
-
-(Of Snakes, carried by Storks.)
-
-Serpents of great length will be seen at a great height in the air,
-fighting with birds.
-
-(Of great guns, which come out of a pit and a mould.)
-
-Creatures will come from underground which with their terrific noise
-will stun all who are near; and with their breath will kill men and
-destroy cities and castles.
-
-1310.
-
-(Of Grain and other Seeds.)
-
-Men will fling out of their houses those victuals which were
-intended to sustain their life.
-
-(Of Trees, which nourish grafted shoots.)
-
-Fathers and mothers will be seen to take much more delight in their
-step-children then in their own children.
-
-(Of the Censer.)
-
-Some will go about in white garments with arrogant gestures
-threatening others with metal and fire which will do no harm at all
-to them.
-
-1311.
-
-(Of drying Fodder.)
-
-Innumerable lives will be destroyed and innumerable vacant spaces
-will be made on the earth.
-
-(Of the Life of Men, who every year change their bodily substance.)
-
-Men, when dead, will pass through their own bowels.
-
-1312.
-
-(Shoemakers.)
-
-Men will take pleasure in seeing their own work destroyed and
-injured.
-
-1313.
-
-(Of Kids.)
-
-The time of Herod will come again, for the little innocent children
-will be taken from their nurses, and will die of terrible wounds
-inflicted by cruel men.
-
-V.
-
-DRAUGHTS AND SCHEMES FOR THE HUMOROUS WRITINGS.
-
-Schemes for fables, etc. (1314-1323).
-
-1314.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The crab standing under the rock to catch the fish which crept under
-it, it came to pass that the rock fell with a ruinous downfall of
-stones, and by their fall the crab was crushed.
-
-THE SAME.
-
-The spider, being among the grapes, caught the flies which were
-feeding on those grapes. Then came the vintage, and the spider was
-cut down with the grapes.
-
-The vine that has grown old on an old tree falls with the ruin of
-that tree, and through that bad companionship must perish with it.
-
-The torrent carried so much earth and stones into its bed, that it
-was then constrained to change its course.
-
-The net that was wont to take the fish was seized and carried away
-by the rush of fish.
-
-The ball of snow when, as it rolls, it descends from the snowy
-mountains, increases in size as it falls.
-
-The willow, which by its long shoots hopes as it grows, to outstrip
-every other plant, from having associated itself with the vine which
-is pruned every year was always crippled.
-
-1315.
-
-Fable of the tongue bitten by the teeth.
-
-The cedar puffed up with pride of its beauty, separated itself from
-the trees around it and in so doing it turned away towards the wind,
-which not being broken in its fury, flung it uprooted on the earth.
-
-The traveller's joy, not content in its hedge, began to fling its
-branches out over the high road, and cling to the opposite hedge,
-and for this it was broken away by the passers by.
-
-1316.
-
-The goldfinch gives victuals to its caged young. Death rather than
-loss of liberty. [Footnote: Above this text is another note, also
-referring to liberty; see No. 694.]
-
-1317.
-
-(Of Bags.)
-
-Goats will convey the wine to the city.
-
-1318.
-
-All those things which in winter are hidden under the snow, will be
-uncovered and laid bare in summer. (for Falsehood, which cannot
-remain hidden).
-
-1319.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The lily set itself down by the shores of the Ticino, and the
-current carried away bank and the lily with it.
-
-1320.
-
-A JEST.
-
-Why Hungarian ducats have a double cross on them.
-
-1321.
-
-A SIMILE.
-
-A vase of unbaked clay, when broken, may be remoulded, but not a
-baked one.
-
-1322.
-
-Seeing the paper all stained with the deep blackness of ink, it he
-deeply regrets it; and this proves to the paper that the words,
-composed upon it were the cause of its being preserved.
-
-1323.
-
-The pen must necessarily have the penknife for a companion, and it
-is a useful companionship, for one is not good for much without the
-other.
-
-Schemes for prophecies (1324-1329).
-
-1324.
-
-The knife, which is an artificial weapon, deprives man of his nails,
-his natural weapons.
-
-The mirror conducts itself haughtily holding mirrored in itself the
-Queen. When she departs the mirror remains there ...
-
-1325.
-
-Flax is dedicated to death, and to the corruption of mortals. To
-death, by being used for snares and nets for birds, animals and
-fish; to corruption, by the flaxen sheets in which the dead are
-wrapped when they are buried, and who become corrupt in these
-winding sheets.-- And again, this flax does not separate its fibre
-till it has begun to steep and putrefy, and this is the flower with
-which garlands and decorations for funerals should be made.
-
-1326.
-
-(Of Peasants who work in shirts)
-
-Shadows will come from the East which will blacken with great colour
-darkness the sky that covers Italy.
-
-(Of the Barbers.)
-
-All men will take refuge in Africa.
-
-1327.
-
-The cloth which is held in the hand in the current of a running
-stream, in the waters of which the cloth leaves all its foulness and
-dirt, is meant to signify this &c.
-
-By the thorn with inoculated good fruit is signified those natures
-which of themselves were not disposed towards virtue, but by the aid
-of their preceptors they have the repudation of it.
-
-1328.
-
-A COMMON THING.
-
-A wretched person will be flattered, and these flatterers are always
-the deceivers, robbers and murderers of the wretched person.
-
-The image of the sun where it falls appears as a thing which covers
-the person who attempts to cover it.
-
-(Money and Gold.)
-
-Out of cavernous pits a thing shall come forth which will make all
-the nations of the world toil and sweat with the greatest torments,
-anxiety and labour, that they may gain its aid.
-
-(Of the Dread of Poverty.)
-
-The malicious and terrible [monster] will cause so much terror of
-itself in men that they will rush together, with a rapid motion,
-like madmen, thinking they are escaping her boundless force.
-
-(Of Advice.)
-
-The man who may be most necessary to him who needs him, will be
-repaid with ingratitude, that is greatly contemned.
-
-1329.
-
-(Of Bees.)
-
-They live together in communities, they are destroyed that we may
-take the honey from them. Many and very great nations will be
-destroyed in their own dwellings.
-
-1330.
-
-WHY DOGS TAKE PLEASURE IN SMELLING AT EACH OTHER.
-
-This animal has a horror of the poor, because they eat poor food,
-and it loves the rich, because they have good living and especially
-meat. And the excrement of animals always retains some virtue of its
-origin as is shown by the faeces ...
-
-Now dogs have so keen a smell, that they can discern by their nose
-the virtue remaining in these faeces, and if they find them in the
-streets, smell them and if they smell in them the virtue of meat or
-of other things, they take them, and if not, they leave them: And to
-return to the question, I say that if by means of this smell they
-know that dog to be well fed, they respect him, because they judge
-that he has a powerful and rich master; and if they discover no such
-smell with the virtue of meet, they judge that dog to be of small
-account and to have a poor and humble master, and therefore they
-bite that dog as they would his master.
-
-1331.
-
-The circular plans of carrying earth are very useful, inasmuch as
-men never stop in their work; and it is done in many ways. By one of
-these ways men carry the earth on their shoulders, by another in
-chests and others on wheelbarrows. The man who carries it on his
-shoulders first fills the tub on the ground, and he loses time in
-hoisting it on to his shoulders. He with the chests loses no time.
-[Footnote: The subject of this text has apparently no connection
-with the other texts of this section.]
-
-Irony (1332).
-
-1332.
-
-If Petrarch was so fond of bay, it was because it is of a good taste
-in sausages and with tunny; I cannot put any value on their foolery.
-[Footnote: Conte Porro has published these lines in the _Archivio
-Stor. Lombarda_ VIII, IV; he reads the concluding line thus: _I no
-posso di loro gia (sic) co' far tesauro._--This is known to be by a
-contemporary poet, as Senatore Morelli informs me.]
-
-Tricks (1333-1335).
-
-1333.
-
-We are two brothers, each of us has a brother. Here the way of
-saying it makes it appear that the two brothers have become four.
-
-1334.
-
-TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
-
-Take in each hand an equal number; put 4 from the right hand into
-the left; cast away the remainder; cast away an equal number from
-the left hand; add 5, and now you will find 13 in this [left] hand;
-that is-I made you put 4 from the right hand into the left, and cast
-away the remainder; now your right hand has 4 more; then I make you
-throw away as many from the right as you threw away from the left;
-so, throwing from each hand a quantity of which the remainder may be
-equal, you now have 4 and 4, which make 8, and that the trick may
-not be detec- ted I made you put 5 more, which made 13.
-
-TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
-
-Take any number less than 12 that you please; then take of mine
-enough to make up the number 12, and that which remains to me is the
-number which you at first had; because when I said, take any number
-less than 12 as you please, I took 12 into my hand, and of that 12
-you took such a number as made up your number of 12; and what you
-added to your number, you took from mine; that is, if you had 8 to
-go as far as to 12, you took of my 12, 4; hence this 4 transferred
-from me to you reduced my 12 to a remainder of 8, and your 8 became
-12; so that my 8 is equal to your 8, before it was made 12.
-
-[Footnote 1334: G. Govi _says in the_ 'Saggio' p. 22: _Si dilett
-Leonarda, di giuochi di prestigi e molti (?) ne descrisse, che si
-leggono poi riportati dal Paciolo nel suo libro:_ de Viribus
-Quantitatis, _e che, se non tutti, sono certo in gran parte
-invenzioni del Vinci._]
-
-1335.
-
-If you want to teach someone a subject you do not know yourself, let
-him measure the length of an object unknown to you, and he will
-learn the measure you did not know before;--Master Giovanni da Lodi.
-
-_XXI._
-
-_Letters. Personal Records. Dated Notes._
-
-_When we consider how superficial and imperfect are the accounts of
-Leonardo's life written some time after his death by Vasari and
-others, any notes or letters which can throw more light on his
-personal circumstances cannot fail to be in the highest degree
-interesting. The texts here given as Nos._ 1351--1353, _set his
-residence in Rome in quite a new aspect; nay, the picture which
-irresistibly dwells in our minds after reading these details of his
-life in the Vatican, forms a striking contrast to the contemporary
-life of Raphael at Rome._
-
-_I have placed foremost of these documents the very remarkable
-letters to the Defterdar of Syria. In these Leonardo speaks of
-himself as having staid among the mountains of Armenia, and as the
-biographies of the master tell nothing of any such distant journeys,
-it would seem most obvious to treat this passage as fiction, and so
-spare ourselves the onus of proof and discussion. But on close
-examination no one can doubt that these documents, with the
-accompanying sketches, are the work of Leonardo's own hand. Not
-merely is the character of the handwriting his, but the spelling and
-the language are his also. In one respect only does the writing
-betray any marked deviation from the rest of the notes, especially
-those treating on scientific questions; namely, in these
-observations he seems to have taken particular pains to give the
-most distinct and best form of expression to all he had to say; we
-find erasures and emendations in almost every line. He proceeded, as
-we shall see, in the same way in the sketches for letters to
-Giuliano de' Medici, and what can be more natural, I may ask, than
-to find the draft of a letter thus altered and improved when it is
-to contain an account of a definite subject, and when personal
-interests are in the scale? The finished copies as sent off are not
-known to exist; if we had these instead of the rough drafts, we
-might unhesitatingly have declared that some unknown Italian
-engineer must have been, at that time, engaged in Armenia in the
-service of the Egyptian Sultan, and that Leonardo had copied his
-documents. Under this hypothesis however we should have to state
-that this unknown writer must have been so far one in mind with
-Leonardo as to use the same style of language and even the same
-lines of thought. This explanation might--as I say--have been
-possible, if only we had the finished letters. But why should these
-rough drafts of letters be regarded as anything else than what they
-actually and obviously are? If Leonardo had been a man of our own
-time, we might perhaps have attempted to account for the facts by
-saying that Leonardo, without having been in the East himself, might
-have undertaken to write a Romance of which the scene was laid in
-Armenia, and at the desire of his publisher had made sketches of
-landscape to illustrate the text.
-
-I feel bound to mention this singular hypothesis as it has actually
-been put forward (see No. 1336 note 5); and it would certainly seem
-as though there were no other possible way of evading the conclusion
-to which these letters point, and their bearing on the life of the
-master,--absurd as the alternative is. But, if, on a question of
-such importance, we are justified in suggesting theories that have
-no foundation in probability, I could suggest another which, as
-compared with that of a Fiction by Leonardo, would be neither more
-nor less plausible; it is, moreover the only other hypothesis,
-perhaps, which can be devised to account for these passages, if it
-were possible to prove that the interpretation that the documents
-themselves suggest, must be rejected a priori; viz may not Leonardo
-have written them with the intention of mystifying those who, after
-his death, should try to decipher these manuscripts with a view to
-publishing them? But if, in fact, no objection that will stand the
-test of criticism can be brought against the simple and direct
-interpretation of the words as they stand, we are bound to regard
-Leonardo's travels in the East as an established fact. There is, I
-believe nothing in what we know of his biography to negative such a
-fact, especially as the details of his life for some few years are
-wholly unknown; nor need we be at a loss for evidence which may
-serve to explain--at any rate to some extent--the strangeness of his
-undertaking such a journey. We have no information as to Leonardo's
-history between 1482 and 1486; it cannot be proved that he was
-either in Milan or in Florence. On the other hand the tenor of this
-letter does not require us to assume a longer absence than a year or
-two. For, even if his appointment_ (offitio) _as Engineer in Syria
-had been a permanent one, it might have become untenable--by the
-death perhaps of the Defterdar, his patron, or by his removal from
-office--, and Leonardo on his return home may have kept silence on
-the subject of an episode which probably had ended in failure and
-disappointment.
-
-From the text of No. 1379 we can hardly doubt that Leonardo intended
-to make an excursion secretly from Rome to Naples, although so far
-as has hitherto been known, his biographers never allude to it. In
-another place (No. 1077) he says that he had worked as an Engineer
-in Friuli. Are we to doubt this statement too, merely because no
-biographer has hitherto given us any information on the matter? In
-the geographical notes Leonardo frequently speaks of the East, and
-though such passages afford no direct proof of his having been
-there, they show beyond a doubt that, next to the Nile, the
-Euphrates, the Tigris and the Taurus mountains had a special
-interest in his eyes. As a still further proof of the futility of
-the argument that there is nothing in his drawings to show that he
-had travelled in the East, we find on Pl. CXX a study of oriental
-heads of Armenian type,--though of course this may have been made in
-Italy.
-
-If the style of these letters were less sober, and the expressions
-less strictly to the point throughout, it miglit be possible to
-regard them as a romantic fiction instead of a narrative of fact.
-Nay, we have only to compare them with such obviously fanciful
-passages as No. 1354, Nos. 670-673, and the Fables and Prophecies.
-It is unnecessary to discuss the subject any further here; such
-explanations as the letter needs are given in the foot notes.
-
-The drafts of letters to Lodovico il Moro are very remarkable.
-Leonardo and this prince were certainly far less closely connected,
-than has hitherto been supposed. It is impossible that Leonardo can
-have remained so long in the service of this prince, because the
-salary was good, as is commonly stated. On the contrary, it would
-seem, that what kept him there, in spite of his sore need of the
-money owed him by the prince, was the hope of some day being able to
-carry out the project of casting the_ 'gran cavallo'.
-
-Drafts of Letters and Reports referring to Armenia (1336. 1337).
-
-1336.
-
-To THE DEVATDAR OF SYRIA, LIEUTENANT OF THE SACRED SULTAN OF
-BABYLON.
-
-[3] The recent disaster in our Northern parts which I am certain
-will terrify not you alone but the whole world, which
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-52 are reproduced in facsimile on Pl. CXVI.
-
-1. _Diodario._ This word is not to be found in any Italian
-dictionary, and for a long time I vainly sought an explanation of
-it. The youthful reminiscences of my wife afforded the desired clue.
-The chief town of each Turkish Villayet, or province --such as
-Broussa, for instance, in Asia Minor, is the residence of a
-Defterdar, who presides over the financial affairs of the province.
-_Defterdar hane_ was, in former times, the name given to the
-Ministry of Finance at Constantinople; the Minister of Finance to
-the Porte is now known as the _Mallie-Nazri_ and the _Defterdars_
-are his subordinates. A _Defterdar_, at the present day is merely
-the head of the finance department in each Provincial district. With
-regard to my suggestion that Leonardo's _Diodario_ might be
-identical with the Defterdar of former times, the late M. C.
-DEFREMERIE, Arabic Professor, and Membre de l'Institut de France
-wrote to me as follows: _Votre conjecture est parfaitement fondee;
-diodario est Vequivalent de devadar ou plus exactement devatdar,
-titre d'une importante dignite en Egypt'e, sous les Mamlouks._
-
-The word however is not of Turkish, but of Perso-Arabie derivation.
-[Defter written in arab?] literally _Defter_ (Arabic) meaning
-_folio_; for _dar_ (Persian) Bookkeeper or holder is the English
-equivalent; and the idea is that of a deputy in command. During the
-Mamelook supremacy over Syria, which corresponded in date with
-Leonardo's time, the office of Defterdar was the third in importance
-in the State.
-
-_Soltano di Babilonia_. The name of Babylon was commonly applied to
-Cairo in the middle ages. For instance BREIDENBACH, _Itinerarium
-Hierosolyma_ p. 218 says: "At last we reached Babylon. But this is
-not that Babylon which stood on the further shore of the river
-Chober, but that which is called the Egyptian Babylon. It is close
-by Cairo and the twain are but one and not two towns; one half is
-called Cairo and the other Babylon, whence they are called together
-Cairo-Babylon; originally the town is said to have been named
-Memphis and then Babylon, but now it is called Cairo." Compare No.
-1085, 6.
-
-Egypt was governed from 1382 till 1517 by the Borgite or
-Tcherkessian dynasty of the Mamelook Sultans. One of the most famous
-of these, Sultan Kait Bey, ruled from 1468-1496 during whose reign
-the Gama (or Mosque) of Kait Bey and tomb of Kait Bey near the
-Okella Kait Bey were erected in Cairo, which preserve his name to
-this day. Under the rule of this great and wise prince many
-foreigners, particularly Italians, found occupation in Egypt, as may
-be seen in the 'Viaggio di Josaphat Barbaro', among other
-travellers. "Next to Leonardo (so I learn from Prof. Jac. Burckhardt
-of Bale) Kait Bey's most helpful engineer was a German who in about
-1487, superintended the construction of the Mole at Alexandria.
-Felix Fabri knew him and mentions him in his _Historia Suevorum_,
-written in 1488."
-
-3. _Il nuovo accidente accaduto_, or as Leonardo first wrote and
-then erased, _e accaduto un nuovo accidente_. From the sequel this
-must refer to an earthquake, and indeed these were frequent at that
-period, particularly in Asia Minor, where they caused immense
-mischief. See No. 1101 note.]
-
-shall be related to you in due order, showing first the effect and
-then the cause. [Footnote 4: The text here breaks off. The following
-lines are a fresh beginning of a letter, evidently addressed to the
-same person, but, as it would seem, written at a later date than the
-previous text. The numerous corrections and amendments amply prove
-that it is not a copy from any account of a journey by some unknown
-person; but, on the contrary, that Leonardo was particularly anxious
-to choose such words and phrases as might best express his own
-ideas.]
-
-Finding myself in this part of Armenia [Footnote 5: _Parti
-d'Erminia_. See No. 945, note. The extent of Armenia in Leonardo's
-time is only approximately known. In the XVth century the Persians
-governed the Eastern, and the Arabs the Southern portions. Arabic
-authors--as, for instance Abulfeda--include Cilicia and a part of
-Cappadocia in Armenia, and Greater Armenia was the tract of that
-country known later as Turcomania, while Armenia Minor was the
-territory between Cappadocia and the Euphrates. It was not till
-1522, or even 1574 that the whole country came under the dominion of
-the Ottoman Turks, in the reign of Selim I.
-
-The Mamelook Sultans of Egypt seem to have taken a particular
-interest in this, the most Northern province of their empire, which
-was even then in danger of being conquered by the Turks. In the
-autumn of 1477 Sultan Kait Bey made a journey of inspection,
-visiting Antioch and the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates with a
-numerous and brilliant escort. This tour is briefly alluded to by
-_Moodshireddin_ p. 561; and by WEIL, _Geschichte der Abbasiden_ V,
-p. 358. An anonymous member of the suite wrote a diary of the
-expedition in Arabic, which has been published by R. V. LONZONE
-(_'Viaggio in Palestina e Soria di Kaid Ba XVIII sultano della II
-dinastia mamelucca, fatto nel 1477. Testo arabo. Torino 1878'_,
-without notes or commentary). Compare the critique on this edition,
-by J. GILDEMEISTER in _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina Vereins_
-(Vol. Ill p. 246--249). Lanzone's edition seems to be no more than
-an abridged copy of the original. I owe to Professor Sche'fer,
-Membre de l'Institut, the information that he is in possession of a
-manuscript in which the text is fuller, and more correctly given.
-The Mamelook dynasty was, as is well known, of Circassian origin,
-and a large proportion of the Egyptian Army was recruited in
-Circassia even so late as in the XVth century. That was a period of
-political storms in Syria and Asia Minor and it is easy to suppose
-that the Sultan's minister, to whom Leonardo addresses his report as
-his superior, had a special interest in the welfare of those
-frontier provinces. Only to mention a few historical events of
-Sultan Kait Bey's reign, we find that in 1488 he assisted the
-Circassians to resist the encroachments of Alaeddoulet, an Asiatic
-prince who had allied himself with the Osmanli to threaten the
-province; the consequence was a war in Cilicia by sea and land,
-which broke out in the following year between the contending powers.
-Only a few years earlier the same province had been the scene of the
-so-called Caramenian war in which the united Venetian, Neapolitan
-and Sclavonic fleets had been engaged. (See CORIALANO CIPPICO,
-_Della guerra dei Veneziani nell' Asia dal_ 1469--1474. Venezia
-1796, p. 54) and we learn incidentally that a certain Leonardo
-Boldo, Governor of Scutari under Sultan Mahmoud,--as his name would
-indicate, one of the numerous renegades of Italian birth--played an
-important part in the negotiations for peace.
-
-_Tu mi mandasti_. The address _tu_ to a personage so high in office
-is singular and suggests personal intimacy; Leonardo seems to have
-been a favourite with the Diodario. Compare lines 54 and 55.
-
-I have endeavoured to show, and I believe that I am also in a
-position to prove with regard to these texts, that they are draughts
-of letters actually written by Leonardo; at the same time I must not
-omit to mention that shortly after I had discovered
-
-these texts in the Codex Atlanticus and published a paper on the
-subject in the _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst (Vol. XVI)_, Prof.
-Govi put forward this hypothesis to account for their origin:
-
-_"Quanto alle notizie sul monte Tauro, sull'Armenia e sull' Asia
-minore che si contengono negli altri frammenti, esse vennero prese
-da qualche geografro o viaggiatore contemporaneo. Dall'indice
-imperfetto che accompagna quei frammenti, si potrebbe dedurre che
-Leonardo volesse farne un libro, che poi non venne compiuto. A ogni
-modo, non e possibile di trovare in questi brani nessun indizio di
-un viaggio di Leonardo in oriente, ne della sua conversione alla
-religione di Maometto, come qualcuno pretenderebbe. Leonardo amava
-con passione gli studi geografici, e nel suoi scritti s'incontran
-spesso itinerart, indicazioni, o descrizioni di luoghi, schizzi di
-carte e abbozzi topografici di varie regioni, non e quindi strano
-che egli, abile narratore com'era, si fosse proposto di scrivere una
-specie di Romanzo in forma epistolare svolgendone Pintreccio
-nell'Asia Minore, intorno alla quale i libri d'allora, e forse
-qualche viaggiatore amico suo, gli avevano somministrato alcuni
-elementi piu o meno_ fantastici. (See Transunti della Reale
-Accademia dei Lincei Voi. V Ser. 3).
-
-It is hardly necessary to point out that Prof. Govi omits to name
-the sources from which Leonardo could be supposed to have drawn his
-information, and I may leave it to the reader to pronounce judgment
-on the anomaly which is involved in the hypothesis that we have here
-a fragment of a Romance, cast in the form of a correspondence. At
-the same time, I cannot but admit that the solution of the
-difficulties proposed by Prof. Govi is, under the circumstances,
-certainly the easiest way of dealing with the question. But we
-should then be equally justified in supposing some more of
-Leonardo's letters to be fragments of such romances; particularly
-those of which the addresses can no longer be named. Still, as
-regards these drafts of letters to the Diodario, if we accept the
-Romance theory, as pro- posed by Prof. Govi, we are also compelled
-to assume that Leonardo purposed from the first to illustrate his
-tale; for it needs only a glance at the sketches on PI. CXVI to CXIX
-to perceive that they are connected with the texts; and of course
-the rest of Leonardo's numerous notes on matters pertaining to the
-East, the greater part of which are here published for the first
-time, may also be somehow connected with this strange romance.
-
-7. _Citta de Calindra (Chalindra)_. The position of this city is so
-exactly determined, between the valley of the Euphrates and the
-Taurus range that it ought to be possible to identify it. But it can
-hardly be the same as the sea port of Cilicia with a somewhat
-similar name Celenderis, Kelandria, Celendria, Kilindria, now the
-Turkish Gulnar. In two Catalonian Portulans in the Bibliotheque
-Natio- nale in Paris-one dating from the XV'h century, by Wilhelm
-von Soler, the other by Olivez de Majorca, in l584-I find this place
-called Calandra. But Leonardo's Calindra must certainly have lain
-more to the North West, probably somewhere in Kurdistan. The fact
-that the geographical position is so care- fully determined by
-Leonardo seems to prove that it was a place of no great importance
-and little known. It is singular that the words first written in 1.
-8 were divisa dal lago (Lake Van?), altered afterwards to
-dall'Eitfrates.
-
-Nostri confini, and in 1. 6 proposito nostro. These refer to the
-frontier and to the affairs of the Mamelook Sultan, Lines 65 and 66
-throw some light on the purpose of Leonardo's mission.
-
-8. _I_ corni del gra mote Tauro. Compare the sketches PI.
-CXVI-CXVIII. So long as it is im- possible to identify the situation
-of Calindra it is most difficult to decide with any certainty which
-peak of the Taurus is here meant; and I greatly regret that I had no
-foreknowledge of this puzzling topographical question when, in 1876,
-I was pursuing archaeological enquiries in the Provinces of Aleppo
-and Cilicia, and had to travel for some time in view of the imposing
-snow-peaks of Bulghar Dagh and Ala Tepessi.
-
-9-10. The opinion here expressed as to the height of the mountain
-would be unmeaning, unless it had been written before Leonardo moved
-to Milan, where Monte Rosa is so conspicuous an object in the
-landscape. 4 _ore inanzi_ seems to mean, four hours before the sun's
-rays penetrate to the bottom of the valleys.]
-
-to carry into effect with due love and care the task for which you
-sent me [Footnote: ][6]; and to make a beginning in a place which
-seemed to me to be most to our purpose, I entered into the city of
-Calindrafy[7], near to our frontiers. This city is situated at the
-base of that part of the Taurus mountains which is divided from the
-Euphrates and looks towards the peaks of the great Mount Taurus [8]
-to the West [9]. These peaks are of such a height that they seem to
-touch the sky, and in all the world there is no part of the earth,
-higher than its summit[10], and the rays of the sun always fall upon
-it on its East side, four hours before day-time, and being of the
-whitest stone [Footnote 11:_Pietra bianchissima_. The Taurus
-Mountains consist in great part of limestone.] it shines
-resplendently and fulfils the function to these Armenians which a
-bright moon-light would in the midst of the darkness; and by its
-great height it outreaches the utmost level of the clouds by a space
-of four miles in a straight line. This peak is seen in many places
-towards the West, illuminated by the sun after its setting the third
-part of the night. This it is, which with you [Footnote 14:
-_Appresso di voi_. Leonardo had at first written _noi_ as though his
-meaning had,been: This peak appeared to us to be a comet when you
-and I observed it in North Syria (at Aleppo? at Aintas?). The
-description of the curious reflection in the evening, resembling the
-"Alpine-glow" is certainly not an invented fiction, for in the next
-lines an explanation of the phenomenon is offered, or at least
-attempted.] we formerly in calm weather had supposed to be a comet,
-and appears to us in the darkness of night, to change its form,
-being sometimes divided in two or three parts, and sometimes long
-and sometimes short. And this is caused by the clouds on the horizon
-of the sky which interpose between part of this mountain and the
-sun, and by cutting off some of the solar rays the light on the
-mountain is intercepted by various intervals of clouds, and
-therefore varies in the form of its brightness.
-
-THE DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK [Footnote 19: The next 33 lines are
-evidently the contents of a connected Report or Book, but not of one
-which he had at hand; more probably, indeed, of one he purposed
-writing.].
-
-The praise and confession of the faith [Footnote 20: _Persuasione di
-fede_, of the Christian or the Mohammedan faith? We must suppose the
-latter, at the beginning of a document addressed to so high a
-Mohammedan official. _Predica_ probably stands as an abbreviation
-for _predicazione_ (lat. _praedicatio_) in the sense of praise or
-glorification; very probably it may mean some such initial doxology
-as we find in Mohammedan works. (Comp. 1. 40.)].
-
-The sudden inundation, to its end.
-
-[23] The destruction of the city.
-
-[24]The death of the people and their despair.
-
-The preacher's search, his release and benevolence [Footnote 28: The
-phraseology of this is too general for any conjecture as to its
-meaning to be worth hazarding.]
-
-Description of the cause of this fall of the mountain [Footnote 30:
-_Ruina del monte_. Of course by an earthquake. In a catalogue of
-earthquakes, entitled _kechf aussalssaleb an auasf ezzel-zeleh_, and
-written by Djelal eddin].
-
-The mischief it did.
-
-[32] Fall of snow.
-
-The finding of the prophet [33].
-
-His prophesy.
-
-[35] The inundation of the lower portion of Eastern Armenia, the
-draining of which was effected by the cutting through the Taurus
-Mountains.
-
-How the new prophet showed [Footnote 40:_Nova profeta, 1. 33,
-profeta_. Mohammed. Leonardo here refers to the Koran:
-
-In the name of the most merciful God.--When the earth shall be
-shaken by an earthquake; and the earth shall cast forth her burdens;
-and a man shall say, what aileth her? On that day the earth shall
-declare her tidings, for that thy Lord will inspire her. On that day
-men shall go forward in distinct classes, that they may behold their
-works. And whoever shall have wrought good of the weight of an ant,
-shall behold the same. And whoever shall have wrought evil of the
-weight of an ant, shall behold the same. (The Koran, translated by
-G. Sale, Chapter XCIX, p. 452).] that this destruction would happen
-as he had foretold.
-
-Description of the Taurus Mountains [43] and the river Euphrates.
-
-Why the mountain shines at the top, from half to a third of the
-night, and looks like a comet to the inhabitants of the West after
-the sunset, and before day to those of the East.
-
-Why this comet appears of variable forms, so that it is now round
-and now long, and now again divided into two or three parts, and now
-in one piece, and when it is to be seen again.
-
-OF THE SHAPE OF THE TAURUS MOUNTAINS [Footnote 53-94: The facsimile
-of this passage is given on Pl. CXVII.].
-
-I am not to be accused, Oh Devatdar, of idleness, as your chidings
-seem to hint; but your excessive love for me, which gave rise to the
-benefits you have conferred on me [Footnote 55] is that which has
-also compelled me to the utmost painstaking in seeking out and
-diligently investigating the cause of so great and stupendous an
-effect. And this could not be done without time; now, in order to
-satisfy you fully as to the cause of so great an effect, it is
-requisite that I should explain to you the form of the place, and
-then I will proceed to the effect, by which I believe you will be
-amply satisfied.
-
-[Footnote 36: _Tagliata di Monte Tauro_. The Euphrates flows through
-the Taurus range near the influx of the Kura Shai; it rushes through
-a rift in the wildest cliffs from 2000 to 3000 feet high and runs on
-for 90 miles in 300 falls or rapids till it reaches Telek, near
-which at a spot called Gleikash, or the Hart's leap, it measures
-only 35 paces across. Compare the map on Pl. CXIX and the
-explanation for it on p. 391.]
-
-[Footnote 54: The foregoing sketch of a letter, lines 5. 18, appears
-to have remained a fragment when Leonardo received pressing orders
-which caused him to write immediately and fully on the subject
-mentioned in line 43.]
-
-[Footnote 59: This passage was evidently intended as an improvement
-on that immediately preceding it. The purport of both is essentially
-the same, but the first is pitched in a key of ill-disguised
-annoyance which is absent from the second. I do not see how these
-two versions can be reconciled with the romance-theory held by Prof.
-Govi.] Do not be aggrieved, O Devatdar, by my delay in responding to
-your pressing request, for those things which you require of me are
-of such a nature that they cannot be well expressed without some
-lapse of time; particularly because, in order to explain the cause
-of so great an effect, it is necessary to describe with accuracy the
-nature of the place; and by this means I can afterwards easily
-satisfy your above-mentioned request. [Footnote 62: This passage was
-evidently intended as an improvement on that immediately preceding
-it. The purport of both is essentially the same, but the first is
-pitched in a key of ill-disguised annoyance which is absent from the
-second. I do not see how these two versions can be reconciled with
-the romance-theory held by Prof. Govi.]
-
-I will pass over any description of the form of Asia Minor, or as to
-what seas or lands form the limits of its outline and extent,
-because I know that by your own diligence and carefulness in your
-studies you have not remained in ignorance of these matters [65];
-and I will go on to describe the true form of the Taurus Mountain
-which is the cause of this stupendous and harmful marvel, and which
-will serve to advance us in our purpose [66]. This Taurus is that
-mountain which, with many others is said to be the ridge of Mount
-Caucasus; but wishing to be very clear about it, I desired to speak
-to some of the inhabitants of the shores of the Caspian sea, who
-give evidence that this must be the true Caucasus, and that though
-their mountains bear the same name, yet these are higher; and to
-confirm this in the Scythian tongue Caucasus means a very high
-[Footnote 68: Caucasus; Herodot Kaoxaais; Armen. Kaukaz.] peak, and
-in fact we have no information of there being, in the East or in the
-West, any mountain so high. And the proof of this is that the
-inhabitants of the countries to the West see the rays of the sun
-illuminating a great part of its summit for as much as a quarter of
-the longest night. And in the same way, in those countries which lie
-to the East.
-
-OF THE STRUCTURE AND SIZE OF MOUNT TAURUS.
-
-[Footnote 73: The statements are of course founded on those of the
-'inhabitants' spoken of in 1. 67.] The shadow of this ridge of the
-Taurus is of such a height that when, in the middle of June, the Sun
-is at its meridian, its shadow extends as far as the borders of
-Sarmatia, twelve days off; and in the middle of December it extends
-as far as the Hyperborean mountains, which are at a month's journey
-to the North [75]. And the side which faces the wind is always free
-from clouds and mists, because the wind which is parted in beating
-on the rock, closes again on the further side of that rock, and in
-its motion carries with it the clouds from all quarters and leaves
-them where it strikes. And it is always full of thunderbolts from
-the great quantity of clouds which accumulate there, whence the rock
-is all riven and full of huge debris [Footnote 77: Sudden storms are
-equally common on the heights of Ararat. It is hardly necessary to
-observe that Ararat cannot be meant here. Its summit is formed like
-the crater of Vesuvius. The peaks sketched on Pl. CXVI-CXVIII are
-probably views of the same mountain, taken from different sides.
-Near the solitary peak, Pl. CXVIII these three names are written
-_goba, arnigasar, caruda_, names most likely of different peaks. Pl.
-CXVI and CXVII are in the original on a single sheet folded down the
-middle, 30 centimetres high and 43 1/2 wide. On the reverse of one
-half of the sheet are notes on _peso_ and _bilancia_ (weight and
-balance), on the other are the 'prophecies' printed under Nos. 1293
-and 1294. It is evident from the arrangement that these were written
-subsequently, on the space which had been left blank. These pages
-are facsimiled on Pl. CXVIII. In Pl. CXVI-CXVIII the size is smaller
-than in the original; the map of Armenia, Pl. CXVIII, is on Pl. CXIX
-slightly enlarged. On this map we find the following names,
-beginning from the right hand at the top: _pariardes mo_ (for
-Paryadres Mons, Arm. Parchar, now Barchal or Kolai Dagh; Trebizond
-is on its slope).
-
-_Aquilone_ --North, _Antitaurus Antitaurus psis mo_ (probably meant
-for Thospitis = Lake Van, Arm. Dgov Vanai, Tospoi, and the Mountain
-range to the South); _Gordis mo_ (Mountains of Gordyaea), the birth
-place of the Tigris; _Oriente_ --East; _Tigris_, and then, to the
-left, _Eufrates_. Then, above to the left _Argeo mo_ (now Erdshigas,
-an extinct volcano, 12000 feet high); _Celeno mo_ (no doubt Sultan
-Dagh in Pisidia). Celeno is the Greek town of KeAouvat-- see Arian
-I, 29, I--now the ruins of Dineir); _oriente_ --East; _africo
-libezco_ (for libeccio--South West). In the middle of the Euphrates
-river on this small map we see a shaded portion surrounded by
-mountains, perhaps to indicate the inundation mentioned in l. 35.
-The affluent to the Euphrates shown as coming with many windings
-from the high land of 'Argeo' on the West, is the Tochma Su, which
-joins the main river at Malatie. I have not been able to discover
-any map of Armenia of the XVth or XVIth century in which the course
-of the Euphrates is laid down with any thing like the correctness
-displayed in this sketch. The best I have seen is the Catalonian
-Portulan of Olivez de Majorca, executed in 1584, and it is far
-behind Leonardo's.]. This mountain, at its base, is inhabited by a
-very rich population and is full of most beautiful springs and
-rivers, and is fertile and abounding in all good produce,
-particularly in those parts which face to the South. But after
-mounting about three miles we begin to find forests of great fir
-trees, and beech and other similar trees; after this, for a space of
-three more miles, there are meadows and vast pastures; and all the
-rest, as far as the beginning of the Taurus, is eternal snows which
-never disappear at any time, and extend to a height of about
-fourteen miles in all. From this beginning of the Taurus up to the
-height of a mile the clouds never pass away; thus we have fifteen
-miles, that is, a height of about five miles in a straight line; and
-the summit of the peaks of the Taurus are as much, or about that.
-There, half way up, we begin to find a scorching air and never feel
-a breath of wind; but nothing can live long there; there nothing is
-brought forth save a few birds of prey which breed in the high
-fissures of Taurus and descend below the clouds to seek their prey.
-Above the wooded hills all is bare rock, that is, from the clouds
-upwards; and the rock is the purest white. And it is impossible to
-walk to the high summit on account of the rough and perilous ascent.
-
-1337.
-
-[Footnote: 1337. On comparing this commencement of a letter l. 1-2
-with that in l. 3 and 4 of No. 1336 it is quite evident that both
-refer to the same event. (Compare also No. 1337 l. 10-l2 and 17 with
-No. 1336 l. 23, 24 and 32.) But the text No. 1336, including the
-fragment l. 3-4, was obviously written later than the draft here
-reproduced. The _Diodario_ is not directly addressed--the person
-addressed indeed is not known--and it seems to me highly probable
-that it was written to some other patron and friend whose name and
-position are not mentioned.]
-
-Having often made you, by my letters, acquainted with the things
-which have happened, I think I ought not to be silent as to the
-events of the last few days, which--[2]...
-
-Having several times--
-
-Having many times rejoiced with you by letters over your prosperous
-fortunes, I know now that, as a friend you will be sad with me over
-the miserable state in which I find myself; and this is, that during
-the last few days I have been in so much trouble, fear, peril and
-loss, besides the miseries of the people here, that we have been
-envious of the dead; and certainly I do not believe that since the
-elements by their separation reduced the vast chaos to order, they
-have ever combined their force and fury to do so much mischief to
-man. As far as regards us here, what we have seen and gone through
-is such that I could not imagine that things could ever rise to such
-an amount of mischief, as we experienced in the space of ten hours.
-In the first place we were assailed and attacked by the violence and
-fury of the winds [10]; to this was added the falling of great
-mountains of snow which filled up all this valley, thus destroying a
-great part of our city [Footnote 11: _Della nostra citta_ (Leonardo
-first wrote _di questa citta_). From this we may infer that he had
-at some time lived in the place in question wherever it might be.].
-And not content with this the tempest sent a sudden flood of water
-to submerge all the low part of this city [12]; added to which there
-came a sudden rain, or rather a ruinous torrent and flood of water,
-sand, mud, and stones, entangled with roots, and stems and fragments
-of various trees; and every kind of thing flying through the air
-fell upon us; finally a great fire broke out, not brought by the
-wind, but carried as it would seem, by ten thousand devils, which
-completely burnt up all this neighbourhood and it has not yet
-ceased. And those few who remain unhurt are in such dejection and
-such terror that they hardly have courage to speak to each other, as
-if they were stunned. Having abandoned all our business, we stay
-here together in the ruins of some churches, men and women mingled
-together, small and great [Footnote 17: _Certe ruine di chiese_.
-Either of Armenian churches or of Mosques, which it was not unusual
-to speak of as churches.
-
-_Maschi e femmini insieme unite_, implies an infringement of the
-usually strict rule of the separation of the sexes.], just like
-herds of goats. The neighbours out of pity succoured us with
-victuals, and they had previously been our enemies. And if
-
-[Footnote 18: _I vicini, nostri nimici_. The town must then have
-stood quite close to the frontier of the country. Compare 1336. L.
-7. _vicini ai nostri confini_. Dr. M. JORDAN has already published
-lines 4-13 (see _Das Malerbuch, Leipzig_, 1873, p. 90:--his reading
-differs from mine) under the title of "Description of a landscape
-near Lake Como". We do in fact find, among other loose sheets in the
-Codex Atlanticus, certain texts referring to valleys of the Alps
-(see Nos. 1030, 1031 and note p. 237) and in the arrangement of the
-loose sheets, of which the Codex Atlanticus has been formed, these
-happen to be placed close to this text. The compiler stuck both on
-the same folio sheet; and if this is not the reason for Dr. JORDAN'S
-choosing such a title (Description &c.) I cannot imagine what it can
-have been. It is, at any rate, a merely hypothetical statement. The
-designation of the population of the country round a city as "the
-enemy" (_nemici_) is hardly appropriate to Italy in the time of
-Leonardo.]
-
-it had not been for certain people who succoured us with victuals,
-all would have died of hunger. Now you see the state we are in. And
-all these evils are as nothing compared with those which are
-promised to us shortly.
-
-I know that as a friend you will grieve for my misfortunes, as I, in
-former letters have shown my joy at your prosperity ...
-
-Notes about events observed abroad (1338-1339).
-
-1338.
-
-BOOK 43. OF THE MOVEMENT OF AIR ENCLOSED IN WATER.
-
-I have seen motions of the air so furious that they have carried,
-mixed up in their course, the largest trees of the forest and whole
-roofs of great palaces, and I have seen the same fury bore a hole
-with a whirling movement digging out a gravel pit, and carrying
-gravel, sand and water more than half a mile through the air.
-
-[Footnote: The first sixteen lines of this passage which treat of
-the subject as indicated on the title line have no place in this
-connexion and have been omitted.]
-
-[Footnote 2: _Ho veduto movimenti_ &c. Nothing of the kind happened
-in Italy during Leonardo's lifetime, and it is therefore extremely
-probable that this refers to the natural phenomena which are so
-fully described in the foregoing passage. (Compare too, No. 1021.)
-There can be no doubt that the descriptions of the Deluge in the
-Libro di Pittura (Vol. I, No. 607-611), and that of the fall of a
-mountain No. 610, l. 17-30 were written from the vivid impressions
-derived from personal experience. Compare also Pl. XXXIV-XL.]
-
-1339.
-
-[Footnote: It may be inferred from the character of the writing,
-which is in the style of the note in facsimile Vol. I, p. 297, that
-this passage was written between 1470 and 1480. As the figure 6 at
-the end of the text indicates, it was continued on another page, but
-I have searched in vain for it. The reverse of this leaf is coloured
-red for drawing in silver point, but has not been used for that
-purpose but for writing on, and at about the same date. The passages
-are given as Nos. 1217, 1218, 1219, 1162 and No. 994 (see note page
-218). The text given above is obviously not a fragment of a letter,
-but a record of some personal experience. No. 1379 also seems to
-refer to Leonardo's journeys in Southern Italy.]
-
-Like a whirling wind which rushes down a sandy and hollow valley,
-and which, in its hasty course, drives to its centre every thing
-that opposes its furious course ...
-
-No otherwise does the Northern blast whirl round in its tempestuous
-progress ...
-
-Nor does the tempestuous sea bellow so loud, when the Northern blast
-dashes it, with its foaming waves between Scylla and Charybdis; nor
-Stromboli, nor Mount Etna, when their sulphurous flames, having been
-forcibly confined, rend, and burst open the mountain, fulminating
-stones and earth through the air together with the flames they
-vomit.
-
-Nor when the inflamed caverns of Mount Etna [Footnote 13: Mongibello
-is a name commonly given in Sicily to Mount Etna (from Djebel,
-Arab.=mountain). Fr. FERRARA, _Descrizione dell' Etna con la storia
-delle eruzioni_ (Palermo, 1818, p. 88) tells us, on the authority of
-the _Cronaca del Monastero Benedettino di Licordia_ of an eruption
-of the Volcano with a great flow of lava on Sept. 21, 1447. The next
-records of the mountain are from the years 1533 and 1536. A. Percy
-neither does mention any eruptions of Etna during the years to which
-this note must probably refer _Memoire des tremblements de terre de
-la peninsule italique, Vol. XXII des Memoires couronnees et Memoires
-des savants etrangers. Academie Royal de Belgique_).
-
-A literal interpretation of the passage would not, however, indicate
-an allusion to any great eruption; particularly in the connection
-with Stromboli, where the periodical outbreaks in very short
-intervals are very striking to any observer, especially at night
-time, when passing the island on the way from Naples to Messina.],
-rejecting the ill-restained element vomit it forth, back to its own
-region, driving furiously before it every obstacle that comes in the
-way of its impetuous rage ...
-
-Unable to resist my eager desire and wanting to see the great ... of
-the various and strange shapes made by formative nature, and having
-wandered some distance among gloomy rocks, I came to the entrance of
-a great cavern, in front of which I stood some time, astonished and
-unaware of such a thing. Bending my back into an arch I rested my
-left hand on my knee and held my right hand over my down-cast and
-contracted eye brows: often bending first one way and then the
-other, to see whether I could discover anything inside, and this
-being forbidden by the deep darkness within, and after having
-remained there some time, two contrary emotions arose in me, fear
-and desire--fear of the threatening dark cavern, desire to see
-whether there were any marvellous thing within it ...
-
-Drafts of Letters to Lodovico il Moro (1340-1345).
-
-1340.
-
-[Footnote: The numerous corrections, the alterations in the figures
-(l. 18) and the absence of any signature prove that this is merely
-the rough draft of a letter to Lodovico il Moro. It is one of the
-very few manuscripts which are written from left to right--see the
-facsimile of the beginning as here reproduced. This is probably the
-final sketch of a document the clean of which copy was written in
-the usual manner. Leonardo no doubt very rarely wrote so, and this
-is probably the reason of the conspicuous dissimilarity in the
-handwriting, when he did. (Compare Pl. XXXVIII.) It is noteworthy
-too that here the orthography and abbreviations are also
-exceptional. But such superficial peculiarities are not enough to
-stamp the document as altogether spurious. It is neither a forgery
-nor the production of any artist but Leonardo himself. As to this
-point the contents leave us no doubt as to its authenticity,
-particularly l. 32 (see No. 719, where this passage is repeated).
-But whether the fragment, as we here see it, was written from
-Leonardo's dictation--a theory favoured by the orthography, the
-erasures and corrections--or whether it may be a copy made for or by
-Melzi or Mazenta is comparatively unimportant. There are in the
-Codex Atlanticus a few other documents not written by Leonardo
-himself, but the notes in his own hand found on the reverse pages of
-these leaves amply prove that they were certainly in Leonardo's
-possession. This mark of ownership is wanting to the text in
-question, but the compilers of the Codex Atlanticus, at any rate,
-accepted it as a genuine document.
-
-With regard to the probable date of this projected letter see Vol.
-II, p. 3.]
-
-Most illustrious Lord, Having now sufficiently considered the
-specimens of all those who proclaim themselves skilled contrivers of
-instruments of war, and that the invention and operation of the said
-instruments are nothing different to those in common use: I shall
-endeavour, without prejudice to any one else, to explain myself to
-your Excellency showing your Lordship my secrets, and then offering
-them to your best pleasure and approbation to work with effect at
-opportune moments as well as all those things which, in part, shall
-be briefly noted below.
-
-1) I have a sort of extremely light and strong bridges, adapted to
-be most easily carried, and with them you may pursue, and at any
-time flee from the enemy; and others, secure and indestructible by
-fire and battle, easy and convenient to lift and place. Also methods
-of burning and destroying those of the enemy.
-
-2) I know how, when a place is besieged, to take the water out of
-the trenches, and make endless variety of bridges, and covered ways
-and ladders, and other machines pertaining to such expeditions.
-
-3) Item. If, by reason of the height of the banks, or the strength
-of the place and its position, it is impossible, when besieging a
-place, to avail oneself of the plan of bombardment, I have methods
-for destroying every rock or other fortress, even if it were founded
-on a rock, &c.
-
-4) Again I have kinds of mortars; most convenient and easy to carry;
-and with these can fling small stones almost resembling a storm; and
-with the smoke of these causing great terror to the enemy, to his
-great detriment and confusion.
-
-9) [8] And when the fight should be at sea I have kinds of many
-machines most efficient for offence and defence; and vessels which
-will resist the attack of the largest guns and powder and fumes.
-
-5) Item. I have means by secret and tortuous mines and ways, made
-without noise to reach a designated [spot], even if it were needed
-to pass under a trench or a river.
-
-6) Item. I will make covered chariots, safe and unattackable which,
-entering among the enemy with their artillery, there is no body of
-men so great but they would break them. And behind these, infantry
-could follow quite unhurt and without any hindrance.
-
-7) Item. In case of need I will make big guns, mortars and light
-ordnance of fine and useful forms, out of the common type.
-
-8) Where the operation of bombardment should fail, I would contrive
-catapults, mangonels, _trabocchi_ and other machines of marvellous
-efficacy and not in common use. And in short, according to the
-variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of
-offence and defence.
-
-10) In time of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction and
-to the equal of any other in architecture and the composition of
-buildings public and private; and in guiding water from one place to
-another.
-
-Item: I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze or clay, and also
-in painting whatever may be done, and as well as any other, be he
-whom he may.
-
-[32] Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to
-the immortal glory and eternal honour of the prince your father of
-happy memory, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
-
-And if any one of the above-named things seem to any one to be
-impossible or not feasible, I am most ready to make the experiment
-in your park, or in whatever place may please your Excellency--to
-whom I commend myself with the utmost humility &c.
-
-1341.
-
-To my illustrious Lord, Lodovico, Duke of Bari, Leonardo da Vinci of
-Florence-- Leonardo.
-
-[Footnote: Evidently a note of the superscription of a letter to the
-Duke, and written, like the foregoing from left to right. The
-manuscript containing it is of the year 1493. Lodovico was not
-proclaimed and styled Duke of Milan till September 1494. The Dukedom
-of Bari belonged to the Sforza family till 1499.]
-
-1342.
-
-You would like to see a model which will prove useful to you and to
-me, also it will be of use to those who will be the cause of our
-usefulness.
-
-[Footnote: 1342. 1343. These two notes occur in the same not very
-voluminous MS. as the former one and it is possible that they are
-fragments of the same letter. By the _Modello_, the equestrian
-statue is probably meant, particularly as the model of this statue
-was publicly exhibited in this very year, 1493, on tne occasion of
-the marriage of the Emperor Maximilian with Bianca Maria Sforza.]
-
-1343.
-
-There are here, my Lord, many gentlemen who will undertake this
-expense among them, if they are allowed to enjoy the use of
-admission to the waters, the mills, and the passage of vessels and
-when it is sold to them the price will be repaid to them by the
-canal of Martesana.
-
-1344.
-
-I am greatly vexed to be in necessity, but I still more regret that
-this should be the cause of the hindrance of my wish which is always
-disposed to obey your Excellency.
-
-Perhaps your Excellency did not give further orders to Messer
-Gualtieri, believing that I had money enough.
-
-I am greatly annoyed that you should have found me in necessity, and
-that my having to earn my living should have hindered me ...
-
-[12] It vexes me greatly that having to earn my living has forced me
-to interrupt the work and to attend to small matters, instead of
-following up the work which your Lordship entrusted to me. But I
-hope in a short time to have earned so much that I may carry it out
-quietly to the satisfaction of your Excellency, to whom I commend
-myself; and if your Lordship thought that I had money, your Lordship
-was deceived. I had to feed 6 men for 56 months, and have had 50
-ducats.
-
-1345.
-
-And if any other comission is given me
-                            by any ...
-of the reward of my service. Because I am
-                            not [able] to be ...
-things assigned because meanwhile they
-                have ... to them ...
-... which they well may settle rather than I ...
-not my art which I wish to change and ...
-given some clothing if I dare a sum ...
-
-
-My Lord, I knowing your Excellency's
-               mind to be occupied ...
-to remind your Lordship of my small matters
-                  and the arts put to silence
-that my silence might be the cause of making
-                  your Lordship scorn ...
-my life in your service. I hold myself ever
-                 in readiness to obey ...
-
-[Footnote 11: See No. 723, where this passage is repeated.]
-
-Of the horse I will say nothing because
-              I know the times [are bad]
-to your Lordship how I had still to receive
-              two years' salary of the ...
-with the two skilled workmen who are constantly
-in my pay and at my cost
-that at last I found myself advanced the
-             said sum about 15 lire ...
-works of fame by which I could show to
-    those who shall see it that I have been
-everywhere, but I do not know where I
-could bestow my work [more] ...
-
-[Footnote 17: See No. 1344 l. 12.]
-I, having been working to gain my
-                       living ...
-
-I not having been informed what it is, I find
-                         myself ...
-
-[Footnote 19: In April, 1498, Leonardo was engaged in
-painting the Saletta Nigra of the Castello at Milan.
-(See G. MONGERI, _l'Arte in Milano_, 1872, p. 417.)]
-
-remember the commission to paint the
-                       rooms ...
-
-I conveyed to your Lordship only requesting
-                            you ...
-
-
-[Footnote: The paper on which this is written is torn down the
-middle; about half of each line remains.]
-
-Draft of letter to be sent to Piacenza (1346. 1347).
-
-[Footnote: 1346. 1347. Piacenza belonged to Milan. The Lord spoken
-of in this letter, is no doubt Lodovico il Moro. One may infer from
-the concluding sentence (No. 1346, l. 33. 34 and No. 1347), that
-Leonardo, who no doubt compiled this letter, did not forward it to
-Piacenza himself, but gave it to some influential patron, under
-whose name and signature a copy of it was sent to the Commission.]
-
-1346.
-
-Magnificent Commissioners of Buildings I, understanding that your
-Magnificencies have made up your minds to make certain great works
-in bronze, will remind you of certain things: first that you should
-not be so hasty or so quick to give the commission, lest by this
-haste it should become impossible to select a good model and a good
-master; and some man of small merit may be chosen, who by his
-insufficiency may cause you to be abused by your descendants,
-judging that this age was but ill supplied with men of good counsel
-and with good masters; seeing that other cities, and chiefly the
-city of the Florentines, has been as it were in these very days,
-endowed with beautiful and grand works in bronze; among which are
-the doors of their Baptistery. And this town of Florence, like
-Piacenza, is a place of intercourse, through which many foreigners
-pass; who, seeing that the works are fine and of good quality, carry
-away a good impression, and will say that that city is well filled
-with worthy inhabitants, seeing the works which bear witness to
-their opinion; and on the other hand, I say seeing so much metal
-expended and so badly wrought, it were less shame to the city if the
-doors had been of plain wood; because, the material, costing so
-little, would not seem to merit any great outlay of skill...
-
-Now the principal parts which are sought for in cities are their
-cathedrals, and of these the first things which strike the eye are
-the doors, by which one passes into these churches.
-
-Beware, gentlemen of the Commission, lest too great speed in your
-determination, and so much haste to expedite the entrusting of so
-great a work as that which I hear you have ordered, be the cause
-that that which was intended for the honour of God and of men should
-be turned to great dishonour of your judgments, and of your city,
-which, being a place of mark, is the resort and gathering-place of
-innumerable foreigners. And this dishonour would result if by your
-lack of diligence you were to put your trust in some vaunter, who by
-his tricks or by favour shown to him here should obtain such work
-from you, by which lasting and very great shame would result to him
-and to you. Thus I cannot help being angry when I consider what men
-those are who have conferred with you as wishing to undertake this
-great work without thinking of their sufficiency for it, not to say
-more. This one is a potter, that one a maker of cuirasses, this one
-is a bell-founder, another a bell ringer, and one is even a
-bombardier; and among them one in his Lordship's service, who
-boasted that he was the gossip of Messer Ambrosio Ferrere [Footnote
-26: Messer Ambrogio Ferrere was Farmer of the Customs under the
-Duke. Piacenza at that time belonged to Milan.], who has some power
-and who has made him some promises; and if this were not enough he
-would mount on horseback, and go to his Lord and obtain such letters
-that you could never refuse [to give] him the work. But consider
-where masters of real talent and fit for such work are brought when
-they have to compete with such men as these. Open your eyes and look
-carefully lest your money should be spent in buying your own
-disgrace. I can declare to you that from that place you will procure
-none but average works of inferior and coarse masters. There is no
-capable man,--[33] and you may believe me,--except Leonardo the
-Florentine, who is making the equestrian statue in bronze of the
-Duke Francesco and who has no need to bring himself into notice,
-because he has work for all his life time; and I doubt, whether
-being so great a work, he will ever finish it [34].
-
-The miserable painstakers ... with what hope may they expect a
-reward of their merit?
-
-1347.
-
-There is one whom his Lordship invited from Florence to do this work
-and who is a worthy master, but with so very much business he will
-never finish it; and you may imagine that a difference there is to
-be seen between a beautiful object and an ugly one. Quote Pliny.
-
-Letter to the Cardinal Ippolito d' Este.
-
-1348.
-
-[Footnote: This letter addressed to the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este is
-here given from Marchese G. CAMPORI'S publication: _Nuovi documenti
-per la Vita di Leonardo da Vinci. Atti e Memorie delle R. R.
-Deputazioni di Storia patria per la provincie modenesi e parmenesi,
-Vol. III._ It is the only text throughout this work which I have not
-myself examined and copied from the original. The learned discoverer
-of this letter--the only letter from Leonardo hitherto known as
-having been sent--adds these interesting remarks: _Codesto Cardinale
-nato ad Ercole I. nel 1470, arcivescovo di Strigonia a sette anni,
-poi d'Agra, aveva conseguito nel 1497 la pingue ed ambita cattedra
-di Milano, la dove avra conosciuto il Vinci, sebbene il poco amore
-ch'ei professava alle arti lasci credere che le proteste di servitu
-di Leonardo piu che a gratitudine per favori ricevuti e per opere a
-lui allogate, accennino a speranza per un favore che si aspetta.
-Notabile e ancora in questo prezioso documento la ripetuta signatura
-del grande artista 'che si scrive Vincio e Vincius, non da Vinci
-come si tiene comunemente, sebbene l'una e l'altra possano valere a
-significare cosi il casato come il paese; restando a sapere se il
-nome del paese di Vinci fosse assunto a cognome della famiglia di
-Leonardo nel qual supposto piu propriamento avrebbe a chiamarsi
-Leonardo Vinci, o Vincio (latinamente Vincius) com'egli stesso amo
-segnarsi in questa lettera, e come scrissero parecchi contenporanei
-di lui, il Casio, il Cesariano, Geoffrey Tory, il Gaurico, il
-Bandello, Raffaelle Maffei, il Paciolo. Per ultimo non lascero
-d'avvertire come la lettera del Vinci e assai ben conservata, di
-nitida e larga scrittura in forma pienemente corrispondente a quella
-dei suoi manoscritti, vergata all'uso comune da sinistra a destra,
-anziche contrariamente come fu suo costume; ma indubbiamente
-autentica e fornita della menzione e del suggello che fresca ancora
-conserva l'impronta di una testa di profilo da un picciolo antico
-cammeo._ (Compare No. 1368, note.)]
-
-Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.
-  The Lord Ippolito, Cardinal of Este
-                          at Ferrare.
-
-Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.
-
-I arrived from Milan but a few days since and finding that my elder
-brother refuses to
-
-carry into effect a will, made three years ago when my father
-died--as also, and no less, because I would not fail in a matter I
-esteem most important--I cannot forbear to crave of your most
-Reverend Highness a letter of recommendation and favour to Ser
-Raphaello Hieronymo, at present one of the illustrious members of
-the Signoria before whom my cause is being argued; and more
-particularly it has been laid by his Excellency the Gonfaloniere
-into the hands of the said Ser Raphaello, that his Worship may have
-to decide and end it before the festival of All Saints. And
-therefore, my Lord, I entreat you, as urgently as I know how and am
-able, that your Highness will write a letter to the said Ser
-Raphaello in that admirable and pressing manner which your Highness
-can use, recommending to him Leonardo Vincio, your most humble
-servant as I am, and shall always be; requesting him and pressing
-him not only to do me justice but to do so with despatch; and I have
-not the least doubt, from many things that I hear, that Ser
-Raphaello, being most affectionately devoted to your Highness, the
-matter will issue _ad votum_. And this I shall attribute to your
-most Reverend Highness' letter, to whom I once more humbly commend
-myself. _Et bene valeat_.
-
-Florence XVIIIa 7bris 1507.
-E. V. R. D.
-
-your humble servant
-Leonardus Vincius, pictor.
-
-Draft of Letter to the Governor of Milan.
-
-1349.
-
-I am afraid lest the small return I have made for the great
-benefits, I have received from your Excellency, have not made you
-somewhat angry with me, and that this is why to so many letters
-which I have written to your Lordship I have never had an answer. I
-now send Salai to explain to your Lordship that I am almost at an
-end of the litigation I had with my brother; that I hope to find
-myself with you this Easter, and to carry with me two pictures of
-two Madonnas of different sizes. These were done for our most
-Christian King, or for whomsoever your Lordship may please. I should
-be very glad to know on my return thence where I may have to reside,
-for I would not give any more trouble to your Lordship. Also, as I
-have worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
-continue or not. I wrote to the President as to that water which the
-king granted me, and which I was not put in possession of because at
-that time there was a dearth in the canal by reason of the great
-droughts and because [Footnote:Compare Nos. 1009 and 1010. Leonardo
-has noted the payment of the pension from the king in 1505.] its
-outlets were not regulated; but he certainly promised me that when
-this was done I should be put in possession. Thus I pray your
-Lordship that you will take so much trouble, now that these outlets
-are regulated, as to remind the President of my matter; that is, to
-give me possession of this water, because on my return I hope to
-make there instruments and other things which will greatly please
-our most Christian King. Nothing else occurs to me. I am always
-yours to command. [Footnote:1349. Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de
-Chaumont, was Governor of Milan under Louis XII. Leonardo was in
-personal communication with him so early as in 1503. He was absent
-from Milan in the autumn of 1506 and from October l5l0--when he
-besieged Pope Julius II. in Bologna--till his death, which took
-place at Correggio, February 11, 1511. Francesco Vinci, Leonardo's
-uncle, died--as Amoretti tells us--in the winter of l5l0-11 (or
-according to Uzielli in 1506?), and Leonardo remained in Florence
-for business connected with his estate. The letter written with
-reference to this affair, No. 1348, is undoubtedly earlier than the
-letters Nos. 1349 and 1350. Amoretti tells us, _Memorie Storiche_,
-ch. II, that the following note existed on the same leaf in MS. C.
-A. I have not however succeeded in finding it. The passage runs
-thus: _Jo sono quasi al fine del mio letizio che io o con mie
-fratetgli ... Ancora ricordo a V. Excia la facenda che o cum Ser
-Juliana mio Fratello capo delli altri fratelli ricordandoli come se
-offerse di conciar le cose nostre fra noi fratelli del comune della
-eredita de mio Zio, e quelli costringa alla expeditione, quale
-conteneva la lettera che lui me mando._]
-
-Drafts of Letters to the Superintendent of Canals and to Fr. Melzi.
-
-1350.
-
-Magnificent President, I am sending thither Salai, my pupil, who is
-the bearer of this, and from him you will hear by word of mouth the
-cause of my...
-
-Magnificent President, I...
-
-Magnificent President:--Having ofttimes remembered the proposals
-made many times to me by your Excellency, I take the liberty of
-writing to remind your Lordship of the promise made to me at my last
-departure, that is the possession of the twelve inches of water
-granted to me by the most Christian King. Your Lordship knows that I
-did not enter into possession, because at that time when it was
-given to me there was a dearth of water in the canal, as well by
-reason of the great drought as also because the outlets were not
-regulated; but your Excellency promised me that as soon as this was
-done, I should have my rights. Afterwards hearing that the canal was
-complete I wrote several times to your Lordship and to Messer
-Girolamo da Cusano,who has in his keeping the deed of this gift; and
-so also I wrote to Corigero and never had a reply. I now send
-thither Salai, my pupil, the bearer of this, to whom your Lordship
-may tell by word of mouth all that happened in the matter about
-which I petition your Excellency. I expect to go thither this Easter
-since I am nearly at the end of my lawsuit, and I will take with me
-two pictures of our Lady which I have begun, and at the present time
-have brought them on to a very good end; nothing else occurs to me.
-
-My Lord the love which your Excellency has always shown me and the
-benefits that I have constantly received from you I have hitherto...
-
-I am fearful lest the small return I have made for the great
-benefits I have received from your Excellency may not have made you
-somewhat annoyed with me. And this is why, to many letters which I
-have written to your Excellency I have never had an answer. I now
-send to you Salai to explain to your Excellency that I am almost at
-the end of my litigation with my brothers, and that I hope to be
-with you this Easter and carry with me two pictures on which are two
-Madonnas of different sizes which I began for the most Christian
-King, or for whomsoever you please. I should be very glad to know
-where, on my return from this place, I shall have to reside, because
-I do not wish to give more trouble to your Lordship; and then,
-having worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
-be continued or not. I write to the President as to the water that
-the king granted me of which I had not been put in possession by
-reason of the dearth in the canal, caused by the great drought and
-because its outlets were not regulated; but he promised me certainly
-that as soon as the regulation was made, I should be put in
-possession of it; I therefore pray you that, if you should meet the
-said President, you would be good enough, now that the outlets are
-regulated, to remind the said President to cause me to be put in
-possession of that water, since I understand it is in great measure
-in his power. Nothing else occurs to me; always yours to command.
-
-Good day to you Messer Francesco. Why, in God's name, of all the
-letters I have written to you, have you never answered one. Now wait
-till I come, by God, and I shall make you write so much that perhaps
-you will become sick of it.
-
-Dear Messer Francesco. I am sending thither Salai to learn from His
-Magnificence the President to what end the regulation of the water
-has come since, at my departure this regulation of the outlets of
-the canal had been ordered, because His Magnificence the President
-promised me that as soon as this was done I should be satisfied. It
-is now some time since I heard that the canal was in order, as also
-its outlets, and I immediately wrote to the President and to you,
-and then I repeated it, and never had an answer. So you will have
-the goodness to answer me as to that which happened, and as I am not
-to hurry the matter, would you take the trouble, for the love of me,
-to urge the President a little, and also Messer Girolamo Cusano, to
-whom you will commend me and offer my duty to his Magnificence.
-
-[Footnote: 1350. 28-36. Draft of a letter to Francesco Melzi, born
-l493--a youth therefore of about 17 in 1510. Leonardo addresses his
-young friend as "Messer", as being the son of a noble house. Melzi
-practised art under Leonardo as a dilettante and not as a pupil,
-like Cesare da Sesto and others (See LERMOLIEFF, _Die Galerien_ &c.,
-p. 476).]
-
-Drafts of a letter to Giuliano de' Medici (1351-1352).
-
-135l.
-
-[Most illustrious Lord. I greatly rejoice most Illustrious Lord at
-your...]
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most illustrious Lord, by the desired
-restoration of your health, that it almost had the effect that [my
-own health recovered]--[I have got through my illness]--my own
-illness left me-- --of your Excellency's almost restored health. But
-I am extremely vexed that I have not been able completely to satisfy
-the wishes of your Excellency, by reason of the wickedness of that
-deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone which could be done for him
-by me and by which I might be of use to him; and in the first place
-his allowances were paid to him before the time, which I believe he
-would willingly deny, if I had not the writing signed by myself and
-the interpreter. And I, seeing that he did not work for me unless he
-had no work to do for others, which he was very careful in
-solliciting, invited him to dine with me, and to work afterwards
-near me, because, besides the saving of expense, he
-
-[Footnote 1351. 1353: It is clear from the contents of this notes
-that they refer to Leonardo's residence in Rome in 1513-1515. Nor
-can there be any doubt that they were addressed to Leonardo's patron
-at the time: Giuliano de' Medici, third son of Lorenzo the
-Magnificent and brother of Pope Leo X (born 1478). In 1512 he became
-the head of the Florentine Republic. The Pope invited him to Rome,
-where he settled; in 1513 he was named patrician with much splendid
-ceremonial. The medal struck in honour of the event bears the words
-MAG. IVLIAN. MEDICES. Leonardo too uses the style "Magnifico", in
-his letter. Compare also No. 1377.
-
-GlNO CAPPONI (_Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_, Vol. III, p.
-139) thus describes the character of Giuliano de' Medici, who died
-in 1516: _Era il migliore della famiglia, di vita placida, grande
-spenditore, tenendo intorno a se uomini ingegnosi, ed ogni nuova
-cosa voleva provare._
-
-See too GREGOROVIUS, _Geschichte der Stadi Rom_, VIII (book XIV.
-III, 2): _Die Luftschlosser furstlicher Grosse, wozu ihn der Papst
-hatte erheben wollen zerfielen. Julian war der edelste aller
-damaligen Medici, ein Mensch von innerlicher Richtung, unbefriedigt
-durch das Leben, mitten im Sonnenglanz der Herrlichkeit Leo's X.
-eine dunkle Gestalt die wie ein Schatten voruberzog._ Giuliano lived
-in the Vatican, and it may be safely inferred from No. 1352 l. 2,
-and No. 1353 l. 4, that Leonardo did the same.
-
-From the following unpublished notice in the Vatican archives, which
-M. Eug. Muntz, librarian of the Ecole des Beaux arts, Paris, has
-done me the favour to communicate to me, we get a more accurate view
-of Leonardo's relation to the often named GIORGIO TEDESCO:
-
-_Nota delle provisione_ (sic) _a da pagare per me in nome del nostro
-ill. S. Bernardo Bini e chompa di Roma, e prima della illma sua
-chonsorte ogni mese d. 800.
-
-A Ldo da Vinci per sua provisione d. XXXIII, e piu d. VII al detto
-per la provisione di Giorgio tedescho, che sono in tutto d. 40.
-
-From this we learn, that seven ducats formed the German's monthly
-wages, but according to No. 1353 l. 7 he pretended that eight ducats
-had been agreed upon.]
-
-would acquire the Italian language. He always promised, but would
-never do so. And this I did also, because that Giovanni, the German
-who makes the mirrors, was there always in the workshop, and wanted
-to see and to know all that was being done there and made it known
-outside ... strongly criticising it; and because he dined with those
-of the Pope's guard, and then they went out with guns killing birds
-among the ruins; and this went on from after dinner till the
-evening; and when I sent Lorenzo to urge him to work he said that he
-would not have so many masters over him, and that his work was for
-your Excellency's Wardrobe; and thus two months passed and so it
-went on; and one day finding Gian Niccolo of the Wardrobe and asking
-whether the German had finished the work for your Magnificence, he
-told me this was not true, but only that he had given him two guns
-to clean. Afterwards, when I had urged him farther, be left the
-workshop and began to work in his room, and lost much time in making
-another pair of pincers and files and other tools with screws; and
-there he worked at mills for twisting silk which he hid when any one
-of my people went in, and with a thousand oaths and mutterings, so
-that none of them would go there any more.
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the desired
-restoration of your health, that my own illness almost left me. But
-I am greatly vexed at not having been able to completely satisfy
-your Excellency's wishes by reason of the wickedness of that German
-deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone by which I could have hope
-to please him; and secondly I invited him to lodge and board with
-me, by which means I should constantly see the work he was doing and
-with greater ease correct his errors while, besides this, he would
-learn the Italian tongue, by means of which be could with more ease
-talk without an interpreter; his moneys were always given him in
-advance of the time when due. Afterwards he wanted to have the
-models finished in wood, just as they were to be in iron, and wished
-to carry them away to his own country. But this I refused him,
-telling him that I would give him, in drawing, the breadth, length,
-height and form of what he had to do; and so we remained in
-ill-will.
-
-The next thing was that he made himself another workshop and pincers
-and tools in his room where he slept, and there he worked for
-others; afterwards he went to dine with the Swiss of the guard,
-where there are idle fellows, in which he beat them all; and most
-times they went two or three together with guns, to shoot birds
-among the ruins, and this went on till evening.
-
-At last I found how this master Giovanni the mirror-maker was he who
-had done it all, for two reasons; the first because he had said that
-my coming here had deprived him of the countenance and favour of
-your Lordship which always... The other is that he said that his
-iron-workers' rooms suited him for working at his mirrors, and of
-this he gave proof; for besides making him my enemy, he made him
-sell all he had and leave his workshop to him, where he works with a
-number of workmen making numerous mirrors to send to the fairs.
-
-1352.
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the wished for
-recovery of your health, that my own ills have almost left me; and I
-say God be praised for it. But it vexes me greatly that I have not
-been able completely to satisfy your Excellency's wishes by reason
-of the wickedness of that German deceiver, for whom I left nothing
-undone by which I could hope to please him; and secondly I invited
-him to lodge and board with me, by which means I should see
-constantly the work he was doing, for which purpose I would have a
-table fixed at the foot of one of these windows, where he could work
-with the file and finish the things made below; and so I should
-constantly see the work he might do, and it could be corrected with
-greater ease.
-
-Draft of letter written at Rome.
-
-1353.
-
-This other hindered me in anatomy, blaming it before the Pope; and
-likewise at the hospital; and he has filled [4] this whole Belvedere
-with workshops for mirrors; and he did the same thing in Maestro
-Giorgio's room. He said that he had been promised [7] eight ducats
-every month, beginning with the first day, when he set out, or at
-latest when he spoke with you; and that you agreed.
-
-Seeing that he seldom stayed in the workshop, and that he ate a
-great deal, I sent him word that, if he liked I could deal with him
-separately for each thing that he might make, and would give him
-what we might agree to be a fair valuation. He took counsel with his
-neighbour and gave up his room, selling every thing, and went to
-find...
-
-Miscellaneous Records (1354. 1355).
-
-1354.
-
-[Footnote: A puzzling passage, meant, as it would seem, for a jest.
-Compare the description of Giants in Dante, _Inf_. XXI and XXII.
-Perhaps Leonardo had the Giant Antaeus in his mind. Of him the myth
-relates that he was a son of Ge, that he fed on lions; that he
-hunted in Libya and killed the inhabitants. He enjoyed the
-peculiarity of renewing his strength whenever he fell and came in
-contact with his mother earth; but that Hercules lifted him up and
-so conquered and strangled him. Lucan gives a full account of the
-struggle. Pharsalia IV, 617. The reading of this passage, which is
-very indistinctly written, is in many places doubtful.]
-
-Dear Benedetto de' Pertarti. When the proud giant fell because of
-the bloody and miry state of the ground it was as though a mountain
-had fallen so that the country shook as with an earthquake, and
-terror fell on Pluto in hell. From the violence of the shock he lay
-as stunned on the level ground. Suddenly the people, seeing him as
-one killed by a thunderbolt, turned back; like ants running wildly
-over the body of the fallen oak, so these rushing over his ample
-limbs.......... them with frequent wounds; by which, the giant being
-roused and feeling himself almost covered by the multitude, he
-suddenly perceives the smarting of the stabs, and sent forth a roar
-which sounded like a terrific clap of thunder; and placing his hands
-on the ground he raised his terrible face: and having lifted one
-hand to his head he found it full of men and rabble sticking to it
-like the minute creatures which not unfrequently are found there;
-wherefore with a shake of his head he sends the men flying through
-the air just as hail does when driven by the fury of the winds. Many
-of these men were found to be dead; stamping with his feet.
-
-And clinging to his hair, and striving to hide in it, they behaved
-like sailors in a storm, who run up the ropes to lessen the force of
-the wind [by taking in sail].
-
-News of things from the East.
-
-Be it known to you that in the month of June there appeared a Giant,
-who came from the Lybian desert... mad with rage like ants....
-struck down by the rude.
-
-This great Giant was born in Mount Atlas and was a hero ... and had
-to fight against the Egyptians and Arabs, Medes and Persians. He
-lived in the sea on whales, grampuses and ships.
-
-Mars fearing for his life took refuge under the... of Jove.
-
-And at the great fall it seemed as though the whole province quaked.
-
-1355.
-
-This spirit returns to the brain whence it had departed, with a loud
-voice and with these words, it moved...
-
-And if any man though he may have wisdom or goodness .........
-
-[Footnote: This passage, very difficult to decipher, is on the
-reverse of a drawing at Windsor, Pl. CXXII, which possibly has some
-connection with it. The drawing is slightly reduced in this
-reproduction; the original being 25 cm. high by 19 cm. wide.]
-
-O blessed and happy spirit whence comest thou? Well have I known
-this man, much against my will. This one is a receptacle of
-villainy; he is a perfect heap of the utmost ingratitude combined
-with every vice. But of what use is it to fatigue myself with vain
-words? Nothing is to be found in them but every form of sin ... And
-if there should be found among them any that possesses any good,
-they will not be treated differently to myself by other men; and in
-fine, I come to the conclusion that it is bad if they are hostile,
-and worse if they are friendly.
-
-Miscellaneous drafts of letters and personal records (1356--1368).
-
-1356.
-
-All the ills that are or ever were, if they could be set to work by
-him, would not satisfy the desires of his iniquitous soul; and I
-could not in any length of time describe his nature to you, but I
-conclude...
-
-1357.
-
-I know one who, having promised me much, less than my due, being
-disappointed of his presumptuous desires, has tried to deprive me of
-all my friends; and as he has found them wise and not pliable to his
-will, he has menaced me that, having found means of denouncing me,
-he would deprive me of my benefactors. Hence I have informed your
-Lordship of this, to the end [that this man who wishes to sow the
-usual scandals, may find no soil fit for sowing the thoughts and
-deeds of his evil nature] so that he, trying to make your Lordship,
-the instrument of his iniquitous and maliceous nature may be
-disappointed of his desire.
-
-1358.
-
-[Footnote: Below this text we read gusstino--Giustino and in another
-passage on the same page Justin is quoted (No. 1210, 1. 48). The two
-have however no real connection.]
-
-And in this case I know that I shall make few enemies seeing that no
-one will believe what I can say of him; for they are but few whom
-his vices have disgusted, and he only dislikes those men whose
-natures are contrary to those vices. And many hate their fathers,
-and break off friendship with those who reprove their vices; and he
-will not permit any examples against them, nor any advice.
-
-If you meet with any one who is virtuous do not drive him from you;
-do him honour, so that he may not have to flee from you and be
-reduced to hiding in hermitages, or caves or other solitary places
-to escape from your treachery; if there is such an one among you do
-him honour, for these are our Saints upon earth; these are they who
-deserve statues from us, and images; but remember that their images
-are not to be eaten by you, as is still done in some parts of India
-[Footnote 15: In explanation of this passage I have received the
-following communication from Dr. G. W. LEITNER of Lahore: "So far as
-Indian customs are known to us, this practice spoken of by Leonardo
-as 'still existing in some parts of India' is perfectly unknown; and
-it is equally opposed to the spirit of Hinduism, Mohammedanism and
-Sikhism. In central Thibet the ashes of the dead, when burnt, are
-mixed with dough, and small figures--usually of Buddha--are stamped
-out of them and some are laid in the grave while others are
-distributed among the relations. The custom spoken of by Leonardo
-may have prevailed there but I never heard of it." Possibly Leonardo
-refers here to customs of nations of America.] where, when the
-images have according to them, performed some miracle, the priests
-cut them in pieces, being of wood, and give them to all the people
-of the country, not without payment; and each one grates his portion
-very fine, and puts it upon the first food he eats; and thus
-believes that by faith he has eaten his saint who then preserves him
-from all perils. What do you think here, Man, of your own species?
-Are you so wise as you believe yourselves to be? Are these things to
-be done by men?
-
-1359.
-
-As I told you in past days, you know that I am without any....
-Francesco d'Antonio. Bernardo di Maestro Jacopo.
-
-1360.
-
-Tell me how the things happened.
-
-1361.
-
-j lorezo\\\ 2 inbiadali\\\ 3 inferri de\\\ 4in lorezo\\\ 5[inno
-abuil]\\ 6 in acocatu\\\ 7 per la sella\\\ 8colte di lor\\\ 9v
-cavallott\\\ I0el uiagg\\\ IIal\\\ I2a lurez\\\ 13in biada\\\
-14inferri\\\ 15abuss\\\ 16in viagg\\\ 17alorz\\\ [Footnote: This
-seems to be the beginning of a letter, but only the first words of
-the lines have been preserved, the leaf being torn down the middle.
-No translation is possible.]
-
-1362.
-
-And so may it please our great Author that I may demonstrate the
-nature of man and his customs, in the way I describe his figure.
-
-[Footnote: A preparatory note for the passage given as No. 798, 11.
-41--42.]
-
-1363.
-
-This writing distinctly about the kite seems to be my destiny,
-because among the first recollections of my infancy, it seemed to me
-that, as I was in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth
-with its tail, and struck me several times with its tail inside my
-lips.
-
-[Footnote: This note probably refers to the text No. 1221.]
-
-1364.
-
-[When I did well, as a boy you used to put me in prison. Now if I do
-it being grown up, you will do worse to me.]
-
-1365.
-
-Tell me if anything was ever done.
-
-1366.
-
-Tell me if ever I did a thing which me ....
-
-1367.
-
-Do not reveal, if liberty is precious to you; my face is the prison
-of love.
-
-[Footnote: This note seems to be a quotation.]
-
-1368.
-
-Maestro Leonardo of Florence.
-
-[Footnote: So Leonardo writes his name on a sheet with sundry short
-notes, evidently to try a pen. Compare the signature with those in
-Nos. 1341, 1348 and 1374 (see also No. 1346, l. 33). The form
-"Lionardo" does not occur in the autographs. The Portrait of the
-Master in the Royal Library at Turin, which is reproduced--slightly
-diminished--on Pl. I, has in the original two lines of writing
-underneath; one in red chalk of two or three words is partly
-effaced: _lionardo it... lm_ (or _lai_?); the second written in
-pencil is as follows: _fatto da lui stesso assai vecchio_. In both
-of these the writing is very like the Master's, but is certainly
-only an imitation.]
-
-Notes bearing Dates (1369--1378).
-
-1369.
-
-The day of Santa Maria _della Neve_ [of the Snows] August the 2nd
-1473. [Footnote: W. An. I. 1368. 1369. This date is on a drawing of
-a rocky landscape. See _Chronique des Arts_ 1881 no. 23: _Leonard de
-Vinci a-t-il ete au Righi le 5 aout 1473_? letter by H. de
-Geymuller. The next following date in the MSS. is 1478 (see No.
-663).
-
-1370.
-
-On the 2nd of April 1489, book entitled 'Of the human figure'.
-[Footnote: While the letters in the MS. notes of 1473 and 1478 are
-very ornate, this note and the texts on anatomy on the same sheet
-(for instance No. 805) are in the same simple hand as we see on Pl.
-CXVI and CXIX. No 1370 is the only dated note of the years between
-1480 and 1489, and the characters are in all essential points
-identical with those that we see in the latest manuscripts written
-in France (compare the facsimiles on Pl. CXV and p. 254), so that it
-is hardly possible to determine exactly the date of a manuscript
-from the style of the handwriting, if it does not betray the
-peculiarities of style as displayed in the few notes dated previous
-to l480.--Compare the facsimile of the manuscripts 1479 on Pl.LXII,
-No. 2; No. 664, note, Vol. I p. 346. This shows already a marked
-simplicity as compared with the calligraphy of I478.
-
-The text No. 720 belongs to the year 1490; No. 1510 to the year
-1492; No. 1459, No. 1384 and No. 1460 to the year 1493; No. 1463,
-No. 1517, No. 1024, 1025 and 1461 to the year 1494; Nos. 1523 and
-1524 to the year 1497.
-
-1371.
-
-On the 1st of August 1499, I wrote here of motion and of weight.
-
-[Footnote:1371. _Scrissi qui_. Leonardo does not say where; still we
-may assume that it was not in Milan. Amoretti writes, _Memorie
-Storiche_, chap. XIX: _Sembra pertanto che non nel 1499 ma nel 1500,
-dopo il ritorno e la prigionia del duca, sia da qui partito Lionardo
-per andare a Firenze; ed e quindi probabile, che i mesi di governo
-nuovo e incerto abbia passati coll' amico suo Francesco Melzi a
-Vaprio, ove meglio che altrove studiar potea la natura, e
-soprattutta le acque, e l'Adda specialmente, che gia era stato
-l'ogetto delle sue idrostatiche ricerche_. At that time Melzi was
-only six years of age. The next date is 1502; to this year belong
-No. 1034, 1040, 1042, 1048 and 1053. The note No. 1525 belongs to
-the year 1503.]
-
-1372.
-
-On the 9th of July 1504, Wednesday, at seven o'clock, died Ser Piero
-da Vinci, notary at the Palazzo del Podesta, my father, --at seven
-o'clock, being eighty years old, leaving behind ten sons and two
-daughters.
-
-[Footnote: This statement of Ser Piero's age contradicts that of the
-_Riassunto della portata di Antonio da Vinci_ (Leonardo's
-grandfather), who speaks of Ser Piero as being thirty years old in
-1457; and that of the _Riassunto della portata di Ser Piero e
-Francesco_, sons of Antonia da Vinci, where Ser Piero is mentioned
-as being forty in 1469. These documents were published by G.
-UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a L. da Vinci, Firenze_, 1872, pp. 144
-and 146. Leonardo was, as is well known, a natural son. His mother
-'La Catarina' was married in 1457 to Acchattabriga di Piero del
-Vaccha da Vinci. She died in 1519. Leonardo never mentions her in
-the Manuscripts. In the year of Leonardo's birth Ser Piero married
-Albiera di Giovanni Amadoci, and after her death at the age of
-thirty eight he again married, Francesca, daughter of Ser Giovanni
-Lanfredi, then only fifteen. Their children were Leonardo's
-halfbrothers, Antonio (b. 1476), Ser Giuliano (b. 1479), Lorenzo (b.
-1484), a girl, Violante (b. 1485), and another boy Domenico (b.
-1486); Domenico's descendants still exist as a family. Ser Piero
-married for the third time Lucrezia di Guglielmo Cortigiani by whom
-he had six children: Margherita (b. 1491), Benedetto (b. 1492),
-Pandolfo (b. 1494), Guglielmo (b. 1496), Bartolommeo (b. 1497), and
-Giovanni) date of birth unknown). Pierino da Vinci the sculptor
-(about 1520-1554) was the son of Bartolommeo, the fifth of these
-children. The dates of their deaths are not known, but we may infer
-from the above passage that they were all still living in 1505.]
-
-1373.
-
-On Wednesday at seven o'clock died Ser Piero da Vinci on the 9th of
-July 1504.
-
-[Footnote: This and the previous text it may be remarked are the
-only mention made by Leonardo of his father; Nos. 1526, 1527 and No.
-1463 are of the year 1504.]
-
-1374.
-
-Begun by me, Leonardo da Vinci, on the l2th of July 1505.
-
-[Footnote: Thus he writes on the first page of the MS. The title is
-on the foregoing coversheet as follows: _Libro titolato
-disstrafformatione coe_ (cioe) _d'un corpo nvn_ (in un) _altro sanza
-diminuitione e acresscemento di materia._]
-
-1375.
-
-Begun at Milan on the l2th of September 1508.
-
-[Footnote: No. 1528 and No. 1529 belong to the same year. The text
-Vol. I, No. 4 belongs to the following year 1509 (1508 old style);
-so also does No. 1009.-- Nos. 1022, 1057 and 1464 belong to 1511.]
-
-1376.
-
-On the 9th of January 1513.
-
-[Footnote: No. 1465 belongs to the same year. No. 1065 has the next
-date 1514.]
-
-1377.
-
-The Magnifico Giuliano de' Medici left Rome on the 9th of January
-1515, just at daybreak, to take a wife in Savoy; and on the same day
-fell the death of the king of France.
-
-[Footnote: Giuliano de Medici, brother to Pope Leo X.; see note to
-Nos. 1351-1353. In February, 1515, he was married to Filiberta,
-daughter of Filippo, Duke of Savoy, and aunt to Francis I, Louis
-XII's successor on the throne of France. Louis XII died on Jan. 1st,
-and not on Jan. 9th as is here stated.-- This addition is written in
-paler ink and evidently at a later date.]
-
-1378.
-
-On the 24th of June, St John's day, 1518 at Amboise, in the palace
-of...
-
-[Footnote: _Castello del clli_. The meaning of this word is obscure;
-it is perhaps not written at full length.]
-
-_XXII._
-
-_Miscellaneous Notes._
-
-_The incidental memoranda scattered here and there throughout the
-MSS. can have been for the most part intelligible to the writer
-only; in many cases their meaning and connection are all the more
-obscure because we are in ignorance about the persons with whom
-Leonardo used to converse nor can we say what part he may have
-played in the various events of his time. Vasari and other early
-biographers give us a very superficial and far from accurate picture
-of Leonardo's private life. Though his own memoranda, referring for
-the most part to incidents of no permanent interest, do not go far
-towards supplying this deficiency, they are nevertheless of some
-importance and interest as helping us to solve the numerous
-mysteries in which the history of Leonardo's long life remains
-involved. We may at any rate assume, from Leonardo's having
-committed to paper notes on more or less trivial matters on his
-pupils, on his house-keeping, on various known and unknown
-personages, and a hundred other trifies--that at the time they must
-have been in some way important to him._
-
-_I have endeavoured to make these 'Miscellaneous Notes' as complete
-as possible, for in many cases an incidental memorandum will help to
-explain the meaning of some other note of a similar kind. The first
-portion of these notes (Nos. l379--l457), as well as those referring
-to his pupils and to other artists and artificers who lived in his
-house (1458--1468,) are arranged in chronological order. A
-considerable proportion of these notes belong to the period between
-1490 and 1500, when Leonardo was living at Milan under the patronage
-of Lodovico il Moro, a time concerning which we have otherwise only
-very scanty information. If Leonardo did really--as has always been
-supposed,--spend also the greater part of the preceding decade in
-Milan, it seems hardly likely that we should not find a single note
-indicative of the fact, or referring to any event of that period, on
-the numerous loose leaves in his writing that exist. Leonardo's life
-in Milan between 1489 and 1500 must have been comparatively
-uneventful. The MSS. and memoranda of those years seem to prove that
-it was a tranquil period of intellectual and artistic labour rather
-than of bustling court life. Whatever may have been the fate of the
-MSS. and note books of the foregoing years--whether they were
-destroyed by Leonardo himself or have been lost--it is certainly
-strange that nothing whatever exists to inform us as to his life and
-doings in Milan earlier than the consecutive series of manuscripts
-which begin in the year 1489._
-
-_There is nothing surprising in the fact that the notes regarding
-his pupils are few and meagre. Excepting for the record of money
-transactions only very exceptional circumstances would have prompted
-him to make any written observations on the persons with whom he was
-in daily intercourse, among whom, of course, were his pupils. Of
-them all none is so frequently mentioned as Salai, but the character
-of the notes does not--as it seems to me--justify us in supposing
-that he was any thing more than a sort of factotum of Leonardo's
-(see 1519, note)._
-
-_Leonardo's quotations from books and his lists of titles supply
-nothing more than a hint as to his occasional literary studies or
-recreations. It was evidently no part of his ambition to be deeply
-read (see Nrs. 10, 11, 1159) and he more than once expressly states
-(in various passages which will be found in the foregoing sections)
-that he did not recognise the authority of the Ancients, on
-scientific questions, which in his day was held paramount.
-Archimedes is the sole exception, and Leonardo frankly owns his
-admiration for the illustrious Greek to whose genius his own was so
-much akin (see No. 1476). All his notes on various authors,
-excepting those which have already been inserted in the previous
-section, have been arranged alphabetically for the sake of
-convenience (1469--1508)._
-
-_The passages next in order contain accounts and inventories
-principally of household property. The publication of these--often
-very trivial entries--is only justifiable as proving that the
-wealth, the splendid mode of life and lavish expenditure which have
-been attributed to Leonardo are altogether mythical; unless we put
-forward the very improbable hypothesis that these notes as to money
-in hand, outlay and receipts, refer throughout to an exceptional
-state of his affairs, viz. when he was short of money._
-
-_The memoranda collected at the end (No. 1505--1565) are, in the
-original, in the usual writing, from left to right. Besides, the
-style of the handwriting is at variance with what we should expect
-it to be, if really Leonardo himself had written these notes. Most
-of them are to be found in juxtaposition with undoubtedly authentic
-writing of his. But this may be easily explained, if we take into
-account the fact, that Leonardo frequently wrote on loose sheets. He
-may therefore have occasionally used paper on which others had made
-short memoranda, for the most part as it would seem, for his use. At
-the end of all I have given Leonardo's will from the copy of it
-preserved in the Melzi Library. It has already been printed by
-Amoretti and by Uzielli. It is not known what has become of the
-original document._
-
-Memoranda before 1500 (1379-l413).
-
-1379.
-
-Find Longhi and tell him that you wait for him at Rome and will go
-with him to Naples; make you pay the donation [Footnote 2: _Libro di
-Vitolone_ see No. 1506 note.] and take the book by Vitolone, and the
-measurements of the public buildings. [3] Have two covered boxes
-made to be carried on mules, but bed-covers will be best; this makes
-three, of which you will leave one at Vinci. [4] Obtain
-the.............. from Giovanni Lombardo the linen draper of Verona.
-Buy handkerchiefs and towels,.... and shoes, 4 pairs of hose, a
-jerkin of... and skins, to make new ones; the lake of Alessandro.
-[Footnote: 7 and fol. It would seem from the text that Leonardo
-intended to have instructions in painting on paper. It is hardly
-necessary to point out that the Art of illuminating was quite
-separate from that of painting.]
-
-Sell what you cannot take with you. Get from Jean de Paris the
-method of painting in tempera and the way of making white [Footnote:
-The mysterious looking words, quite distinctly written, in line 1:
-_ingol, amor a, ilopan a_ and on line 2: _enoiganod al_ are
-obviously in cipher and the solution is a simple one; by reading
-them backwards we find for _ingol_: logni-probably _longi_,
-evidently the name of a person; for _amor a_: _a Roma_, for _ilopan
-a_: _a Napoli_. Leonardo has done the same in two passages treating
-on some secrets of his art Nos. 641 and 729, the only other places
-in which we find this cipher employed; we may therefore conclude
-that it was for the sake of secrecy that he used it.
-
-There can be no doubt, from the tenor of this passage, that Leonardo
-projected a secret excursion to Naples. Nothing has hitherto been
-known of this journey, but the significance of the passage will be
-easily understood by a reference to the following notes, from which
-we may infer that Leonardo really had at the time plans for
-travelling further than Naples. From lines 3, 4 and 7 it is evident
-that he purposed, after selling every thing that was not easily
-portable, to leave a chest in the care of his relations at Vinci.
-His luggage was to be packed into two trunks especially adapted for
-transport by mules. The exact meaning of many sentences in the
-following notes must necessarily remain obscure. These brief remarks
-on small and irrelevant affairs and so forth are however of no
-historical value. The notes referring to the preparations for his
-journey are more intelligible.]
-
-salt, and how to make tinted paper; sheets of paper folded up; and
-his box of colours; learn to work flesh colours in tempera, learn to
-dissolve gum lac, linseed ... white, of the garlic of Piacenza; take
-'de Ponderibus'; take the works of Leonardo of Cremona. Remove the
-small furnace ... seed of lilies and of... Sell the boards of the
-support. Make him who stole it, give you the ... learn levelling and
-how much soil a man can dig out in a day.
-
-1380.
-
-This was done by Leone in the piazza of the castle with a chain and
-an arrow. [Footnote: This note must have been made in Milan; as we
-know from the date of the MS.]
-
-1381.
-
-NAMES OF ENGINEERS.
-
-Callias of Rhodes, Epimachus the Athenian, Diogenes, a philosopher,
-of Rhodes, Calcedonius of Thrace, Febar of Tyre, Callimachus the
-architect, a master of fires. [Footnote: Callias, Architect of
-Aradus, mentioned by Vitruvius (X, 16, 5).--Epimachus, of Athens,
-invented a battering-enginee for Demetrius Poliorketes (Vitruvius X,
-16, 4).--Callimachus, the inventor of the Corinthian capital (Vitr.
-IV, I, 9), and of the method of boring marble (Paus. I, 26, 7), was
-also famous for his casts in bronze (Plin. XXXIV, 8, 19). He
-invented a lamp for the temple of Athene Polias, on the Acropolis of
-Athens (Paus. I, 26, 7)--The other names, here mentioned, cannot be
-identified.]
-
-1382.
-
-Ask maestro Lodovico for 'the conduits of water'. [Footnote:
-Condotti d'acqua. Possibly a book, a MS. or a map.]
-
-1383.
-
-... at Pistoja, Fioravante di Domenico at Florence is my most
-beloved friend, as though he were my [brother]. [Footnote: On the
-same sheet is the text No. 663.]
-
-1384.
-
-On the 16th day of July.
-
-Caterina came on 16th day of July, 1493.
-
-Messer Mariolo's Morel the Florentin, has a big horse with a fine
-neck and a beautiful head.
-
-The white stallion belonging to the falconer has fine hind quarters;
-it is behind the Comasina Gate.
-
-The big horse of Cermonino, of Signor Giulio. [Footnote: Compare
-Nos. 1522 and 1517. Caterina seems to have been his housekeeper.]
-
-1385.
-
-OF THE INSTRUMENT.
-
-Any one who spends one ducat may take the instrument; and he will
-not pay more than half a ducat as a premium to the inventor of the
-instrument and one grosso to the workman every year. I do not want
-sub-officials. [Footnote: Refers perhaps to the regulation of the
-water in the canals.]
-
-1386.
-
-Maestro Giuliano da Marliano has a fine herbal. He lives opposite to
-Strami the Carpenters. [Footnote: Compare No. 616, note. 4.
-legnamiere (milanese dialect) = legnajuolo.]
-
-1387.
-
-Christofano da Castiglione who lives at the Pieta has a fine head.
-
-1388.
-
-Work of ... of the stable of Galeazzo; by the road of Brera
-[Footnote 4: Brera, see No. 1448, II, 13]; benefice of Stanghe
-[Footnote 5:Stanghe, see No. 1509.]; benefice of Porta Nuova;
-benefice of Monza; Indaco's mistake; give first the benefices; then
-the works; then ingratitude, indignity and lamentations.
-
-1389.
-
-Chiliarch--captain of 1000.
-
-Prefects--captains.
-
-A legion, six thousand and sixty three men.
-
-1390.
-
-A nun lives at La Colomba at Cremona; she works good straw plait,
-and a friar of Saint Francis. [Footnote: _La Colomba_ is to this day
-the name of a small house at Cremona, decorated with frescoes.]
-
-1391.
-
-Needle,--Niccolao,--thread,--Ferrando, -lacopo
-Andrea,--canvas,--stone,--colours, --brushes,--pallet,--sponge,--the
-panel of the Duke.
-
-1392.
-
-Messer Gian Domenico Mezzabarba and Messer Giovanni Franceso
-Mezzabarba. By the side of Messer Piero d'Anghiera.
-
-1393.
-
-Conte Francesco Torello.
-
-1394.
-
-Giuliano Trombetta,--Antonio di Ferrara, --Oil of .... [Footnote:
-Near this text is the sketch of a head drawn in red chalk.]
-
-1395.
-
-Paul was snatched up to heaven. [Footnote: See the facsimile of this
-note on Pl. XXIII No. 2.]
-
-1396.
-
-Giuliano da Maria, physician, has a steward without hands.
-
-1397.
-
-Have some ears of corn of large size sent from Florence.
-
-1398.
-
-See the bedstead at Santa Maria. Secret.
-
-1399.
-
-Arrigo is to have 11 gold Ducats. Arrigo is to have 4 gold ducats in
-the middle of August.
-
-1400.
-
-Give your master the instance of a captain who does not himself win
-the victory, but the soldiers do by his counsels; and so he still
-deserves the reward.
-
-1401.
-
-Messer Pier Antonio.
-
-1402.
-
-Oil,--yellow,--Ambrosio,--the mouth, --the farmhouse.
-
-1403.
-
-My dear Alessandro from Parma, by the hand of ...
-
-1404.
-
-Giovannina, has a fantastic face,--is at Santa Caterina, at the
-Hospital. [Footnote: Compare the text on the same page: No. 667.]
-
-1405.
-
-24 tavole make 1 perch. 4 trabochi make 1 tavola. 4 braccia and a
-half make a trabocco. A perch contains 1936 square braccia, or 1944.
-
-1406.
-
-The road of Messer Mariolo is 13 1/4 braccia wide; the House of
-Evangelista is 75.
-
-It enters 7 1/2 braccia in the house of Mariolo. [Footnote: On this
-page and that which faces it, MS.I2 7la, are two diagrams with
-numerous reference numbers, evidently relating to the measurements
-of a street.]
-
-1407.
-
-I ask at what part of its curved motion the moving cause will leave
-the thing moved and moveable.
-
-Speak to Pietro Monti of these methods of throwing spears.
-
-1408.
-
-Antonio de' Risi is at the council of Justice.
-
-1409.
-
-Paolo said that no machine that moves another .... [Footnote: The
-passage, of which the beginning is here given, deals with questions
-in mechanics. The instances in which Leonardo quotes the opinions of
-his contemporaries on scientific matters are so rare as to be worth
-noticing. Compare No. 901. ]
-
-1410.
-
-Caravaggio. [Footnote: _Caravaggio_, a village not far from the Adda
-between Milan and Brescia, where Polidoro and Michelangelo da
-Caravaggio were born. This note is given in facsimile on Pl. XIII,
-No. I (above, to the left). On Pl. XIII, No. 2 above to the right we
-read _cerovazo_.]
-
-1411.
-
-Pulleys,--nails,--rope,--mercury,--cloth, Monday.
-
-1412.
-
-MEMORANDUM.
-
-Maghino, Speculus of Master Giovanni the Frenchman; Galenus on
-utility.
-
-1413.
-
-Near to Cordusio is Pier Antonio da Tossano and his brother
-Serafino. [Footnote: This note is written between lines 23 and 24 of
-the text No. 710. Corduso, Cordusio (_curia ducis_) = Cordus in the
-Milanese dialect, is the name of a Piazza between the Via del
-Broletto and the Piazza de' Mercanti at Milan.. In the time of il
-Moro it was the centre of the town. The persons here named were
-members of the noble Milanese family de'Fossani; Ambrogio da
-Possano, the contemporary painter, had no connection with them.]
-
-1414.
-
-Memoranda after 1500 (1414--1434)
-
-1414.
-
-Paul of Vannochio at Siena ... The upper chamber for the apostles.
-
-[4] Buildings by Bramante.
-
-The governor of the castle made a prisoner.
-
-[6] Visconti carried away and his son killed. [Footnote 6: Visconti.
-_Chi fosse quel Visconte non sapremmo indovinare fra tanti di questo
-nome. Arluno narra che allora atterrate furono le case de' Viconti,
-de' Castiglioni, de' Sanseverini, e de' Botta e non e improbabile
-che ne fossero insultati e morti i padroni. Molti Visconti annovera
-lo stesso Cronista che per essersi rallegrati del ritorno del duca
-in Milano furono da' Francesi arrestati, e strascinati in Francia
-come prigionieri di stato; e fra questi Messer Francesco Visconti, e
-suo figliuolo Battista_. (AMORETTI, Mem. Stor. XIX.).]
-
-Giovanni della Rosa deprived of his money.
-
-Borgonzio began ....; and moreover his fortunes fled. [Footnote 8:
-Borgonzio o Brugonzio Botta fu regolatore delle ducali entrate sotto
-il Moro, alla cui fuga la casa sua fu pur messa a sacco da'
-partitanti francesi. (AMORETTI, l. c.)]
-
-The Duke has lost the state, property and liberty and none of his
-entreprises was carried out by him.
-
-[Footnote: l. 4--10 This passage evidently refers to events in Milan
-at the time of the overthrow of Ludovico il Moro. Amoretti published
-it in the '_Memorie Storiche_' and added copious notes.]
-
-1415.
-
-Ambrosio Petri, St. Mark, 4 boards for the window, 2 ..., 3 the
-saints of chapels, 5 the Genoese at home.
-
-1416.
-
-Piece of tapestry,--pair of compasses,-- Tommaso's book,--the book
-of Giovanni Benci,--the box in the custom-house,--to cut the
-cloth,--the sword-belt,--to sole the boots, --a light hat,--the cane
-from the ruined houses,--the debt for the table linen,
---swimming-belt,--a book of white paper for drawing,--charcoal.--How
-much is a florin ...., a leather bodice.
-
-1417.
-
-Borges shall get for you the Archimedes from the bishop of Padua,
-and Vitellozzo the one from Borgo a San Sepolcro [Footnote 3: Borgo
-a San Sepolcro, where Luca Paciolo, Leonardo's friend, was born.]
-
-[Footnote: Borges. A Spanish name.]
-
-1418.
-
-Marzocco's tablet.
-
-1419.
-
-Marcello lives in the house of Giacomo da Mengardino.
-
-1420.
-
-Where is Valentino?--boots,--boxes in the
-custom-house,...,--[Footnote 5: Carmine. A church and monastery at
-Florence.] the monk at the Carmine,--squares,--[Footnotes 7 and 8:
-Martelli, Borgherini; names of Florentine families. See No. 4.]
-Piero Martelli,--[8] Salvi Borgherini,--send back the bags,--a
-support for the spectacles,--[Footnote 11: San Gallo; possibly
-Giuliano da San Gallo, the Florentine architect.] the nude study of
-San Gallo,--the cloak. Porphyry,--groups,--square,--[Footnote 16:
-Pandolfini, see No. 1544 note.] Pandolfino. [Footnote: Valentino.
-Cesare Borgia is probably meant. After being made Archbishop of
-Valence by Alexander VI he was commonly called Valentinus or
-Valentino. With reference to Leonardo's engagements by him see pp.
-224 and 243, note.]
-
-1421.
-
-Concave mirrors; philosophy of Aristotle;[Footnote 2: _Avicenna_
-(Leonardo here writes it Avinega) the Arab philosopher, 980-1037,
-for centuries the unimpeachable authority on all medical questions.
-Leonardo possibly points here to a printed edition: _Avicennae
-canonum libri V, latine_ 1476 _Patavis._ Other editions are, Padua
-1479, and Venice 1490.] the books of Avicenna Italian and Latin
-vocabulary; Messer Ottaviano Palavicino or his Vitruvius [Footnote
-3: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]. bohemian knives;
-Vitruvius[Footnote 6: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]; go
-every Saturday to the hot bath where you will see naked men;
-
-'Meteora' [Footnote 7: _Meteora._ See No. 1448, 25.],
-
-Archimedes, on the centre of gravity; [Footnote 9: The works of
-Archimedes were not printed during Leonardo's life-time.] anatomy
-[Footnote 10: Compare No. 1494.] Alessandro Benedetto; The Dante of
-Niccolo della Croce; Inflate the lungs of a pig and observe whether
-they increase in width and in length, or in width diminishing in
-length.
-
-[Footnote 14: _Johannes Marliani sua etate philosophorum et
-medicorum principis et ducalis phisic. primi de proportione motuum
-velocitate questio subtilissima incipit ex ejusdem Marliani
-originali feliciter extracta, M(ilano)_ 1482.
-
-Another work by him has the title: _Marlianus mediolanensis. Questio
-de caliditate corporum humanorum tempore hiemis ed estatis et de
-antiparistasi ad celebrem philosophorum et medicorum universitatem
-ticinensem._ 1474.] Marliano, on Calculation, to Bertuccio.
-Albertus, on heaven and earth [Footnote 15: See No. 1469, 1. 7.],
-[from the monk Bernardino]. Horace has written on the movements of
-the heavens.
-
-[Footnote: _Filosofia d'Aristotele_ see No. 1481 note.]
-
-1422.
-
-Of the three regular bodies as opposed to some commentators who
-disparage the Ancients, who were the originators of grammar and the
-sciences and ...
-
-1423.
-
-The room in the tower of Vaneri.
-
-[Footnote: This note is written inside the sketch of a plan of a
-house. On the same page is the date 1513 (see No. 1376).]
-
-1424.
-
-The figures you will have to reserve for the last book on shadows
-that they may appear in the study of Gerardo the illuminator at San
-Marco at Florence.
-
-[Go to see Melzo, and the Ambassador, and Maestro Bernardo].
-
-[Footnote: L. 1-3 are in the original written between lines 3 and 4
-of No. 292. But the sense is not clear in this connection. It is
-scarcely possible to devine the meaning of the following sentence.
-
-2. 3. _Gherardo_ Miniatore, a famous illuminator, 1445-1497, to whom
-Vasari dedicated a section of his Lives (Vol. II pp. 237-243, ed.
-Sansoni 1879).
-
-5. _Bernardo_, possibly the painter Bernardo Zenale.]
-
-1425.
-
-Hermes the philosopher.
-
-1426.
-
-Suisset, viz. calculator,--Tisber, --Angelo Fossobron,--Alberto.
-
-1427.
-
-The structure of the drawbridge shown me by Donnino, and why _c_ and
-_d_ thrust downwards.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch on the same page as this text represents two
-poles one across the other. At the ends of the longest are the
-letter _c_ and _d_. The sense of the passage is not rendered any
-clearer.]
-
-1428.
-
-The great bird will take its first flight;-- on the back of his
-great swan,--filling the universe with wonders; filling all writings
-with his fame and bringing eternal glory to his birthplace.
-
-[Footnote: This seems to be a speculation about the flying machine
-(compare p. 271).]
-
-1429.
-
-This stratagem was used by the Gauls against the Romans, and so
-great a mortality ensued that all Rome was dressed in mourning.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo perhaps alludes to the Gauls under Brennus, who
-laid his sword in the scale when the tribute was weighed.]
-
-1430.
-
-Alberto da Imola;--Algebra, that is, the demonstration of the
-equality of one thing to another.
-
-1431.
-
-Johannes Rubicissa e Robbia.
-
-1432.
-
-Ask the wife of Biagio Crivelli how the capon nurtures and hatches
-the eggs of the hen,--he being drunk.
-
-1433.
-
-The book on Water to Messer Marco Antonio.
-
-[Footnote: Possibly Marc-Antonio della Torre, see p. 97.]
-
-1434.
-
-Have Avicenna's work on useful inventions translated; spectacles
-with the case, steel and fork and...., charcoal, boards, and paper,
-and chalk and white, and wax;.... .... for glass, a saw for bones
-with fine teeth, a chisel, inkstand ........ three herbs, and Agnolo
-Benedetto. Get a skull, nut,--mustard.
-
-Boots,--gloves, socks, combs, papers, towels, shirts,....
-shoe-tapes,--..... shoes, penknife, pens. A skin for the chest.
-
-[Footnote: 4. Lapis. Compare Condivi, _Vita di Michelagnolo
-Buonarotti_, Chap. XVIII.: _Ma egli_ (Michelangelo) _non avendo che
-mostrare, prese una penna (percioche in quel tempo il lapis non era
-in uso) e con tal leggiadria gli dipinse una mano ecc._ The incident
-is of the year l496.--Lapis means pencil, and chalk (_matita_).
-Between lines 7 and 8 are the texts given as Nos. 819 and No. 7.]
-
-Undated memoranda (1435-1457).
-
-1435.
-
-The book of Piero Crescenze,--studies from the nude by Giovanni
-Ambrosio,--compasses, --the book of Giovanni Giacomo.
-
-1436.
-
-MEMORARDUM.
-
-To make some provisions for my garden, --Giordano, _De
-Ponderibus_[Footnote 3: _Giordano_. Jordanus Nemorarius, a
-mathematician of the beginning of the XIIIth century. No particulars
-of his life are known. The title of his principal work is:
-_Arithmetica decem libris demonstrata_, first published at Paris
-1496. In 1523 appeared at Nuremberg: _Liber Jordani Nemorarii de
-ponderibus, propositiones XIII et earundem demonstrationes,
-multarumque rerum rationes sane pulcherrimas complectens, nunc in
-lucem editus._],--the peacemaker, the flow and ebb of the sea,--have
-two baggage trunks made, look to Beltraffio's [Footnote 6:
-_Beltraffio_, see No. 465, note 2.
-
-There are sketches by the side of lines 8 and 10.] lathe and have
-taken the stone,--out leave the books belonging to Messer Andrea the
-German,-- make scales of a long reed and weigh the substance when
-hot and again when cold. The mirror of Master Luigi; _A b_ the flow
-and ebb of the water is shown at the mill of Vaprio,--a cap.
-
-1437.
-
-Giovanni Fabre,--Lazaro del Volpe,-- the common,--Ser Piero.
-
-[Footnote: These names are inserted on a plan of plots of land
-adjoining the Arno.]
-
-1438.
-
-[Lactantius], [the book of Benozzo], groups,--to bind the book,--a
-lantern,--Ser Pecantino,--Pandolfino.--[Rosso]--a square, --small
-knives,--carriages,--curry combs-- cup.
-
-1439.
-
-Quadrant of Carlo Marmocchi,--Messer Francesco Araldo,--Ser
-Benedetto d'Accie perello,--Benedetto on arithmetic,--Maestro Paulo,
-physician,--Domenico di Michelino,-- ...... of the Alberti,--Messer
-Giovanni Argimboldi.
-
-1440.
-
-Colours, formula,--Archimedes,--Marcantonio.
-
-Tinned iron,--pierced iron.
-
-1441.
-
-See the shop that was formerly Bartolommeo's, the stationer.
-
-[Footnote: 6. _Marc Antonio_, see No. 1433.]
-
-1442.
-
-The first book is by Michele di Francesco Nabini; it treats on
-science.
-
-1443.
-
-Messer Francesco, physician of Lucca, with the Cardinal Farnese.
-
-[Footnote: _Alessandro Farnese_, afterwards Pope Paul III was
-created in 1493 Cardinal di San Cosimo e San Damiano, by Alexander
-VI.]
-
-1444.
-
-Pandolfino's book [Footnote 1: _Pandolfino, Agnolo_, of Florence. It
-is to this day doubtful whether he or L. B. Alberti was the author
-of the famous work '_Del Governo della Famiglia_'. It is the more
-probable that Leonardo should have meant this work by the words _il
-libro_, because no other book is known to have been written by
-Pandolfino. This being the case this allusion of Leonardo's is an
-important evidence in favour of Pandolfino's authorship (compare No.
-1454, line 3).],--knives,--a pen for ruling,--to have the vest
-dyed,--The library at St.-Mark's,--The library at Santo
-Spirito,--Lactantius of the Daldi [Footnote 7: The works of
-Lactantius were published very often in Italy during Leonardo's
-lifetime. The first edition published in 1465 "_in monastero
-sublacensi_" was also the first book printed in Italy.],--Antonio
-Covoni,--A book by Maestro Paolo Infermieri, --Boots, shoes and
-hose,--(Shell)lac, --An apprentice to do the models for me. Grammar,
-by Lorenzo de Medici,--Giovanni del Sodo,--Sansovino, [Footnote 15:
-_Sansovino_, Andrea--the _sculptor_; 1460-1529.]--a ruler,--a very
-sharp knife,--Spectacles,--fractions....,
---repair.........,--Tomaso's book,-- Michelagnolo's little chain;
-Learn the multiplication of roots from Maestro Luca;--my map of the
-world which Giovanni Benci has [Footnote 25: Leonardo here probably
-alludes to the map, not executed by him (See p. 224), which is with
-the collection of his MSS. at Windsor, and was published in the
-_Archaeologia_ Vol. XI (see p. 224).];-Socks,--clothes from the
-customhouse-officier,--Red Cordova leather,--The map of the world,
-of Giovanni Benci,--a print, the districts about Milan--Market book.
-
-Get the Friar di Brera to show you [the book] '_de Ponderibus_'
-[Footnote 11: _Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until
-1571 it was the monastery of the order of the Umiliati and
-afterwards of the Jesuits.
-
-_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.],--
-
-Of the measurement of San Lorenzo,--
-
-I lent certain groups to Fra Filippo de Brera, [Footnote 13:
-_Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until 1571 it was the
-monastery of the order of the Umiliati and afterwards of the
-Jesuits.
-
-_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.]--
-
-Memorandum: to ask Maestro Giovannino as to the mode in which the
-tower of Ferrara is walled without loopholes,--
-
-Ask Maestro Antonio how mortars are placed on bastions by day or by
-night,--
-
-Ask Benedetto Portinari how the people go on the ice in Flanders,--
-
-On proportions by Alchino, with notes by Marliano, from Messer
-Fazio,--
-
-The measurement of the sun, promised me by Maestro Giovanni, the
-Frenchman,--
-
-The cross bow of Maestro Gianetto,--
-
-The book by Giovanni Taverna that Messer Fazio,--
-
-You will draw Milan [21],--
-
-The measurement of the canal, locks and supports, and large boats;
-and the expense,--
-
-Plan of Milan [Footnote 23: _Fondamento_ is commonly used by
-Leonardo to mean ground-plan. See for instance p. 53.],--
-
-Groups by Bramante [Footnote 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No.
-600, note 9.],--
-
-The book on celestial phenomena by Aristoteles, in Italian [Footnote
-25: _Meteora_. By this Leonardo means no doubt the four books. He
-must refer here to a MS. translation, as no Italian translation is
-known to have been published (see No. 1477 note).],--
-
-Try to get Vitolone, which is in the library at Pavia [Footnote 26:
-_Vitolone_ see No. 1506, note.
-
-_Libreria di Pavia_. One of the most famous of Italian libraries.
-After the victory of Novara in April 1500, Louis XII had it conveyed
-to France, '_come trofeo di vittoria_'!] and which treats of
-Mathematics,--He had a master [learned] in waterworks and get him to
-explain the repairs and the costs, and a lock and a canal and a mill
-in the Lombard fashion.
-
-A grandson of Gian Angelo's, the painter has a book on water which
-was his fathers.
-
-Paolino Scarpellino, called Assiolo has great knowledge of water
-works.
-
-[Footnote 12: _Sco Lorenzo_. A church at Milan, see pp. 39, 40 and
-50.]
-
-[Footnote 13. 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No. 600, note 9.]
-
-[Footnote 16: The _Portinari_ were one of the great merchant-
-families of Florence.]
-
-1449.
-
-Francesco d'Antonio at Florence.
-
-1450.
-
-Giuliano Condi[1],--Tomaso Ridolfi,-- Tomaso Paganelli,--Nicolo del
-Nero,--Simone Zasti,--Nasi,--the heir of Lionardo Manelli,
---Guglielmo di Ser Martino,--Bartolomeo del Tovaglia,--Andrea
-Arrigucci,-- Nicolo Capponi,--Giovanni Portinari.
-
-[Footnote: I. _Guiliano Gondi_. Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's
-father, lived till 1480, in a house belonging to Giuliano Gondi. In
-1498 this was pulled down to make room for the fine Palazzo built on
-the Piazza San Firenze by Giuliano di San Gallo, which still exists.
-In the _Riassunto del Catasto di Ser Piero da Vinci_, 1480, Leonardo
-is not mentioned; it is evident therefore that he was living
-elsewhere. It may be noticed incidentally that in the _Catasto di
-Giuliano Gondi_ of the same year the following mention is made of
-his four eldest sons:
-
-_Lionardo mio figliuolo d'eta d'anni 29, non fa nulla, Giovambatista
-d'eta d'anni 28 in Ghostantinopoli, Billichozo d'eta d'anni 24 a
-Napoli, Simone d'eta d'anni 23 in Ungheria._
-
-He himself was a merchant of gold filigree (_facciamo lavorare una
-bottegha d'arte di seta ... facciamo un pocho di trafico a Napoli_}.
-As he was 59 years old in 1480, he certainly would not have been
-alive at the time of Leonardo's death. But Leonardo must have been
-on intimate terms with the family till the end of his life, for in a
-letter dated June 1. 1519, in which Fr. Melzi, writing from Amboise,
-announces Leonardo's death to Giuliano da Vinci at Florence (see p.
-284), he says at the end "_Datemene risposta per i Gondi_" (see
-UZIELLI, _Ricerche_, passim).
-
-Most of the other names on the list are those of well-known
-Florentine families.]
-
-1451.
-
-Pandolfino.
-
-1452.
-
-Vespuccio will give me a book of Geometry.
-
-[Footnote: See No. 844, note, p. 130.]
-
-1453.
-
-Marcantonio Colonna at Santi Apostoli.
-
-[Footnote: In July 1506 Pope Julius II gave Donna Lucrezia della
-Rovere, the daughter of his sister Lucchina, in marriage to the
-youthful Marcantonio Colonna, who, like his brothers Prospero and
-Fabrizio, became one of the most famous Captains of his family. He
-gave to him Frascati and made him a present of the palazzo he had
-built, when Cardinal, near the church of Santi Apostoli which is now
-known as the Palazzo Colonna (see GREGOROVIUS, _Gesch. der Stadt
-Rom._ Vol. VIII, book XIV I, 3. And COPPI, _Mem. Colonnesi_ p.
-251).]
-
-1454.
-
-A box, a cage,-- A square, to make the bird [Footnote 2: Vasari
-states that Leonardo invented mechanical birds which moved through
-the air. Compare No. 703.],-- Pandolfino's book, mortar [?],-- Small
-knives, Venieri for the
-
-[Footnote: Much of No. 1444 is repeated in this memorandum.]
-
-Pen for ruling,        stone,--star,--
-
-To have the vest dyed, Alfieri's tazza,--
-
-The Libraries,         the book on celestial
-                       phenomena,--
-
-Lactantius of the      go to the house of
-Daldi,--               the Pazzi,
-
-Book from Maestro      small box,--
-Paolo Infermieri,--
-
-Boots, shoes and       small gimlet,--
-hose,
-
-Lac,                   .......,--
-
-An apprentice for      .....,--
-models,
-
-Grammar of Lo-         the amount of the
-renzo de' Medici,      ...
-
-Giovanni del Sodo      .....
-for...,--the broken
-
-Sansovino,             the....
-
-Piero di Cosino        the wings,--
-
-[Footnote 16: _Pier di Cosimo_ the well known Florentine painter
-1462-1521. See VASARI, _Vite_ (Vol. IV, p. 134 ed. Sansoni 1880)
-about Leonardo's influence on Piero di Cosimo's style of painting.]
-
-Filippo and Lorenzo [Footnote 17: _Filippo e Lorenzo_; probably the
-painters Filippino Lippi and Lorenzo di Credi. L. di Credi's
-pictures and Vasari's history of that painter bear ample evidence to
-his intimate relations with Leonardo.],--A ruler-,-- Spectacles,--to
-do the..... again,--Tomaso's book,--Michelagnolo's chain,--The
-multiplication of roots,--Of the bow and strinch,--The map of the
-world from Benci,-- Socks,--The clothes from the custom-house
-officier,--Cordova leather,--Market books, --waters of
-Cronaca,--waters of Tanaglino..., --the caps,--Rosso's mirror; to
-see him make it,--1/3 of which I have 5/6,--on the celestial
-phenomena, by Aristotle [Footnote 36: _Meteora_. See No. 1448,
-25.],--boxes of Lorenzo di Pier Francesco [Footnote 37: _Lorenzo di
-Pier Francesco_ and his brother _Giovanni_ were a lateral branch of
-the _Medici_ family and changed their name for that of
-Popolani.],--Maestro Piero of the Borgo,--To have my book
-bound,--Show the book to Serigatto,-- and get the rule of the clock
-[Footnote 41: Possibly this refers to the clock on the tower of the
-Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. In February 1512 it had been repaired,
-and so arranged as to indicate the hours after the French manner
-(twelve hours a. m. and as many p. m.).],--
-ring,--nutmeg,--gum,--the square,--Giovan' Batista at the piazza,
-de' Mozzi,--Giovanni Benci has my book and jaspers,--brass for the
-spectacles.
-
-1455.
-
-Search in Florence for......
-
-1456.
-
-Bernardo da Ponte ... Val di Lugano ... many veins for anatomical
-demonstration.
-
-[Footnote: This fragmentary note is written on the margin of a
-drawing of two legs.]
-
-1457.
-
-Paolo of Tavechia, to see the marks in the German stones.
-
-[Footnote: This note occurs on a pen and ink drawing made by
-Leonardo as a sketch for the celebrated large cartoon in the
-possession of the Royal Academy of Arts, in London. This cartoon is
-commonly supposed to be identical with that described and lauded by
-Vasari, which was exhibited in Florence at the time and which now
-seems to be lost. Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, in his valuable
-paper (read before the Royal Soc. of Literature, June 28, 1882) "On
-the St. Anne of Leonardo da Vinci", has adduced proof that the
-cartoon now in the Royal Academy was executed earlier at Milan. The
-note here given, which is written on the sheet containing the study
-for the said cartoon, has evidently no reference to the drawing on
-which it is written but is obviously of the same date. Though I have
-not any opening here for discussing this question of the cartoon, it
-seemed to me important to point out that the character of the
-writing in this note does not confirm the opinion hitherto held that
-the Royal Academy cartoon was the one described by Vasari, but, on
-the contrary, supports the hypothesis put forward by Mr. Marks.]
-
-Notes on pupils (1458-1468.)
-
-1458.
-
-Giacomo came to live with me on St.-Mary Magdalen's[Footnote: _Il di
-della Maddalena._ July 22.] day, 1490, aged 10 years. The second day
-I had two shirts cut out for him, a pair of hose, and a jerkin, and
-when I put aside some money to pay for these things he stole 4
-_lire_ the money out of the purse; and I could never make him
-confess, though I was quite certain of the fact.--Thief, liar,
-obstinate, glutton.
-
-The day after, I went to sup with Giacomo Andrea, and the said
-Giacomo supped for two and did mischief for four; for he brake 3
-cruets, spilled the wine, and after this came to sup where I ....
-
-Item: on the 7th day of September he stole a silver point of the
-value of 22 soldi from Marco[Footnote 6: _Marco_, probably
-Leonardo's pupil Marco d'Oggionno; 1470 is supposed to be the date
-of his birth and 1540 of his death.
-
-_Che stava con meco._ We may infer from this that he left the master
-shortly after this, his term of study having perhaps expired.] who
-was living with me, 4 _lire_ this being of silver; and he took it
-from his studio, and when the said Marco had searched for it a long
-while he found it hidden in the said Giacomo's box 4 _lire_.
-
-Item: on the 26th January following, I, being in the house of Messer
-Galeazzo da San Severino [Footnote 9: Galeazzo. See No. 718 note.],
-was arranging the festival for his jousting, and certain footmen
-having undressed to try on some costumes of wild men for the said
-festival, Giacomo went to the purse of one of them which lay on the
-bed with other clothes, 2 lire 4 S, and took out such money as was
-in it.
-
-Item: when I was in the same house, Maestro Agostino da Pavia gave
-to me a Turkish hide to have (2 lire.) a pair of short boots made of
-it; this Giacomo stole it of me within a month and sold it to a
-cobbler for 20 soldi, with which money, by his own confession, he
-bought anise comfits.
-
-Item: again, on the 2nd April, Giovan Antonio [Footnote 16: Giovan
-Antonio, probably Beltraffio, 1467 to 1516.] having left a silver
-point on a drawing of his, Giacomo stole it, and this was of the
-value of 24 soldi (1 lira 4 S.)
-
-The first year-
-
-A cloak, 2 lire,
-6 shirts, 4 lire,
-3 jerkins, 6 lire,
-4 pairs of hose, 7 lire 8 soldi,
-1 lined doublet, 5 lire,
-24 pairs of shoes, 6 lire 5 soldi,
-A cap, 1 lira,
-laces, 1 lira.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo here gives a detailed account not only of the
-loss he and others incurred through Giacomo but of the wild tricks
-of the youth, and we may therefore assume that the note was not made
-merely as a record for his own use, but as a report to be forwarded
-to the lad's father or other responsible guardian.]
-
-1459.
-
-On the last day but one of September;
-
-Thursday the 27th day of September Maestro Tommaso came back and
-worked for himself until the last day but one of February. On the
-18th day of March, 1493, Giulio, a German, came to live with
-me,--Lucia, Piero, Leonardo.
-
-On the 6th day of October.
-
-1460.
-
-1493. On the 1st day of November we settled accounts. Giulio had to
-pay 4 months; and Maestro Tommaso 9 months; Maestro Tommaso
-afterwards made 6 candlesticks, 10 days' work; Giulio some
-fire-tongs 15 days work. Then he worked for himself till the 27th
-May, and worked for me at a lever till the 18th July; then for
-himself till the 7th of August, and for one day, on the fifteenth,
-for a lady. Then again for me at 2 locks until the 20th of August.
-
-1461.
-
-On the 23rd day of August, 12 lire from Pulisona. On the 14th of
-March 1494, Galeazzo came to live with me, agreeing to pay 5 lire a
-month for his cost paying on the l4th day of each month.
-
-His father gave me 2 Rhenish florins.
-
-On the l4th of July, I had from Galeazzo 2 Rhenish florins.
-
-1462.
-
-On the 15th day of September Giulio began the lock of my studio
-1494.
-
-1463.
-
-Saturday morning the 3rd of August 1504 Jacopo the German came to
-live with me in the house, and agreed with me that I should charge
-him a carlino a day.
-
-1464.
-
-1511. On the 26th of September Antonio broke his leg; he must rest
-40 days.
-
-[Footnote: This note refers possibly to Beltraffio.]
-
-1465.
-
-I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September, 1513, with
-Giovanni [Footnote 2: _Giovan;_ it is not likely that Leonardo
-should have called Giovan' Antonio Beltraffio at one time Giovanni,
-as in this note and another time Antonio, as in No. 1464 while in
-No. 1458 l. 16 we find _Giovan'Antonio_, and in No. 1436, l.6
-_Beltraffio_. Possibly the Giovanni here spoken of is Leonardo's
-less known pupil Giovan Pietrino (see No. 1467, 5).], Francesco di
-Melzi [Footnote 2,3: _Francesco de' Melzi_ is often mentioned, see
-Nos. 1350.], Salai [Footnote 3: _Salai_. See No. 1519 note.],
-Lorenzo and il Fanfoia.
-
-[Footnote 4: _Lorenzo_. See No. 1351, l. 10 (p. 408). Amoretti gives
-the following note in _Mem. Stor. XXIII:_ 1505. _Martedi--sera a di
-14 d'aprile. Venne Lorenzo a stare con mecho: disse essere d'eta
-d'anni 17 .. a di 15 del detto aprile ebbi scudi 25 d'oro dal
-chamerlingo di Santa Maria nuova._ This, he asserts is derived from
-a MS. marked S, in quarto. This MS. seems to have vanished and left
-no trace behind; Amoretti himself had not seen it, but copied from a
-selection of extracts made by Oltrocchi before the Leonardo MSS.
-were conveyed to Paris on the responsibility of the first French
-Republic. Lorenzo, by this, must have been born in 1487. The
-sculptor Lorenzetto was born in 1490. Amoretti has been led by the
-above passage to make the following absurd observations:
-
-_Cotesto Lorenzo, che poi gli fu sempre compagno, almeno sin che
-stette in Italia, sarebb' egli Lorenzo Lotto bergamasco? Sappiamo
-essere stato questo valente dipintore uno de'bravi scolari del
-Vinci_ (?).
-
-_Il Fafoia_, perhaps a nickname. Cesare da Sesto, Leonardo's pupil,
-seems to have been in Rome in these years, as we learn from a
-drawing by him in the Louvre.
-
-1466.
-
-On the 3rd day of January.
-
-Benedetto came on the 17th of October; he stayed with me two months
-and 13 days of last year, in which time he earned 38 lire, 18 soldi
-and 8 dinari; he had of this 26 lire and 8 soldi, and there remains
-to be paid for the past year 12 lire 10 soldi.
-
-Giodatti (?) came on the 8th day of September, at 4 soldi a month,
-and stayed with me 3 months and 24 days, and earned 59 lire 14 soldi
-and 8 dinari; he has had 43 lire, 4 soldi, there remains to pay 16
-lire, 10 soldi and 8 dinari.
-
-Benedetto, 24 grossoni.
-
-[Footnote: This seems to be an account for two assistants. The name
-of the second is scarcely legible. The year is not given. The note
-is nevertheless of chronological value. The first line tells us the
-date when the note was registered, January 3d, and the observations
-that follow refer to events of the previous month 'of last year'
-_(dell'anno passato)_. Leonardo cannot therefore have written thus
-in Florence where the year was, at that period, calculated as
-beginning in the month of March (see Vol. I, No. 4, note 2). He must
-then have been in Milan. What is more important is that we thus
-learn how to date the beginning of the year in all the notes written
-at Milan. This clears up Uzielli's doubts: _A Milano facevasi
-cominciar l'anno ab incarnatione, cioe il 25 Marzo e a nativitate,
-cioe il 25 Decembre. Ci sembra probabile che Leonardo dovesse
-prescegliere lo stile che era in uso a Firenze._ (_Ricerche_, p. 84,
-note.)]
-
-1467.
-
-Gian Maria 4,
-Benedetto 4,
-Gian Pietro [5] 3,
-Salai 3,
-Bartolomeo 3,
-Gherardo 4.
-
-1468.
-
-Salai, 20 lire,
-Bonifacio, 2 lire,
-Bartolomeo, 4 lire,
-Arrigo [Harry], 15 lire.
-
-Quotations and notes on books and authors (1469-1508).
-
-1469.
-
-Book on Arithmetic [Footnote 1: _"La nobel opera de arithmethica ne
-la qual se tracta tute cosse amercantia pertinente facta & compilata
-per Piero borgi da Veniesia", in-40. In fine: "Nela inclita cita di
-Venetia a corni. 2 augusto. 1484. fu imposto fine ala presente
-opera." Segn. a--p. quaderni. V'ha pero un' altra opera simile di
-Filippo Calandro, 1491. E da consultarsi su quest' ultimo, Federici:
-Memorie Trevigiane, Fiore di virtu: pag. 73. "Libricciuolo composto
-di bello stile verso il 1320 e piu volte impresso nel secolo XV
-(ristampato poi anche piu tardi). Gli accademici della Crusca lo
-ammettono nella serie dei testi di lingua. Vedasi Gamba, Razzolini,
-Panzer, Brunet, Lechi, ecc._ (G. D'A.)], 'Flowers of Virtue',
-
-Pliny [Footnote 2: _"Historia naturale di C. Plinio Secondo,
-tradocta di lingua latina in fiorentina per Christophoro Laudino &
-Opus Nicolai Jansonis gallici imp. anno salutis M.CCCC.LXXVI.
-Venetiis" in-fol.--Diogene Laertio. Incomincia: "El libro de la vita
-de philosophi etc.: Impressum Venetiis" per Bernardinum Celerium de
-Luere, 1480", in-40_ (G. D'A.).], 'Lives of the Philosophers',
-
-The Bible [Footnote 3: _"La Bibia volgare historiata (per Nicolo di
-Mallermi) Venecia ... M.CCCC.LXXI in kalende di Augusto (per
-Vindelino de Spira)" 2 vol. in-fol. a 2 col. di 50 lin,; od altra
-ediz. della stessa versione del Mallermi, Venetia 1471, e sempre:
-"Venecia per Gabriel de Piero 1477," in-fol.; 2 vol.; Ottavio Scotto
-da Modoetia 1481," "Venetia 1487 per Joan Rosso Vercellese," "1490
-Giovanni Ragazo di Monteferato a instantia di Luchanthonio di
-Giunta, ecc."--Lapidario Teofrasto? Mandebille: "Le grand
-lapidaire," versione italiana ms.?... Giorgio Agricola non puo
-essere, perche nato nel 1494, forse Alberto Magno: de mineralibus.
-Potrebbe essere una traduzione del poema latino (Liber lapidum seu
-de gemmis) di Marbordio Veterio di Rennes (morto nel 1123 da lui
-stesso tradotto in francese dal greco di Evao re d'Arabia celebre
-medico che l'aveva composto per l'imperatore Tiberio. Marbodio
-scrisse il suo prima per Filippo Augusto re di Francia. Vi sono
-anche traduzioni in prosa. "Il lapidario o la forza e la virtu delle
-pietre preziose, delle Erbe e degli Animali."_ (G. D'A.)],
-'Lapidary',
-
-'On warfare' [Footnote 4: _Il Vegezio? ... Il Frontino? ... Il
-Cornazzano?... Noi crediamo piuttosto il Valturio. Questo libro
-doveva essere uno de'favoriti di Leonardo poiche libro di scienza e
-d'arte nel tempo stesso._], 'Epistles of Filelfo',
-
-[Footnote: The late Marchese Girolamo d'Adda published a highly
-valuable and interesting disquisition on this passage under the
-title: _Leonardo da Vinci e la sua Libreria, note di un bibliofilo
-(Milano 1873. Ed. di soli 75 esemplari_; privately printed). In the
-autumn of 1880 the Marchese d'Adda showed me a considerable mass of
-additional notes prepared for a second edition. This, as he then
-intended, was to come out after the publication of this work of
-mine. After the much regretted death of the elder Marchese, his son,
-the Marchese Gioachino d'Adda was so liberal as to place these MS.
-materials at my disposal for the present work, through the kind
-intervention of Signor Gustavo Frizzoni. The following passages,
-with the initials G. d'A. are prints from the valuable notes in that
-publication, the MS. additions I have marked. I did not however
-think myself justified in reproducing here the acute and interesting
-observations on the contents of most of the rare books here
-enumerated.]
-
-[Footnote: 1467. 5. See No. 1465, 2.]
-
-The first decade, [5] 'On the preservation of health', The third
-decade, [6] Ciecho d'Ascoli, The fourth decade, [7] Albertus Magnus,
-Guido, [8] New treatise on rhetorics, Piero Crescentio, [9]
-Cibaldone, 'Quadriregio', [10] Aesop,
-
-Donato, [Footnote 11: "_Donatus latine & italice: Impressum Venetiis
-impensis Johannis Baptistae de Sessa anno_ 1499, _in_-4deg.".-- "_El
-Psalterio de David in lingua volgare (da Malermi Venetia nel
-M.CCCC.LXXVI,_" in-fol. s. n._ (G. D'A.)] Psalms,
-
-Justinus, [Footnote 12: Compare No. 1210, 48.--_La versione di
-Girolamo Squarzafico:_ "_Il libro di Justino posto diligentemente in
-materna lingua. Venetia ale spesse (sic) di Johane de Colonia &
-Johane Gheretze_ ... l477," _in-fol._--"_Marsilii Ficini, Theologia
-platonica, sive de animarum immortalitate, Florentine, per Ant.
-Misconimum_ 1482," _in-fol., ovvero qualche versione italiana di
-questo stesso libro, ms._ (G. D'A.)] 'On the immortality of the
-soul,
-
-Guido [Footnote 13: _Forse_ "_la Historia Trojana Guidonis_" _od il
-_"_manipulus_" _di_ "_Guido da Monterocherii_"_ ma piu probabilmente
-_"_Guido d'Arezzo_"_ il di cui libro: _"_Micrologus, seu disciplina
-artis musicae_"_ poteva da Leonardo aversi ms.; di questi ne
-esistono in molto biblioteche, e fu poi impresso nel 1784 dal
-Gerbert._
-
-_Molte sono le edizione dei sonetti di Burchiello Fiorentino,
-impresse nel secolo XV. La prima e piu rara e recercata:_
-"_Incominciano li sonetti, ecc. (per Christoforo Arnaldo)_"_, in_-4deg.
-_senza numeri, richiami o segnature, del_ 1475, _e fors' anche del_
-1472, _secondo Morelli e Dibdin, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Burchiello,
-
-'Doctrinale' [Footnote 14: _Versione italiana det "Doctrinal de
-Sapience" di Guy de Roy, e foris'anche l'originale in lingua
-francese.--_
-
-_Di Pulci Luigi, benche nell' edizione:_ "_Florentiae_ 1479" _in_-4deg.
-si dica: _"_Il Driadeo composto in rima octava per Lucio Pulcro_"_
-Altre ediz, del secolo XV, _"_Florentie Miscomini_ 1481, _in_-40,
-_Firenze, apud S. Jacob, de Ripoli,_ 1483,_" _in_-4deg. _e "Antoni de
-Francesco,_ 1487," _in_-4deg. _e Francesco di Jacopo_ 1489,_in_-4deg. _ed
-altre ancora di Venezia e senza alcuna nota ecc._ (G. D'A.)]
-Driadeo,
-
-Morgante [Footnote 15: _Una delle edizioni del Morgante impresse nel
-secolo XV, ecc.--_
-
-_Quale delle opere di Francesco Petrarca, sarebbe malagevole
-l'indovinare, ma probabilmente il Canzoniere._ (G. D'A.)] Petrarch.
-
-John de Mandeville [Footnote 16: _Sono i viaggi del cavaliere_
-"_Mandeville_" _gentiluomo inglese. Scrisse il suo libro in lingua
-francese. Fu stampato replicatamente nel secolo XV in francese, in
-inglese ed in italiano ed in tedesco; del secolo XV ne annoverano
-forse piu di 27 edizioni, di cui ne conosciamo_ 8 _in francese,
-quattro in latino, sei in tedesco e molte altre in volgare._ (G.
-D'A.)]
-
-'On honest recreation' [Footnote 17: _Il Platina (Bartolomeo Sacchi)
-la versione italiana_ "_de la honesta voluptate, & valetudine (& de
-li obsonnii) Venetia (senza nome di tipografo)_ 1487," _piccolo
-in_-4deg. _gotico._ (G. D'A.)--Compare No. 844, 21.]
-
-Manganello, [Footnote 18: _Il Manganello: Satira eccessivamente
-vivace contro le donne ad imitazione della Sesta di Giovenale.
-Manganello non e soltanto il titolo del libricino, sua ben anche il
-nome dell'autore ch'era un_ "_milanese_". _Di questo libercolo
-rarissimo, che sembra impresso a Venezia dallo Zoppino (Nicolo
-d'Aristotile detto il), senza data, ma dei primissimi anni del
-secolo XVI, e forse piu antico, come vedremo in appresso, non se ne
-conoscono fra biblioteche pubbliche e private che due soli esemplari
-in Europa._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-The Chronicle of Isidoro, [Footnote 19: "_Cronica desidero_",
-_sembra si deggia leggere piuttosto_ "_cronico disidoro_"_; ed in
-questo caso s'intenderebbe la_ "_cronica d'Isidoro_" _tanto in voga
-a quel tempo_ "_Comenza la Cronica di Sancto Isidoro menore con
-alchune additione cavate del testo & istorie de la Bibia & del libro
-di Paulo Oroso .... Impresso in Ascoli in casa del reverendo misser
-Pascale ..... per mano di Guglielmo de Linis de Alamania
-M.CCCC.LXXVII_" _in_-4deg. _di_ 157 _ff. E il primo libro impresso ad
-Ascoli e l'edizione principe di questa cronica in oggi assai rara.
-Non lo e meno l'edizione di Cividal del Friuli_, 1480, _e quella ben
-anche di Aquila_, 1482, _sempre in-_4deg.. _Vedasi Panzer, Hain, Brunet
-e P. Dechamps._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-The Epistles of Ovid, [Footnote 20: "_Le pistole di Ovidio tradotte
-in prosa. Napoli Sixt. Riessinger_", _in_-4deg., _oppure:_ "_Epistole
-volgarizzate_ 1489," _in_-4deg. _a due col._ "_impresse ne la cita
-(sic) di Bressa per pre: Baptista de Farfengo,_" _(in ottave) o:_
-"_El libro dele Epistole di Ovidio in rima volgare per messere
-Dominico de Monticelli toschano. Brescia Farfengo_," _in_-4deg. _got.
-(in rima volgare)_, 1491, _ed anche la versione di Luca Pulci.
-Firenze, Mischomini_, 1481, _in_-4deg.. (G. D'A.) ]
-
-Epistles of Filelfo, [Footnote 21: See l. 4.]
-
-Sphere, [Footnote 22: "_Jo: de Sacrobusto_," _o_ "_Goro Dati_," _o_
-"_Tolosano da Colle_" _di cui molteplici edizioni del secolo XV._
-(G. D'A.)]
-
-The Jests of Poggio, [Footnote 23: _Tre edizioni delle facezie del
-Poggio abbiamo in lingua italiana della fine del secolo XV, tutte
-senza data. "Facetie de Poggio fiorentino traducte de latino in
-vulgare ornatissimo," in-40, segn. a--e in caratteri romani;
-l'altra: "Facetie traducte de latino in vulgare," in-40, caratteri
-gotici, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Chiromancy, [Footnote 24: "_Die Kunst
-Cyromantia etc, in tedesco. 26 ff. di testo e figure il tutte
-eseguito su tavole di legno verso la fine del secolo XV da Giorgio
-Schapff". Dibdin, Heinecken, Sotheby e Chatto ne diedero una lunga
-descrizione; i primi tre accompagnati da fac-simili. La data 1448
-che si legge alla fine del titolo si riferisce al periodo della
-composizione del testo, non a quello della stampa del volume benche
-tabellario. Altri molti libri di Chiromanzia si conoscono di quel
-tempo e sarebbe opera vana il citarli tutti._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-Formulary of letters, [Footnote 25: _Miniatore Bartolomeo.
-"Formulario de epistole vulgare missive e responsive, & altri fiori
-de ornali parlamenti al principe Hercule d'Esti ecc. composto ecc.
-Bologna per Ugo di Rugerii," in-40, del secolo XV. Altra edizione di
-"Venetia Bernardino di Novara, 1487" e "Milano per Joanne Angelo
-Scinzenzeler 1500," in-40._ (G. D'A.)
-
-Five books out of this list are noted by Leonardo in another MS.
-(Tr. 3): _donato, -- lapidario, -- plinio, -- abacho, -- morgante._]
-
-1470.
-
-Nonius Marcellus, Festus Pompeius, Marcus Varro.
-
-[Footnote: Nonius Marcellus and Sextus Pompeius Festus were Roman
-grammarians of about the fourth century A. D. Early publications of
-the works of Marcellus are: _De proprietate sermonis, Romae_ (about
-1470), and 1471 (place of publication unknown). _Compendiosa
-doctrina, ad filium, de proprietate sermonum._ Venice, 1476. BRUNET,
-_Manuel du libraire_ (IV, p. 97) notes: _Le texte de cet ancien
-grammairien a ete reimprime plusieurs fois a la fin du XVe siecle,
-avec ceux de Pomponius Festus et de Terentius Varro. La plus
-ancienne edition qui reunisse ces trois auteurs est celle de Parme,
-1480 ... Celles de Venise, 1483, 1490, 1498, et de Milan, 1500,
-toutes in-fol., ont peu de valeur._]
-
-1471.
-
-Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello Merciaio has from maestro
-Maffeo;--there for seven years the earth rises and for seven years
-it sinks;--Enquire at the stationers about Vitruvius.
-
-1472.
-
-See 'On Ships' Messer Battista, and Frontinus 'On Acqueducts'
-[Footnote 2: 2. _Vitruvius de Arch., et Frontinus de Aquedoctibus._
-Florence, 1513.--This is the earliest edition of Frontinus.--The
-note referring to this author thus suggests a solution of the
-problem of the date of the Leicester Manuscript.].
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1113, 25.]
-
-1473.
-
-Anaxagoras: Every thing proceeds from every thing, and every thing
-becomes every thing, and every thing can be turned into every thing
-else, because that which exists in the elements is composed of those
-elements.
-
-1474.
-
-The Archimedes belonging to the Bishop of Padua.
-
-[Footnote: See No. 1421, 1. 3, 6 and Vol. I, No. 343.]
-
-1475.
-
-Archimedes gave the quadrature of a polygonal figure, but not of the
-circle. Hence Archimedes never squared any figure with curved sides.
-He squared the circle minus the smallest portion that the intellect
-can conceive, that is the smallest point visible.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1504.]
-
-1476.
-
-If any man could have discovered the utmost powers of the cannon, in
-all its various forms and have given such a secret to the Romans,
-with what rapidity would they have conquered every country and have
-vanquished every army, and what reward could have been great enough
-for such a service! Archimedes indeed, although he had greatly
-damaged the Romans in the siege of Syracuse, nevertheless did not
-fail of being offered great rewards from these very Romans; and when
-Syracuse was taken, diligent search was made for Archimedes; and he
-being found dead greater lamentation was made for him by the Senate
-and people of Rome than if they had lost all their army; and they
-did not fail to honour him with burial and with a statue. At their
-head was Marcus Marcellus. And after the second destruction of
-Syracuse, the sepulchre of Archimedes was found again by Cato[25],
-in the ruins of a temple. So Cato had the temple restored and the
-sepulchre he so highly honoured.... Whence it is written that Cato
-said that he was not so proud of any thing he had done as of having
-paid such honour to Archimedes.
-
-[Footnote: Where Leonardo found the statement that Cato had found
-and restored the tomb of Archimedes, I do not know. It is a merit
-that Cicero claims as his own (Tusc. V, 23) and certainly with a
-full right to it. None of Archimedes' biographers --not even the
-diligent Mazzucchelli, mentions any version in which Cato is named.
-It is evidently a slip of the memory on Leonardo's part. Besides,
-according to the passage in Cicero, the grave was not found _'nelle
-ruine d'un tempio'_--which is highly improbable as relating to a
-Greek--but in an open spot (H. MULLER-STRUBING).--See too, as to
-Archimedes, No. 1417.
-
-Leonardo says somewhere in MS. C.A.: _Architronito e una macchina di
-fino rame, invenzlon d' Archimede_ (see _'Saggio'_, p. 20).]
-
-1477.
-
-Aristotle, Book 3 of the Physics, and Albertus Magnus, and Thomas
-Aquinas and the others on the rebound of bodies, in the 7th on
-Physics, on heaven and earth.
-
-1478.
-
-Aristotle says that if a force can move a body a given distance in a
-given time, the same force will move half the same body twice as far
-in the same time.
-
-1479.
-
-Aristotle in Book 3 of the Ethics: Man merits praise or blame solely
-in such matters as lie within his option to do or not to do.
-
-1480.
-
-Aristotle says that every body tends to maintain its nature.
-
-1481.
-
-On the increase of the Nile, a small book by Aristotle. [Footnote:
-_De inundatione Nili_, is quoted here and by others as a work of
-Aristotle. The Greek original is lost, but a Latin version of the
-beginning exists (Arist. Opp. IV p. 213 ed. Did. Par.).
-
-In his quotations from Aristotle Leonardo possibly refers to one of
-the following editions: _Aristotelis libri IV de coelo et mundo; de
-anima libri III; libri VIII physi- corum; libri de generatione et
-corruptione; de sensu et sensato... omnia latine, interprete
-Averroe, Venetiis 1483_ (first Latin edition). There is also a
-separate edition of _Liber de coelo et mundo_, dated 1473.]
-
-1482.
-
-Avicenna will have it that soul gives birth to soul as body to body,
-and each member to itself.
-
-[Footnote: Avicenna, see too No. 1421, 1. 2.]
-
-1483.
-
-Avicenna on liquids.
-
-1484.
-
-Roger Bacon, done in print. [Footnote: The earliest printed edition
-known to Brunet of the works of Roger Bacon, is a French
-translation, which appeared about fourty years after Leonardo's
-death.]
-
-1485.
-
-Cleomedes the philosopher.
-
-[Footnote: Cleomede. A Greek mathematician of the IVth century B. C.
-We have a Cyclic theory of Meteorica by him. His works were not
-published before Leonardo's death.]
-
-1486.
-
-CORNELIUS CELSUS.
-
-The highest good is wisdom, the chief evil is suffering in the body.
-Because, as we are composed of two things, that is soul and body, of
-which the first is the better, the body is the inferior; wisdom
-belongs to the better part, and the chief evil belongs to the worse
-part and is the worst of all. As the best thing of all in the soul
-is wisdom, so the worst in the body is suffering. Therefore just as
-bodily pain is the chief evil, wisdom is the chief good of the soul,
-that is with the wise man; and nothing else can be compared with it.
-
-[Footnote: _Aulus Cornelius Celsus_, a Roman physician, known as the
-Roman Hippocrates, probably contemporary with Augustus. Only his
-eight Books 'De Medicina', are preserved. The earliest editions are:
-_Cornelius Celsus, de medicina libr. VIII._, Milan 1481 Venice 1493
-and 1497.]
-
-1487.
-
-Demetrius was wont to say that there was no difference between the
-speech and words of the foolish and ignorant, and the noises and
-rumblings of the wind in an inflated stomach. Nor did he say so
-without reason, for he saw no difference between the parts whence
-the noise issued; whether their lower parts or their mouth, since
-one and the other were of equal use and importance.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 10.]
-
-1488.
-
-Maestro Stefano Caponi, a physician, lives at the piscina, and has
-Euclid _De Ponderibus_.
-
-1489.
-
-5th Book of Euclid. First definition: a part is a quantity of less
-magnitude than the greater magnitude when the less is contained a
-certain number of times in the greater.
-
-A part properly speaking is that which may be multiplied, that is
-when, being multiplied by a certain number, it forms exactly the
-whole. A common aggregate part ...
-
-Second definition. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a
-less, when the greater is measured by the less.
-
-By the first we define the lesser [magnitude] and by the second the
-greater is defined. A part is spoken
-
-1490.
-
-of in relation to the whole; and all their relations lie between
-these two extremes, and are called multiples.
-
-1491.
-
-Hippocrates says that the origin of men's sperm derives from the
-brain, and from the lungs and testicles of our parents, where the
-final decocture is made, and all the other limbs transmit their
-substance to this sperm by means of expiration, because there are no
-channels through which they might come to the sperm.
-
-[Footnote: The works of Hippocrates were printed first after
-Leonardo's death.]
-
-1492.
-
-Lucretius in his third [book] 'De Rerum Natura'. The hands, nails
-and teeth were (165) the weapons of ancient man.
-
-They also use for a standard a bunch of grass tied to a pole (167).
-
-[Footnote: _Lucretius, de rerum natura libri VI_ were printed first
-about 1473, at Verona in 1486, at Brescia in 1495, at Venice in 1500
-and in 1515, and at Florence in 1515. The numbers 165 and 167 noted
-by Leonardo at the end of the two passages seem to indicate pages,
-but if so, none of the editions just mentioned can here be meant,
-nor do these numbers refer to the verses in the poems of Lucretius.]
-
-1493.
-
-Ammianus Marcellinus asserts that seven hundred thousand volumes of
-books were burnt in the siege of Alexandria in the time of Julius
-Cesar.
-
-[Footnote: _Ammiani Marcellini historiarum libri qui extant XIII_,
-published at Rome in 1474.]
-
-1494.
-
-Mondino says that the muscles which raise the toes are in the
-outward side of the thigh, and he adds that there are no muscles in
-the back [upper side] of the feet, because nature desired to make
-them light, so as to move with ease; and if they had been fleshy
-they would be heavier; and here experience shows ...
-
-[Footnote: _"Mundini anatomia. Mundinus, Anothomia (sic). Mundini
-praestantissimorum doctorum almi studii ticiensis (sic) cura
-diligentissime emendata. Impressa Papiae per magistrum Antonium de
-Carfano 1478," in-fol.; ristampata: "Bononiae Johan. de Noerdlingen,
-1482," in-fol.; "Padova per Mattheum Cerdonis de Vuindischgretz,
-1484," in-40; "Lipsia, 1493," in-40; "Venezia, 1494," in-40 e ivi
-"1498," con fig. Queste figure per altro non sono, come si e
-preteso, le prime che fossero introdotte in un trattato di Notamia.
-Nel 'fasciculus Medicinae' di Giovanni Ketham, che riproduce
-l''Anatomia' del Mundinus, impresso pure a Venezia da J. e G. de
-Gregoriis, 1491, in-fol., contengonsi intagli in legno (si vogliono
-disegnati non gia incisi da Andrea Mantegna) di grande dimensione, e
-che furono piu volte riprodotti negli anni successivi. Quest'
-edizione del "fasciculus" del 1491, sta fra nostri libri e potrebbe
-benissimo essere il volume d'Anatomia notato da Leonardo._ (G.
-D'A.)]
-
-1495.
-
-Of the error of those who practice without knowledge;--[3] See first
-the 'Ars poetica' of Horace [5].
-
-[Footnote: A 3-5 are written on the margin at the side of the title
-line of the text given, entire as No. 19]
-
-1496.
-
-The heirs of Maestro Giovanni Ghiringallo have the works of
-Pelacano.
-
-1497.
-
-The catapult, as we are told by Nonius and Pliny, is a machine
-devised by those &c.
-
-[Footnote: _Plinius_, see No. 946.]
-
-1498.
-
-I have found in a history of the Spaniards that in their wars with
-the English Archimedes of Syracuse who at that time was living at
-the court of Ecliderides, King of the Cirodastri. And in maritime
-warfare he ordered that the ships should have tall masts, and that
-on their tops there should be a spar fixed [Footnote 6: Compare No.
-1115.] of 40 feet long and one third of a foot thick. At one end of
-this was a small grappling iron and at the other a counterpoise; and
-there was also attached 12 feet of chain; and, at the end of this
-chain, as much rope as would reach from the chain to the base of the
-top, where it was fixed with a small rope; from this base it ran
-down to the bottom of the mast where a very strong spar was attached
-and to this was fastened the end of the rope. But to go on to the
-use of his machine; I say that below this grappling iron was a fire
-[Footnote 14: Compare No. 1128.] which, with tremendous noise, threw
-down its rays and a shower of burning pitch; which, pouring down on
-the [enemy's] top, compelled the men who were in it to abandon the
-top to which the grappling-iron had clung. This was hooked on to the
-edges of the top and then suddenly the cord attached at the base of
-the top to support the cord which went from the grappling iron, was
-cut, giving way and drawing in the enemy's ship; and if the
-anchor--was cast ...
-
-[Footnote: Archimedes never visited Spain, and the names here
-mentioned cannot be explained. Leonardo seems to quote here from a
-book, perhaps by some questionable mediaeval writer. Prof. C. Justi
-writes to me from Madrid, that Spanish savants have no knowledge of
-the sources from which this story may have been derived.]
-
-1499.
-
-Theophrastus on the ebb and flow of the tide, and of eddies, and on
-water. [Footnote: The Greek philosophers had no opportunity to study
-the phenomenon of the ebb and flow of the tide and none of them
-wrote about it. The movement of the waters in the Euripus however
-was to a few of them a puzzling problem.]
-
-1500.
-
-Tryphon of Alexandria, who spent his life at Apollonia, a city of
-Albania (163). [Footnote: Tryphon of Alexandria, a Greek Grammarian
-of the time of Augustus. His treatise TtaOY Aeijecu appeared first
-at Milan in 1476, in Constantin Laskaris's Greek Grammar.]
-
-1501.
-
-Messer Vincenzio Aliprando, who lives near the Inn of the Bear, has
-Giacomo Andrea's Vitruvius.
-
-1502.
-
-Vitruvius says that small models are of no avail for ascertaining
-the effects of large ones; and I here propose to prove that this
-conclusion is a false one. And chiefly by bringing forward the very
-same argument which led him to this conclusion; that is, by an
-experiment with an auger. For he proves that if a man, by a certain
-exertion of strength, makes a hole of a given diameter, and
-afterwards another hole of double the diameter, this cannot be made
-with only double the exertion of the man's strength, but needs much
-more. To this it may very well be answered that an auger
-
-1503.
-
-of double the diameter cannot be moved by double the exertion, be-
-cause the superficies of a body of the same form but twice as large
-has four times the extent of the superficies of the smaller, as is
-shown in the two figures a and n.
-
-1504.
-
-OF SQUARING THE CIRCLE, AND WHO IT WAS THAT FIRST DISCOVERED IT BY
-ACCIDENT.
-
-Vitruvius, measuring miles by means of the repeated revolutions of
-the wheels which move vehicles, extended over many Stadia the lines
-of the circumferences of the circles of these wheels. He became
-aware of them by the animals that moved the vehicles. But he did not
-discern that this was a means of finding a square equal to a circle.
-This was first done by Archimedes of Syracuse, who by multiplying
-the second diameter of a circle by half its circumference produced a
-rectangular quadrilateral equal figure to the circle [Footnote 10:
-Compare No. 1475.].
-
-[Footnote: _Vitruvius_, see also Nos. 1113 and 343.]
-
-1505.
-
-Virgil says that a blank shield is devoid of merit because among the
-people of Athens the true recognition confirmed by testimonies ...
-
-[Footnote: The end of the text cannot be deciphered.]
-
-1506.
-
-In Vitolone there are 805 conclusions [problems] in perspective.
-
-[Footnote: _(Witelo, Vitellion, Vitellon) Vitellione. E da vedersi
-su questo ottico prospettico del secolo XIII Luca Pacioli, Paolo
-Lomazzo, Leonardo da Vinci, ecc. e fra i moderni il Graesse, il
-Libri, il Brunet, e le Memorie pubblicate dal principe Boncompagni,
-e 'Sur l' orthographe du nom et sur la patrie de Witelo (Vitellion)
-note de Maximilien Curtze, professeur a Thorn', ove sono descritti i
-molti codici esistenti nelle biblioteche d' Europa. Bernardino Baldi
-nelle sue 'Vite de'matematici', manoscritto presso il principe
-Boncompagni, ha una biografia del Vitellione. Questo scritto del
-Baldi reca la data 25 agosto 1588. Discorsero poi di lui Federigo
-Risnerio e Giovanni di Monteregio nella prefazione dell' Alfagrano,
-Giovanni Boteone, Girolamo Cardano, 'De subtilitate', che nota gli
-errori di Vitellione. Visse, secondo il Baldi, intorno all' anno
-1269, ma secondo il Reinoldo fioriva nel 1299, avendo dedicata la
-sua opera ad un frate Guglielmo di Monteca, che visse di que' tempi.
-
-Intorno ad un manoscritto dell' ottica di Vitellione, citato da Luca
-Pacioli v'ha un secondo esemplare del Kurlz, con aggiunte del
-principe Boncompagni, e le illustrazioni del cav. Enrico Narducci.
-Nel 'Catalogo di manoscritti' posseduti da D. Baldassare de'
-principi Boncompagni, compilato da esso Narducci, Roma, 1862, sotto
-al n. 358, troviamo citato: Vitellio, 'Perspectiva', manoscritto del
-secolo XIV. La 'Prospettiva di Vitelleone' (sic) Thuringo-poloni e
-citata due volte da Paolo Lomazzo nel Trattato dell' arte della
-pittura. Vitellio o Vitello o Witelo. Il suo libro fu impresso in
-foglio a Norimberga nel 1535; la secondo edizione e del 1551, sempre
-di Norimberga, ed una terza di Basilea, 1572._ (See _Indagini
-Storiche ... sulla Libreria-Visconteo-Sforzesca del Castello di
-Pavia ... per cura di_ G. D'A., _Milano 1879. P. I. Appendice p.
-113. 114)._]
-
-1507.
-
-Vitolone, at Saint Mark's.
-
-[Footnote: _Altro codice di cotesta 'Prospettiva' del Vitolone
-troviamo notato nel 'Canone bibliographico di Nicolo V', conservato
-alla, Magliabecchiana, in copia dell' originale verosimilmente
-inviato dal Parentucelli a Cosimo de' Medici (Magliab. cod. segn. 1
-VII, 30 carte da 193 a 198). Proviene dal Convento di San Marco e lo
-aveva trascritto frate Leonardo Scruberti fiorentino, dell' ordine
-dei predicatori che fu anche bibliotecario della Medicea pubblica in
-San Marco_ (See _Indagini Storiche ... per cura di_ G. D'A. _Parte
-I, p. 97)._]
-
-1508.
-
-How this proposition of Xenophon is false.
-
-If you take away unequal quantities from unequal quantities, but in
-the same proportion, &c. [Footnote: Xenophon's works were published
-several times during Leonardo's lifetime.]
-
-Inventories and accounts (1509--1545).
-
-1509.
-
-On the 28th day of April I received from the Marchesino 103 lire and
-12 dinari. [Footnote: Instead of the indication of the year there is
-a blank space after _d'aprile_.--Marchesino Stange was one of
-Lodovico il Moro's officials.--Compare No. 1388.]
-
-1510.
-
-On the 10th day of July 1492 in 135
-Rhenish florins          1. 445
-in dinari of 6 soldi     1. 112 S 16
-in dinari of 5 1/2 soldi 1.  29 S 13
-9 in gold and 3 scudi    1.  53
-         -----------------------------
-                         1. 811 in all
-
-1511.
-
-On the first day of February, lire 1200.
-
-1512.
-
-The hall towards the court is 126 paces long and 27 braccia wide.
-
-1513.
-
-The narrow cornice above the hall lire 30.
-
-The cornice beneath that, being one for each picture, lire 7, and
-for the cost of blue, gold, white, plaster, indigo and glue 3 lire;
-time 3 days.
-
-The pictures below these mouldings with their pilasters, 12 lire
-each.
-
-I calculate the cost for smalt, blue and gold and other colours at 1
-1/2 lire.
-
-The days I calculate at 3, for the invention of the composition,
-pilasters and other things.
-
-1514.
-
-Item for each vault 7 lire
-
-outlay for blue and gold 3 1/2
-
-time, 4 days
-
-for the windows 1 1/2
-
-The cornice below the windows 16 soldi per braccio
-
-item for 24 pictures of Roman history 14 lire each
-
-The philosophers 10 lire
-
-the pilasters, one ounce of blue 10 soldi
-
-for gold 15 soldi
-
-Total 2 and 1/2 lire.
-
-1515.
-
-The cornice above lire 30
-
-The cornice below lire 7
-
-The compositions, one with another lire 13
-
-1516.
-
-Salai, 6 lire ... 4 soldi ... 10 soldi for a chain;--
-
-On the l4th of March I had 13 lire S. 4; 16 lire remain.
-
-1517.
-
-How many braccia high is the level of the walls?--
-
-123 braccia
-
-How large is the hall?
-
-How large is the garland?
-
-30 ducats.
-
-On the 29th day of January, 1494
-
-cloth for hose lire 4 S 3
-
-lining S 16
-
-making S 8
-
-to Salai S 3
-
-a jasper ring S 13
-
-a sparkling stone S 11
-
-to Caterina S 10
-
-to Caterina S 10
-
-1518.
-
-The wheel lire 7
-
-the tire lire 10
-
-the shield lire 4
-
-the cushion lire 8
-
-the ends of the axle-tree lire 2
-
-bed and frame lire 30
-
-conduit lire 10
-
-S.K.M.II.2 4a]
-
-1519.
-
-Parsley 10 parts
-
-mint 1 part
-
-thyme 1 part
-
-Vinegar ... and a little salt two pieces of canvas for Salai.
-
-[Footnote: This note, of about the year 1494, is the earliest
-mention of Salai, and the last is of the year 1513 (see No. 1465,
-3). From the various notes in the MSS. he seems to have been
-Leonardo's assistant and keeper only, and scarcely himself a
-painter. At any rate no signed or otherwise authenticated picture by
-him is known to exist. Vasari speaks somewhat doubtfully on this
-point.]
-
-1520.
-
-On Tuesday I bought wine for morning [drinking]; on Friday the 4th
-day of September the same.
-
-[Footnote: This note enables us to fix the date of the Manuscript,
-in which it is to be found. In 1495 the 4th of September fell on a
-Friday; the contents of the Manuscript do not permit us to assign it
-to a much earlier or later date (Compare No. 1522, and Note).]
-
-1521.
-
-The cistern ... at the Hospital, --2 ducats, --beans, --white maize,
---red maize, --millet, --buckwheat, --kidney beans, --beans, --peas.
-
-1522.
-
-EXPENSES OF THE INTERMENT OF CATERINA.
-
-For the 3 lbs of tapers 27 S
-For the bier 8 S
-A pall over the bier 12 S
-For bearing and placing the cross 4 S
-For bearing the body 8 S
-For 4 priests and 4 clerks 20 S
-Bell, book and sponge 2 S
-For the gravediggers 16 S
-To the senior 8 S
-For a license from the authorities 1 S
-106 S
-
-The doctor 2 S
-Sugar and candles 12 S
-120 S
-
-[Footnote:  See Nos. 1384 and 1517.]
-
-1523.
-
-Salai's cloak, the 4th of April 1497.
-4 braccia of silver cloth l. 15 S 4
-green velvet to trim it l. 9 S --
-binding l.-- S 9
-loops l.-- S 12
-the making l. 1 S 5
-binding for the front l.-- S 5
-stitching _________
-here are 13 grossoni of his l. 26 S 5
-Salai stole the soldi.
-
-1524.
-
-On Monday I bought 4 braccia of cloth lire 13 S 14 1/2 on the 17th
-of, October 1497.
-
-1525.
-
-Memorandum. That on the 8th day of April 1503, I, Leonardo da Vinci,
-lent to Vante, miniature painter 4 gold ducats, in gold. Salai
-carried them to him and gave them into his own hand, and he said he
-would repay within the space of 40 days.
-
-Memorandum. That on the same day I paid to Salai 3 gold ducats which
-he said he wanted for a pair of rose-coloured hose with their
-trimming; and there remain 9 ducats due to him--excepting that he
-owes me 20 ducats, that is 17 I lent him at Milan, and 3 at Venice.
-
-Memorandum. That I gave Salai 21 braccia of cloth to make a shirt,
-at 10 soldi the braccio, which I gave him on the 20th day of April
-1503.
-
-[Footnote: With regard to Vante or Attavante, the miniature painter
-(not Nanni as I formerly deciphered this name, which is difficult to
-read; see _Zeitschrift fur Bild. Kunst_, 1879, p. 155), and Vasari,
-Lives of Frate Giovanni da Fiesole, of Bartolommeo della Gatta, and
-of Gherardo, _miniatore._ He, like Leonardo, was one of the
-committee of artists who, in 1503, considered the erection and
-placing of Michel Angelo's David. The date of his death is not
-known; he was of the same age as Leonardo. Further details will be
-found in '_Notizie di Attavante miniatore, e di alcuni suoi lavori_'
-(Milanese's ed. of Vasari, III, 231-235).]
-
-1526.
-
-On the morning of San Peter's day, June 29th, 1504, I took io
-ducats, of which I gave one to Tommaso my servant to spend.
-
-On Monday morning 1 florin to Salai to spend on the house.
-
-On Thursday I took 1 florin for my own spending.
-
-Wednesday evening 1 florin to Tommaso, before supper.
-
-Saturday morning 1 florin to Tommaso.
-
-Monday morning 1 florin less 10 soldi.
-
-Thursday to Salai 1 florin less 10 soldi.
-
-For a jerkin, 1 florin.
-
-For a jerkin And a cap 2 florins.
-
-To the hosier, 1 florin.
-
-To Salai, 1 florin.
-
-Friday morning, the 19th of July, 1 florin, less 6 soldi. I have 7
-fl. left, and 22 in the box.
-
-Tuesday, the 23th day of July, 1 florin to Tommaso.
-
-Monday morning, to Tommaso 1 florin.
-
-[Wednesday morning 1 fl. to Tommaso.]
-
-Thursday morning the 1st day of August 1 fl. to Tommaso.
-
-Sunday, the 4th of August, 1 florin.
-
-Friday, the 9th day of August 1504, I took 10 ducats out of the box.
-
-1527.
-
-1504. On the 9th day of August, 1504, I took 10 florins in gold[2]
-... [3] on Friday the 9th day of August fifteen grossoni that is fl.
-5 S 5 ... given to me 1 florin in gold on the 12th day of August [4]
-... on the 14th of August, 32 grossoni to Tommaso. On the 18th of
-the same 5 grossoni to Salai. On the 8th of September 6 grossoni to
-the workman to spend; that is on the day of our Lady's birth. On the
-16th day of September I gave 4 grossoni to Tommaso: on a Sunday.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, the passage given as No. 1463 is written
-between lines 2 and 3 of this text, and it is possible that the
-entries in lines 3 and 4 refer to the payments of Jacopo Tedesco,
-who is there mentioned. The first words of these lines are very
-illegible.]
-
-[Footnote 7: _Al fattore._ Il Fattore, was, as is well known, the
-nick-name of Giovanni Franceso Penni, born in Florence in 1486, and
-subsequently a pupil of Raphael's. According to Vasari he was known
-by it even as a boy. Whether he is spoken of in this passage, or
-whether the word Fattore should be translated literally, I will not
-undertake to decide. The latter seems to me more probably right.]
-
-1528.
-
-On the day of October, 1508, I had 30 scudi; 13 I lent to Salai to
-make up his sister's dowry, and 17 I have left.
-
-1529.
-
-Memorandum of the money I have had from the King as my salary from
-July 1508 till April next 1509. First 100 scudi, then 70, then 50,
-then 20 and then 200 florins at 48 soldi the florin. [Footnote:
-Compare No. 1350 and 1561.]
-
-1530.
-
-Saturday the 2nd day of March I had from Santa Maria Novella 5 gold
-ducats, leaving 450. Of these I gave 2 the same day to Salai, who
-had lent them to me. [Footnote: See '_Conto corrente di Leonardo da
-Vinci con lo Spedale di S. Maria Nuova_' [1500 a 1507, 1513-1520]
-published by G. UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a Leonardo da Vinci,
-Firenze,_ 1872, pp. 164, 165, 218 and 219. The date here given by
-Leonardo does not occur in either of the accounts.]
-
-1531.
-
-Thursday, the eighth day of June, I took 17 grossoni, 18 soldi; on
-the same Thursday in the morning I gave to Salai 22 soldi for the
-expenses.
-
-1532.
-
-To Salai 4 grossoni, and for one braccio of velvet, 5 lire, and 1/2;
-viz. 10 soldi for loops of silver; Salai 14 soldi for binding, the
-making of the cloak 25 soldi. [Footnote: Compare No. 1523.]
-
-1533.
-
-I gave to Salai 93 lire 6 soldi, of which I have had 67 lire and
-there remain 26 lire 6 soldi.
-
-1534.
-
-To Salai S 42
-
-2 dozen of laces S 8
-
-for papers S 3 d 8
-
-a pair of shoes S 14
-
-for velvet S 14
-
-a sword and knife S 21
-
-to the barber S 11
-
-to Paolo for a ... S 20
-
-For having his fortune told S 6
-
-1535.
-
-On Friday morning,
-one florin to Salai to
-spend; 3 soldi received
-
-bread S.. d
-
-wine S.. d
-
-grapes S.. d
-
-mushrooms S.. d
-
-fruit S.. d
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare Nos. 1545, l. 4 and 5,
-with similar entries for horse's fodder.]
-bran S.. d
-
-at the barber's S.. d
-
-for shoes S.. d
-
-1536.
-
-On Thursday morning one florin.
-
-1537.
-
-On Saint Ambrose's day from the morning to Thursday 36 soldi.
-
-1538.
-
-The moneys I have had from Ser Matteo;
-first 20 grassoni, then on 13 occasions 3 f.
-and then 61 grassoni, then 3, and then 33;
-46 soldi 12 grossoni.
-
-1539.
-
-For paper S 18
-
-for canvas S 30
-
-for paper S 10 d 19
-
-Total S 73
-
-1540.
-
-20 pounds of German
-blue, at one ducat the pound lire 80 S  d
-
-60 pounds of white, S..
-the pound lire 15 S  d
-
-1 1/2 pound at 4 S the pound lire 6 S  d
-
-2 pounds of cinnabar at
-S 18 the pound lire 1 S 16 d
-
-6 pounds of green at S 12
-the pound lire 3 S 12 d
-
-4 pounds of yellow at S 12
-the pound lire 2 S 8 d
-
-1 pound of minium at S 8
-the pound lire 0 S 8 d
-
-4 pounds of ... at S 2
-the pound lire 0 S 8 d
-
-6 pounds of ochre at S 1
-the pound lire 0 S 6 d
-
-black ... at S 2 the pound
-for 20 lire 2 S 0 d
-
-wax to make the stars
-29 pounds at S--the pound lire 0 S 0 d
-
-40 pounds of oil for painting
-at 5 soldi the pound lire 10 S 0 d
-
-Altogether lire 120 d 18
-without the gold. 18
-
-tin for putting on the gold 120 18
-
-58
-
-1541.
-
-Two large hatchets and one very small one, 8 brass spoons, 4
-tablecloths, 2 towels, 15 small napkins, 2 coarse napkins, 2 coarse
-cloths, 2 wrappers, 3 pairs of sheets, 2 pairs new and 1 old.
-
-1542.
-
-Bed 7 0 S
-
-ring 7 0
-
-crockery 2 5
-
-gardener 1 2
-
-..... 2 8
-
-porters 2 1
-
-glasses 1
-
-fuel 3 6
-
-a lock 1
-
-Section title: Miscellaneous Notes.
-
-1543.
-
-New tin-ware          3 pairs of sheets
-6 small bowls,          each of 4 breadths,
-6 bowls,              2 small sheets,
-2 large dishes,       2 tablecloths and 1/2,
-2 dishes medium size, 16 coarse cloths,
-2 small ones          8 shirts,
-  Old tin-ware        9 napkins,
-3 small bowls,        2 hand-towels.
-4 bowls,
-3 square stones,
-2 small bowls,
-1 large bowl,
-1 platter,
-4 candlesticks,
-1 small candlestick.
-
-1544.
-
-Hose        S 40
-straw       S 60
-wheat       S 42
-wine        S 54
-bread       S 18
-meat        S 54
-eggs        S  5
-salad       S  3
-the Barber  S 2 d 6
-horses      S 1
-
-1545.
-
-   Sunday
-
-meat        S 10 d
-wine        S 12 d
-bran        S  5 d 4
-herbs       S 10 d
-buttermilk  S  4 d 4
-melon       S  3 d
-bread       S  3 d 1
-____________________
-   Monday   S  9   8
-____________________
-.....       S  6 d
-wine        S 12 d
-bran        S  9 d 4
-buttermilk  S  4 d 4
-herbs       S  8 d
-____________________
-     Tuesday S    d
-_____________________
-meat         S  0 d 8
-wine         S 12 d
-bread        S  3 d
-meal         S  5 d 4
-herbs        S  8 d
-_____________________
-    Wednesday
-_____________________
-wine         S  5 d
-melon        S  2 d
-meal         S  5 d 4
-vegetables   S  8
-
-Notes by unknown persons among the MSS. (1546-1565).
-
-1546.
-
-Miseracione divina sacro sancte Romane ecclesie tituli n cardinalis
-2wulgariter nuncupatus venerabili religioso fratri Johanni Mair
-d'Nustorf 3ordinis praedicatorum provintie teutonie (?) conventus
-Wiennensis capellano 4 nostro commensali salutem in dno sempiternam
-Religione zelus rite ac in [ferite?] 5honestas aliarumque
-laudabilium probitatis et virtutum merita quibus apud nos fide
-6digno commendationis testimonio Magistri videlicet ordinis felicis
-recordacionis Leonardi de 7Mansuetis de Perusio sigillo suo ... us
-dans tibi ad ... opera virtutum comen(salem)? 8 locum et tempus
-success(ores) cujus similiter officium ministratus qui
-praedecessoris sui donum (?) 9confirmavit et de novo dedit
-aliorumque plurima [laudatis] qui opera tua laudant 10nos inducunt
-ut tibi (?) reddamus ad gratiam liberalem hinc est quod nos
-cupientes. [Footnote: The meaning of this document, which is very
-difficult to decipher, and is written in unintelligible Latin, is,
-that Leonardo di Mansuetis recommends the Rev. Mair of Nusdorf,
-chaplain at Vienna, to some third person; and says also that
-something, which had to be proved, has been proved. The rest of the
-passages on the same leaf are undoubtedly in Leonardo's hand. (Nos.
-483, 661, 519, 578, 392, 582, 887 and 894.)]
-
-1547.
-
-Johannes Antonius di Johannes Ambrosius de Bolate. He who lets time
-pass and does not grow in virtue, the more I think of it the more I
-grieve. No man has it in him to be virtuous who will give up honour
-for gain. Good fortune is valueless to him who knows not toil. The
-man becomes happy who follows Christ. There is no perfect gift
-without great suffering. Our glories and our triumphs pass away.
-Foul lust, and dreams, and luxury, and sloth have banished every
-virtue from the world; so that our Nature, wandering and perplexed,
-has almost lost the old and better track. Henceforth it were well to
-rouse thyself from sleep. The master said that lying in down will
-not bring thee to Fame; nor staying beneath the quilts. He who,
-without Fame, burns his life to waste, leaves no more vestige of
-himself on earth than wind-blown smoke, or the foam upon the sea.
-[Footnote: From the last sentence we may infer that this text is by
-the hand of a pupil of Leonardo's.-- On the same sheet are the notes
-Nos.1175 and 715 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
-
-1548.
-
-On the morning of Santo Zanobio the
-29th of May 1504, I had from Lionardo Vinci
-15 gold ducats and began to spend them.
-to Mona Margarita   S  62 d 4
-to remake the ring  S  19 d 8
-clothes             S  13
-good beef           S   4
-eggs                S   6
-debt at the bank    S   7
-velvet              S  12
-wine                S  6 d 4
-meat                S  4
-mulberries          S  2 d 4
-mushrooms           S  3 d 4
-salad               S  1
-fruit               S  1 d 4
-candles             S  3
-...                 S  1
-flour               S  2
-
-    Sunday           198   8
-
-bread               S  6
-wine                S  9 d 4
-meat                S  7
-soup                S  2
-fruit               S  3 d 4
-candles             S  3 d
-
-Monday                31
-
-bread               S  6 d 4
-meat                S 10 d 8
-wine                S  9 d 4
-fruit               S  4
-soup                S  1 d 8
-
-                      32
-
-1549.
-
-Tuesday
-
-bread              S  6
-meat               S 11
-wine               S  7
-fruit              S  9
-soup               S  2
-salad              S  1
-
-[Footnote 1548 and 1549: On the same sheet is the text No. 1015 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
-
-1550.
-
-To Monna Margarita          S  5
-to Tomaso                   S 14
-to Monna Margarita     d  5 S  2
-on the day of San Zanobi
-left ... after
-payment                d 13 S  2 d 4
-of Monna Margarita
-
-     altogether        d 14 S 5 d 4
-
-1551.
-
-On Monday, the l3th of February, I lent lire S 7 to Lionardo to
-spend, Friday d 7.
-
-[Footnote: This note is followed by an account very like the one
-given as No. 1549.]
-
-1552.
-
-Stephano Chigi, Canonico ..., servant of the honorable Count Grimani
-at S. Apostoli.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 674, 21-23.]
-
-1553.
-
-Having become anxious ... Bernardo di Simone, Silvestro di Stefano,
-Bernardo di Jacopo, Francesco di Matteo Bonciani, Antonio di
-Giovanni Ruberti, Antonio da Pistoia.... Antonio; He who has time
-and waits for time, will lose his friends and his money.
-
-1554.
-
-Reverend Maestro, Domino Giovanni, I spoke to Maestro Zacaria as a
-brother about this business, and I made him satisfied with the
-arrangement that I had wished; that is, as regards the commission
-that I had from the parties and I say that between us there is no
-need to pay money down, as regard the pictures of the ...
-
-1555.
-
-Of things seen through a mist that which is nearest its farthest
-limit will be least visible, and all the more so as they are more
-remote.
-
-1556.
-
-Theodoricus Rex Semper Augustus.
-
-1557.
-
-Either you say Hesperia alone, and it will mean Italy, or you add
-ultima, and it will mean Spain. Umbria, part of Tuscany.
-
-[Footnote: The notes in Greek, Nos. 1557, 1558 and 1562 stand in
-close connection with each other, but the meaning of some words is
-very doubtful, and a translation is thus rendered impossible.]
-
-1558.
-
-[Footnote: Greek Characters]
-
-1559.
-
-Canonica of ... on the 5th of July 1507; my dearly beloved mother,
-sisters and cousin I herewith inform you that thanks to God I am ...
-about the sword which I ... bring it to Maso at the piazza ... and I
-will settle the business of Piero so that ...
-
-[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Mem. Stor. XXIV_, quotes the first three lines
-of this letter as by Leonardo. The character of the writing however
-does not favour this hypothesis, and still less the contents. I
-should regard it rather a rough draft of a letter by young Melzi. I
-have not succeeded in deciphering completely the 13 lines of this
-text. Amoretti reads at the beginning _Canonica di Vaprio_, but
-_Vaprio_ seems to me a very doubtful reading.]
-
-1560.
-
-  Ut bene respondet Naturae ars docta! dedisset
-    Vincius, ut tribuit cetera - sic animam -
-  Noluit ut similis magis haec foret: altera sic est:
-    Possidet illius Maurus amans animam.
-
-[Footnote: These three epigrams on the portrait of Lucrezia
-Crivelli, a picture by Leonardo which must have been lost at a very
-early date, seem to have been dedicated to Leonardo by the poet.
-Leonardo used the reverse of the sheet for notes on geometry.]
-
-Hujus quam cernis nomen Lucretia, Divi Omnia cui larga contribuere
-manu. Rara huic forma data est; pinxit Leonardos, amavit Maurus,
-pictorum primus hic, ille ducum.
-
-Naturam, ac superas hac laesit imagine Divas Pictor: tantum hominis
-posse manum haec doluit, Illae longa dari tam magnae tempera formae,
-Quae spatio fuerat deperitura brevi.
-
-1561.
-
-Egidius Romanus on the formation of the human body in the mother's
-womb [Footnote 1: _Liber magistri Egidii de pulsibus matrice
-conipositus (cum commentario Gentilis de Fulgineo)_ published in
-1484 at Padova, in 1494 and in 1514 at Venice, and in 1505 at
-Lyons.].
-
-[Footnote 2:2. This text appears to be in a handwriting different
-from that in the note, l. 1. Here the reading is not so simple as
-AMORETTI gave it, _Mem. Star. XXV: A Monsieur Lyonard Peintre du Roy
-pour Amboyse_. He says too that this address is of the year 1509,
-and Mr. Ravaisson remarks: "_De cette suscription il semble qu'on
-peut inferer que Leonard etait alors en France, a la cour de Louis
-XII ... Pour conclure je crois qu'il n'est pas prouve que Leonard de
-Vinci n'ait pas fait un voyage de quelques mois en France sous Louis
-XII, entre le printemps de 1509 et l'automne de_ 1510."--I must
-confess that I myself have not succeeded in deciphering completely
-this French writing of which two words remain to me doubtful. But so
-much seems to be quite evident that this is not an address of a
-letter at all, but a certificate or note. _Amboise_[l. 6] I believe
-to be the signature of Charles d'Amboise the Governor of Milan. If
-this explanation is the right one, it can be easily explained by the
-contents of Nos. 1350 and 1529. The note, line 1, was perhaps added
-later by another hand; and Leonardo himself wrote afterwards on the
-same sheet some geometrical explanations. I must also point out that
-the statement that this sheet belongs to the year 1509 has
-absolutely no foundation in fact. There is no clue whatever for
-giving a precise date to this note.] To Monsieur le Vinci,--the
-horses of the king's equerry.... Continue the payment to Ms.
-Lyonard, Painter to the King.
-
-[6] Amboise.
-
-1562.
-
-[Footnote: Greek Characters]
-
-1563.
-
-Memorandum to Maestro Lionardo to have ... the state of Florence.
-
-1564.
-
-To remind your Excellency that Ridolfo Manini brought to Florence a
-quantity of crystal besides other stones such as are ...
-
-1565.
-
-XVI C. 6 de Ciuitate Dei, se Antipodes.
-
-[Footnote: A facsimile of this note, which refers to a well known
-book by St. Augustin, is given on page 254.]
-
-1566.
-
-Leonardo's Will.
-
-Be it known to all persons, present and to come that at the court of
-our Lord the King at Amboise before ourselves in person, Messer
-Leonardo da Vinci painter to the King, at present staying at the
-place known as Cloux near Amboise, duly considering the certainty of
-death and the uncertainty of its time, has acknowledged and declared
-in the said court and before us that he has made, according to the
-tenor of these presents, his testament and the declaration of his
-last will, as follows. And first he commends his soul to our Lord,
-Almighty God, and to the Glorious Virgin Mary, and to our lord Saint
-Michael, to all the blessed Angels and Saints male and female in
-Paradise.
-
-Item. The said Testator desires to be buried within the church of
-Saint Florentin at Amboise, and that his body shall be borne thither
-by the chaplains of the church.
-
-Item. That his body may be followed from the said place to the said
-church of Saint Florentin by the _collegium_ of the said church,
-that is to say by the rector and the prior, or by their vicars and
-chaplains of the church of Saint Denis of Amboise, also the lesser
-friars of the place, and before his body shall be carried to the
-said church this Testator desires, that in the said church of Saint
-Florentin three grand masses shall be celebrated by the deacon and
-sub-deacon and that on the day when these three high masses are
-celebrated, thirty low masses shall also be performed at Saint
-Gregoire.
-
-Item. That in the said church of Saint Denis similar services shall
-be performed, as above.
-
-Item. That the same shall be done in the church of the said friars
-and lesser brethren.
-
-Item. The aforesaid Testator gives and bequeaths to Messer Francesco
-da Melzo, nobleman, of Milan, in remuneration for services and
-favours done to him in the past, each
-
-[Footnote: See page 420.]
-
-and all of the books the Testator is at present possessed of, and
-the instruments and portraits appertaining to his art and calling as
-a painter.
-
-Item. The same Testator gives and bequeaths henceforth for ever to
-Battista de Vilanis his servant one half, that is the moity, of his
-garden which is outside the walls of Milan, and the other half of
-the same garden to Salai his servant; in which garden aforesaid
-Salai has built and constructed a house which shall be and remain
-henceforth in all perpetuity the property of the said Salai, his
-heirs and successors; and this is in remuneration for the good and
-kind services which the said de Vilanis and Salai, his servants have
-done him in past times until now.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives to Maturina his waiting woman a cloak
-of good black cloth lined with fur, a ... of cloth and two ducats
-paid once only; and this likewise is in remuneration for good
-service rendered to him in past times by the said Maturina.
-
-Item. He desires that at his funeral sixty tapers shall be carried
-which shall be borne by sixty poor men, to whom shall be given money
-for carrying them; at the discretion of the said Melzo, and these
-tapers shall be distributed among the four above mentioned churches.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives to each of the said churches ten lbs.
-of wax in thick tapers, which shall be placed in the said churches
-to be used on the day when those said services are celebrated.
-
-Item. That alms shall be given to the poor of the Hotel-Dieu, to the
-poor of Saint Lazare d'Amboise and, to that end, there shall be
-given and paid to the treasurers of that same fraternity the sum and
-amount of seventy soldi of Tours.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives and bequeaths to the said Messer
-Francesco Melzo, being present and agreeing, the remainder of his
-pension and the sums of money which are owing to him from the past
-time till the day of his death by the receiver or treasurer-general
-M. Johan Sapin, and each and every sum of money that he has already
-received from the aforesaid Sapin of his said pension, and in case
-he should die before the said Melzo and not otherwise; which moneys
-are at present in the possession of the said Testator in the said
-place called Cloux, as he says. And he likewise gives and bequeaths
-to the said Melzo all and each of his clothes which he at present
-possesses at the said place of Cloux, and all in remuneration for
-the good and kind services done by him in past times till now, as
-well as in payment for the trouble and annoyance he may incur with
-regard to the execution of this present testament, which however,
-shall all be at the expense of the said Testator.
-
-And he orders and desires that the sum of four hundred scudi del
-Sole, which he has deposited in the hands of the treasurer of Santa
-Maria Nuova in the city of Florence, may be given to his brothers
-now living in Florence with all the interest and usufruct that may
-have accrued up to the present time, and be due from the aforesaid
-treasurer to the aforesaid Testator on account of the said four
-hundred crowns, since they were given and consigned by the Testator
-to the said treasurers.
-
-Item. He desires and orders that the said Messer Francesco de Melzo
-shall be and remain the sole and only executor of the said will of
-the said Testator; and that the said testament shall be executed in
-its full and complete meaning and according to that which is here
-narrated and said, to have, hold, keep and observe, the said Messer
-Leonardo da Vinci, constituted Testator, has obliged and obliges by
-these presents the said his heirs and successors with all his goods
-moveable and immoveable present and to come, and has renounced and
-expressly renounces by these presents all and each of the things
-which to that are contrary. Given at the said place of Cloux in the
-presence of Magister Spirito Fieri vicar, of the church of Saint
-Denis at Amboise, of M. Guglielmo Croysant priest and chaplain, of
-Magister Cipriane Fulchin, Brother Francesco de Corion, and of
-Francesco da Milano, a brother of the Convent of the Minorites at
-Amboise, witnesses summoned and required to that end by the
-indictment of the said court in the presence of the aforesaid M.
-Francesco de Melze who accepting and agreeing to the same has
-promised by his faith and his oath which he has administered to us
-personally and has sworn to us never to do nor say nor act in any
-way to the contrary. And it is sealed by his request with the royal
-seal apposed to legal contracts at Amboise, and in token of good
-faith.
-
-Given on the XXIIIrd day of April MDXVIII, before Easter.
-
-And on the XXIIIrd day of this month of April MDXVIII, in the
-presence of M. Guglielmo Borian, Royal notary in the court of the
-bailiwick of Amboise, the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci gave and
-bequeathed, by his last will and testament, as aforesaid, to the
-said M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and agreeing, the right
-of water which the King Louis XII, of pious memory lately deceased
-gave to this same de Vinci, the stream of the canal of Santo
-Cristoforo in the duchy of Milan, to belong to the said Vilanis for
-ever in such wise and manner that the said gentleman made him this
-gift in the presence of M. Francesco da Melzo, gentleman, of Milan
-and in mine.
-
-And on the aforesaid day in the said month of April in the said year
-MDXVIII the same M. Leonardo de Vinci by his last will and testament
-gave to the aforesaid M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and
-agreeing, each and all of the articles of furniture and utensils of
-his house at present at the said place of Cloux, in the event of the
-said de Vilanis surviving the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci, in the
-presence of the said M. Francesco Melzo and of me Notary &c. Borean.
-
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA
-    VINCI, COMPLETE ***
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diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci0.txt b/docs/examples/kernel/davinci0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
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--- a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8050 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete
-by Leonardo Da Vinci
-(#3 in our series by Leonardo Da Vinci)
-
-Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
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-Title: The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete
-
-Author: Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Release Date: Jan, 2004  [EBook #5000]
-[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
-[Most recently updated June 26, 2002]
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-Edition: 10
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-Language: English
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-Character set encoding: ASCII
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA
-    VINCI, COMPLETE ***
-
-
-
-
-This eBook was produced by Charles Aldarondo and the Distributed
-Proofreaders team.
-
-
-
-The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Volume 1
-
-Translated by Jean Paul Richter
-
-1888
-
-
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE.
-
-
-
-
-
-A singular fatality has ruled the destiny of nearly all the most
-famous of Leonardo da Vinci's works. Two of the three most important
-were never completed, obstacles having arisen during his life-time,
-which obliged him to leave them unfinished; namely the Sforza
-Monument and the Wall-painting of the Battle of Anghiari, while the
-third--the picture of the Last Supper at Milan--has suffered
-irremediable injury from decay and the repeated restorations to
-which it was recklessly subjected during the XVIIth and XVIIIth
-centuries. Nevertheless, no other picture of the Renaissance has
-become so wellknown and popular through copies of every description.
-
-Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured
-much more by his word than in fact or by deed", and the biographer
-evidently had in his mind the numerous works in Manuscript which
-have been preserved to this day. To us, now, it seems almost
-inexplicable that these valuable and interesting original texts
-should have remained so long unpublished, and indeed forgotten. It
-is certain that during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries their
-exceptional value was highly appreciated. This is proved not merely
-by the prices which they commanded, but also by the exceptional
-interest which has been attached to the change of ownership of
-merely a few pages of Manuscript.
-
-That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts,
-their contents remained a mystery, can only be accounted for by the
-many and great difficulties attending the task of deciphering them.
-The handwriting is so peculiar that it requires considerable
-practice to read even a few detached phrases, much more to solve
-with any certainty the numerous difficulties of alternative
-readings, and to master the sense as a connected whole. Vasari
-observes with reference to Leonardos writing: "he wrote backwards,
-in rude characters, and with the left hand, so that any one who is
-not practised in reading them, cannot understand them". The aid of a
-mirror in reading reversed handwriting appears to me available only
-for a first experimental reading. Speaking from my own experience,
-the persistent use of it is too fatiguing and inconvenient to be
-practically advisable, considering the enormous mass of Manuscripts
-to be deciphered. And as, after all, Leonardo's handwriting runs
-backwards just as all Oriental character runs backwards--that is
-to say from right to left--the difficulty of reading direct from the
-writing is not insuperable. This obvious peculiarity in the writing
-is not, however, by any means the only obstacle in the way of
-mastering the text. Leonardo made use of an orthography peculiar to
-himself; he had a fashion of amalgamating several short words into
-one long one, or, again, he would quite arbitrarily divide a long
-word into two separate halves; added to this there is no punctuation
-whatever to regulate the division and construction of the sentences,
-nor are there any accents--and the reader may imagine that such
-difficulties were almost sufficient to make the task seem a
-desperate one to a beginner. It is therefore not surprising that the
-good intentions of some of Leonardo s most reverent admirers should
-have failed.
-
-Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of
-Science were those essentially of an enquirer, hence the analytical
-method is that which he employs in arguing out his investigations
-and dissertations. The vast structure of his scientific theories is
-consequently built up of numerous separate researches, and it is
-much to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged
-them. His love for detailed research--as it seems to me--was the
-reason that in almost all the Manuscripts, the different paragraphs
-appear to us to be in utter confusion; on one and the same page,
-observations on the most dissimilar subjects follow each other
-without any connection. A page, for instance, will begin with some
-principles of astronomy, or the motion of the earth; then come the
-laws of sound, and finally some precepts as to colour. Another page
-will begin with his investigations on the structure of the
-intestines, and end with philosophical remarks as to the relations
-of poetry to painting; and so forth.
-
-Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do
-not think that the publication of the texts in the order in which
-they occur in the originals would at all fulfil his intentions. No
-reader could find his way through such a labyrinth; Leonardo himself
-could not have done it.
-
-Added to this, more than half of the five thousand manuscript pages
-which now remain to us, are written on loose leaves, and at present
-arranged in a manner which has no justification beyond the fancy of
-the collector who first brought them together to make volumes of
-more or less extent. Nay, even in the volumes, the pages of which
-were numbered by Leonardo himself, their order, so far as the
-connection of the texts was concerned, was obviously a matter of
-indifference to him. The only point he seems to have kept in view,
-when first writing down his notes, was that each observation should
-be complete to the end on the page on which it was begun. The
-exceptions to this rule are extremely few, and it is certainly
-noteworthy that we find in such cases, in bound volumes with his
-numbered pages, the written observations: "turn over", "This is the
-continuation of the previous page", and the like. Is not this
-sufficient to prove that it was only in quite exceptional cases that
-the writer intended the consecutive pages to remain connected, when
-he should, at last, carry out the often planned arrangement of his
-writings?
-
-What this final arrangement was to be, Leonardo has in most cases
-indicated with considerable completeness. In other cases this
-authoritative clue is wanting, but the difficulties arising from
-this are not insuperable; for, as the subject of the separate
-paragraphs is always distinct and well defined in itself, it is
-quite possible to construct a well-planned whole, out of the
-scattered materials of his scientific system, and I may venture to
-state that I have devoted especial care and thought to the due
-execution of this responsible task.
-
-The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his
-thirty-seventh year, and he seems to have carried them on without
-any serious interruption till his death. Thus the Manuscripts that
-remain represent a period of about thirty years. Within this space
-of time his handwriting altered so little that it is impossible to
-judge from it of the date of any particular text. The exact dates,
-indeed, can only be assigned to certain note-books in which the year
-is incidentally indicated, and in which the order of the leaves has
-not been altered since Leonardo used them. The assistance these
-afford for a chronological arrangement of the Manuscripts is
-generally self evident. By this clue I have assigned to the original
-Manuscripts now scattered through England, Italy and France, the
-order of their production, as in many matters of detail it is highly
-important to be able to verify the time and place at which certain
-observations were made and registered. For this purpose the
-Bibliography of the Manuscripts given at the end of Vol. II, may be
-regarded as an Index, not far short of complete, of all Leonardo s
-literary works now extant. The consecutive numbers (from 1 to 1566)
-at the head of each passage in this work, indicate their logical
-sequence with reference to the subjects; while the letters and
-figures to the left of each paragraph refer to the original
-Manuscript and number of the page, on which that particular passage
-is to be found. Thus the reader, by referring to the List of
-Manuscripts at the beginning of Volume I, and to the Bibliography at
-the end of Volume II, can, in every instance, easily ascertain, not
-merely the period to which the passage belongs, but also exactly
-where it stood in the original document. Thus, too, by following the
-sequence of the numbers in the Bibliographical index, the reader may
-reconstruct the original order of the Manuscripts and recompose the
-various texts to be found on the original sheets--so much of it,
-that is to say, as by its subject-matter came within the scope of
-this work. It may, however, be here observed that Leonardo s
-Manuscripts contain, besides the passages here printed, a great
-number of notes and dissertations on Mechanics, Physics, and some
-other subjects, many of which could only be satisfactorily dealt
-with by specialists. I have given as complete a review of these
-writings as seemed necessary in the Bibliographical notes.
-
-In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection
-from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so
-popular that it has since been reprinted about two-and-twenty times,
-and in six different languages. But none of these editions were
-derived from the original texts, which were supposed to have been
-lost, but from early copies, in which Leonardo's text had been more
-or less mutilated, and which were all fragmentary. The oldest and on
-the whole the best copy of Leonardo's essays and precepts on
-Painting is in the Vatican Library; this has been twice printed,
-first by Manzi, in 1817, and secondly by Ludwig, in 1882. Still,
-this ancient copy, and the published editions of it, contain much
-for which it would be rash to hold Leonardo responsible, and some
-portions--such as the very important rules for the proportions of
-the human figure--are wholly wanting; on the other hand they contain
-passages which, if they are genuine, cannot now be verified from any
-original Manuscript extant. These copies, at any rate neither give
-us the original order of the texts, as written by Leonardo, nor do
-they afford any substitute, by connecting them on a rational scheme;
-indeed, in their chaotic confusion they are anything rather than
-satisfactory reading. The fault, no doubt, rests with the compiler
-of the Vatican copy, which would seem to be the source whence all
-the published and extensively known texts were derived; for, instead
-of arranging the passages himself, he was satisfied with recording a
-suggestion for a final arrangement of them into eight distinct
-parts, without attempting to carry out his scheme. Under the
-mistaken idea that this plan of distribution might be that, not of
-the compiler, but of Leonardo himself, the various editors, down to
-the present day, have very injudiciously continued to adopt this
-order--or rather disorder.
-
-I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the
-Trattato della Pittura for lost, till, in the beginning of 1880, I
-was enabled, by the liberality of Lord Ashburnham, to inspect his
-Manuscripts, and was so happy as to discover among them the original
-text of the best-known portion of the Trattato in his magnificent
-library at Ashburnham Place. Though this discovery was of a fragment
-only--but a considerable fragment--inciting me to further search,
-it gave the key to the mystery which had so long enveloped the first
-origin of all the known copies of the Trattato. The extensive
-researches I was subsequently enabled to prosecute, and the results
-of which are combined in this work, were only rendered possible by
-the unrestricted permission granted me to investigate all the
-Manuscripts by Leonardo dispersed throughout Europe, and to
-reproduce the highly important original sketches they contain, by
-the process of "photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously
-accorded me special permission to copy for publication the
-Manuscripts at the Royal Library at Windsor. The Commission Centrale
-Administrative de l'Institut de France, Paris, gave me, in the most
-liberal manner, in answer to an application from Sir Frederic
-Leighton, P. R. A., Corresponding member of the Institut, free
-permission to work for several months in their private collection at
-deciphering the Manuscripts preserved there. The same favour which
-Lord Ashburnham had already granted me was extended to me by the
-Earl of Leicester, the Marchese Trivulsi, and the Curators of the
-Ambrosian Library at Milan, by the Conte Manzoni at Rome and by
-other private owners of Manuscripts of Leonardo's; as also by the
-Directors of the Louvre at Paris; the Accademia at Venice; the
-Uffizi at Florence; the Royal Library at Turin; and the British
-Museum, and the South Kensington Museum. I am also greatly indebted
-to the Librarians of these various collections for much assistance
-in my labours; and more particularly to Monsieur Louis Lalanne, of
-the Institut de France, the Abbate Ceriani, of the Ambrosian
-Library, Mr. Maude Thompson, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British
-Museum, Mr. Holmes, the Queens Librarian at Windsor, the Revd Vere
-Bayne, Librarian of Christ Church College at Oxford, and the Revd A.
-Napier, Librarian to the Earl of Leicester at Holkham Hall.
-
-In correcting the Italian text for the press, I have had the
-advantage of valuable advice from the Commendatore Giov. Morelli,
-Senatore del Regno, and from Signor Gustavo Frizzoni, of Milan. The
-translation, under many difficulties, of the Italian text into
-English, is mainly due to Mrs. R. C. Bell; while the rendering of
-several of the most puzzling and important passages, particularly in
-the second half of Vol. I, I owe to the indefatigable interest taken
-in this work by Mr. E. J. Poynter R. A. Finally I must express my
-thanks to Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, who has most kindly
-assisted me throughout in the revision of the proof sheets.
-
-The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II
-I owe to my friend Baron Henri de Geymuller, of Paris.
-
-I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the
-negatives for the production of the "photo-gravures" by Monsieur
-Dujardin of Paris were all taken direct from the originals.
-
-It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here
-reproduced in facsimile have never been published before. As I am
-now, on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a
-position to review the general tenour of Leonardos writings, I may
-perhaps be permitted to add a word as to my own estimate of the
-value of their contents. I have already shown that it is due to
-nothing but a fortuitous succession of unfortunate circumstances,
-that we should not, long since, have known Leonardo, not merely as a
-Painter, but as an Author, a Philosopher, and a Naturalist. There
-can be no doubt that in more than one department his principles and
-discoveries were infinitely more in accord with the teachings of
-modern science, than with the views of his contemporaries. For this
-reason his extraordinary gifts and merits are far more likely to be
-appreciated in our own time than they could have been during the
-preceding centuries. He has been unjustly accused of having
-squandered his powers, by beginning a variety of studies and then,
-having hardly begun, throwing them aside. The truth is that the
-labours of three centuries have hardly sufficed for the elucidation
-of some of the problems which occupied his mighty mind.
-
-Alexander von Humboldt has borne witness that "he was the first to
-start on the road towards the point where all the impressions of our
-senses converge in the idea of the Unity of Nature" Nay, yet more
-may be said. The very words which are inscribed on the monument of
-Alexander von Humboldt himself, at Berlin, are perhaps the most
-appropriate in which we can sum up our estimate of Leonardo's
-genius:
-
-"Majestati naturae par ingenium."
-
-LONDON, April 1883.
-
-F. P. R.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
-
-
-
-
-
-PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING
-
-Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention
-to publish his MSS. (1).--The preparation of the MSS. for
-publication (2).--Admonition to readers (3).--The disorder in the
-MSS. (4).--Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS. treating of
-particular subjects (5--8).--General introductions to the book on
-painting (9--13).--The plan of the book on painting (14--17).--The
-use of the book on painting (18).--Necessity of theoretical
-knowledge (19, 20).--The function of the eye (21--23).--Variability
-of the eye (24).--Focus of sight (25).--Differences of perception by
-one eye and by both eyes (26--29).--The comparative size of the
-image depends on the amount of light (30--39).
-
-II.
-
-LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
-
-General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of
-perspective:--of the point (42--46).--Of the line (47--48).--The
-nature of the outline (49).--Definition of perspective (50).--The
-perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye
-(51).--Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight
-(52--55).--The relations of the distance point to the vanishing
-point (55--56).--How to measure the pyramid of vision (57).--The
-production of the pyramid of vision (58--64).--Proof by experiment
-(65--66).--General conclusions (67).--That the contrary is
-impossible (68).--A parallel case (69).--The function of the eye, as
-explained by the camera obscura (70--71).--The practice of
-perspective (72--73).--Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye
-(74--75).--The inversion of the images (76).--The intersection of
-the rays (77--82).--Demonstration of perspective by means of a
-vertical glass plane (83--85.)--The angle of sight varies with the
-distance (86--88).--Opposite pyramids in juxtaposition (89).--On
-simple and complex perspective (90).--The proper distance of objects
-from the eye (91--92).--The relative size of objects with regard to
-their distance from the eye (93--98).--The apparent size of objects
-denned by calculation (99--106).--On natural perspective (107--109).
-
-III.
-
-SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE
-
-GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on
-light and shade (111).--Different principles and plans of treatment
-(112--116).--Different sorts of light (117--118).--Definition of
-the nature of shadows (119--122).--Of the various kinds of shadows
-(123--125).--Of the various kinds of light (126--127).--General
-remarks (128--129).--FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the nature
-of light (130--131).--The difference between light and lustre
-(132--135).--The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies (136).
---Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
-(137--140).--Light and shadow with regard to the position of the
-eye (141--145).--The law of the incidence of light
-(146--147).--SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Gradations of strength
-in the shadows (148--149).--On the intensity of shadows as dependent
-on the distance from the light (150--152).--On the proportion of
-light and shadow (153--157).--THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND
-SHADE.--Definition of derived shadow (158--159).--Different sorts of
-derived shadows (160--162).--On the relation of derived and primary
-shadow (163--165).--On the shape of derived shadows (166--174).--On
-the relative intensity of derived shadows (175--179).--Shadow as
-produced by two lights of different size (180--181).--The effect of
-light at different distances (182).--Further complications in the
-derived shadows (183--187).--FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the
-shape of cast shadows (188--191).--On the outlines of cast shadows
-(192--195).--On the relative size of cast shadows (196.
-197).--Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground
-(198).--A disputed proposition (199).--On the relative depth of
-cast shadows (200--202).--FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND
-SHADE.--Principles of reflection (203. 204).--On reverberation
-(205).--Reflection on water (206. 207).--Experiments with the mirror
-(208--210).--Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211--212).--SIXTH
-BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--The effect of rays passing through holes
-(213. 214).--On gradation of shadows (215. 216).--On relative
-proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
-
-IV.
-
-PERSPECTIVE OF DISAPPEARANCE
-
-Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A
-guiding rule (225).---An experiment (226).--On indistinctness at
-short distances (227--231).--On indistinctness at great distances
-(232--234).--The importance of light and shade in the Prospettiva
-de' perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds
-on the apparent size of objects (240--250).--Propositions on
-Prospettiva de' perdimenti from MS. C. (250--262).
-
-V.
-
-THEORY OF COLOURS
-
-The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each
-other (263--271).--Combination of different colours in cast shadows
-(272).--The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273. 274).--On
-the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).--On the nature of colours
-(277. 278).--On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).--On
-the reflection of colours (281--283).--On the use of dark and light
-colours in painting (284--286).--On the colours of the rainbow
-(287--288).
-
-VI.
-
-PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE
-
-General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment
-(293).--The practice of the Prospettiva de' colori (294).--The rules
-of aerial perspective (295--297).--On the relative density of the
-atmosphere (298--299).--On the colour of the atmosphere (300--307).
-
-VII.
-
-ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
-
-Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and
-face (310--318).--Proportions of the head seen in front
-(319--321).--Proportions of the foot (322--323).--Relative
-proportions of the hand and foot (324).--Relative proportions of
-the foot and of the face (325--327).--Proportions of the leg
-(328--331).--On the central point of the whole body (332).--The
-relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure
-(333).--The relative proportions of the head and of the torso
-(334).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335.
-336).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot
-(337).--The proportions of the whole figure (338--341).--The torso
-from the front and back (342).--Vitruvius' scheme of proportions
-(343).--The arm and head (344).--Proportions of the arm
-(345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement of
-the torso (355--361).--The proportions vary at different ages
-(362--367).--The movement of the human figure (368--375).--Of
-walking up and down (375--379).--On the human body in action
-(380--388).--On hair falling down in curls (389).--On draperies
-
-(390--392).
-
-VIII.
-
-BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING
-
-Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the
-branches to the trunk (394--396).--The law of proportion in the
-growth of the branches (397--402).--The direction of growth
-(403--407).--The forms of trees (408--411).--The insertion of the
-leaves (412--419).--Light on branches and leaves (420--422).--The
-proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423--426).--Of the
-transparency of leaves (427--429).--The gradations of shade and
-colour in leaves (430--434).--A classification of trees according to
-their colours (435).--The proportions of light and shade in trees
-(436--440).--The distribution of light and shade with reference to
-the position of the spectator (441--443).--The effects of morning
-light (444--448).--The effects of midday light (449).--The
-appearance of trees in the distance (450--451).--The cast shadow of
-trees (452. 453).--Light and shade on groups of trees
-(454--457).--On the treatment of light for landscapes
-(458--464).--On the treatment of light for views of towns
-(465--469).--The effect of wind on trees (470--473).--Light and
-shade on clouds (474--477).--On images reflected in water (478).--Of
-rainbows and rain (479. 480).--Of flower seeds (481).
-
-IX.
-
-THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING
-
-I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the
-dispositions for an artistic career (482).--The course of
-instruction for an artist (483--485).--The study of the antique
-(486. 487).--The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).--How
-to acquire practice (490).--Industry and thoroughness the first
-conditions (491--493.)--The artist's private life and choice of
-company (493. 494).--The distribution of time for studying (495--
-497).--On the productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A
-caution against one-sided study (502).--How to acquire universality
-(503--506).--Useful games and exercises (507. 508).--II. THE
-ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF
-PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.--On the size of the studio
-(509).--On the construction of windows (510--512).--On the best
-light for painting (513--520).--On various helps in preparing a
-picture (521--530).--On the management of works (531. 532).--On the
-limitations of painting (533--535).--On the choice of a position
-(536. 537).--The apparent size of figures in a picture (538.
-539).--The right position of the artist, when painting and of the
-spectator (540--547).--III. THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE
-AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.--Gradations of light and shade (548).--On
-the choice of light for a picture (549--554).--The distribution of
-light and shade (555--559).--The juxtaposition of light and shade
-(560. 561).--On the lighting of the background (562--565).--On the
-lighting of white objects (566).--The methods of aerial perspective
-(567--570).--IV. OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.--Of sketching
-figures and portraits (571. 572).--The position of the head
-(573).--Of the light on the face (574--576).--General suggestions
-for historical pictures (577--581).--How to represent the
-differences of age and sex (582. 583).--Of representing the emotions
-(584).--Of representing imaginary animals (585).--The selection of
-forms (586--591).--How to pose figures (592).--Of appropriate
-gestures (593--600).--V. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.--Of painting
-battle-pieces (601--603).--Of depicting night-scenes (604).--Of
-depicting a tempest (605. 606).--Of representing the deluge
-(607--609).--Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).--VI. THE
-ARTIST'S MATERIALS.--Of chalk and paper (612--617).--On the
-preparation and use of colours (618--627).--Of preparing the panel
-(628).--The preparation of oils (629--634).--On varnishes (635--
-637).--On chemical _materials (638--650).--VII. PHILOSOPHY AND
-HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.--The relation of art and nature
-(651. 652).--Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).--Painting is
-superior to sculpture (655. 656).--Aphorisms (657--659).--On the
-history of painting (660. 661).--The painter's scope (662).
-
-X.
-
-STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS
-
-On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait
-(664).--Notes on the Last Supper (665--668).--On the battle of
-Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke
-of Milan (670--673).--Allegorical representations
-(674--678).--Arrangement of a picture (679).--List of drawings
-(680).--Mottoes and Emblems (681--702).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-The author's intention to publish his MSS.
-
-1.
-
-How by a certain machine many may stay some time under water. And
-how and wherefore I do not describe my method of remaining under
-water and how long I can remain without eating. And I do not publish
-nor divulge these, by reason of the evil nature of men, who would
-use them for assassinations at the bottom of the sea by destroying
-ships, and sinking them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless
-I will impart others, which are not dangerous because the mouth of
-the tube through which you breathe is above the water, supported on
-air sacks or cork.
-
-[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with
-the words _Casi_ 39, and most of these cases begin with the word
-'_Come_', like the two here given, which are the 26th and 27th. 7.
-_Sughero_. In the Codex Antlanticus 377a; 1170a there is a sketch,
-drawn with the pen, representing a man with a tube in his mouth, and
-at the farther end of the tube a disk. By the tube the word
-'_Channa_' is written, and by the disk the word '_sughero_'.]
-
-The preparation of the MSS. for publication.
-
-2.
-
-When you put together the science of the motions of water, remember
-to include under each proposition its application and use, in order
-that this science may not be useless.--
-
-[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on
-water-power was published at Bologna in 1828, under the title: "_Del
-moto e misura dell'Acqua, di L. da Vinci_".]
-
-Admonition to readers.
-
-3.
-
-Let no man who is not a Mathematician read the elements of my work.
-
-The disorder in the MSS.
-
-4.
-
-Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the
-22nd day of March 1508. And this is to be a collection without
-order, taken from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to
-arrange them later each in its place, according to the subjects of
-which they may treat. But I believe that before I am at the end of
-this [task] I shall have to repeat the same things several times;
-for which, O reader! do not blame me, for the subjects are many and
-memory cannot retain them [all] and say: 'I will not write this
-because I wrote it before.' And if I wished to avoid falling into
-this fault, it would be necessary in every case when I wanted to
-copy [a passage] that, not to repeat myself, I should read over all
-that had gone before; and all the more since the intervals are long
-between one time of writing and the next.
-
-[Footnote: 1. In the history of Florence in the early part of the
-XVIth century _Piero di Braccio Martelli_ is frequently mentioned as
-_Commissario della Signoria_. He was famous for his learning and at
-his death left four books on Mathematics ready for the press; comp.
-LITTA, _Famiglie celebri Italiane_, _Famiglia Martelli di
-Firenze_.--In the Official Catalogue of MSS. in the Brit. Mus., New
-Series Vol. I., where this passage is printed, _Barto_ has been
-wrongly given for Braccio.
-
-2. _addi 22 di marzo 1508_. The Christian era was computed in
-Florence at that time from the Incarnation (Lady day, March 25th).
-Hence this should be 1509 by our reckoning.
-
-3. _racolto tratto di molte carte le quali io ho qui copiate_. We
-must suppose that Leonardo means that he has copied out his own MSS.
-and not those of others. The first thirteen leaves of the MS. in the
-Brit. Mus. are a fair copy of some notes on physics.]
-
-Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS treating of particular
-subjects.(5-8).
-
-5.
-
-Of digging a canal. Put this in the Book of useful inventions and in
-proving them bring forward the propositions already proved. And this
-is the proper order; since if you wished to show the usefulness of
-any plan you would be obliged again to devise new machines to prove
-its utility and thus would confuse the order of the forty Books and
-also the order of the diagrams; that is to say you would have to mix
-up practice with theory, which would produce a confused and
-incoherent work.
-
-6.
-
-I am not to blame for putting forward, in the course of my work on
-science, any general rule derived from a previous conclusion.
-
-7.
-
-The Book of the science of Mechanics must precede the Book of useful
-inventions.--Have your books on anatomy bound! [Footnote: 4. The
-numerous notes on anatomy written on loose leaves and now in the
-Royal collection at Windsor can best be classified in four Books,
-corresponding to the different character and size of the paper. When
-Leonardo speaks of '_li tua libri di notomia_', he probably means
-the MSS. which still exist; if this hypothesis is correct the
-present condition of these leaves might seem to prove that he only
-carried out his purpose with one of the Books on anatomy. A borrowed
-book on Anatomy is mentioned in F.O.]
-
-8.
-
-The order of your book must proceed on this plan: first simple
-beams, then (those) supported from below, then suspended in part,
-then wholly [suspended]. Then beams as supporting other weights
-[Footnote: 4. Leonardo's notes on Mechanics are extraordinarily
-numerous; but, for the reasons assigned in my introduction, they
-have not been included in the present work.].
-
-General introductions to the book on Painting (9-13).
-
-9.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or
-pleasing--since the men who have come before me have taken for their
-own every useful or necessary theme--I must do like one who, being
-poor, comes last to the fair, and can find no other way of providing
-himself than by taking all the things already seen by other buyers,
-and not taken but refused by reason of their lesser value. I, then,
-will load my humble pack with this despised and rejected
-merchandise, the refuse of so many buyers; and will go about to
-distribute it, not indeed in great cities, but in the poorer towns,
-taking such a price as the wares I offer may be worth. [Footnote: It
-need hardly be pointed out that there is in this 'Proemio' a covert
-irony. In the second and third prefaces, Leonardo characterises his
-rivals and opponents more closely. His protest is directed against
-Neo-latinism as professed by most of the humanists of his time; its
-futility is now no longer questioned.]
-
-10.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-I know that many will call this useless work [Footnote: 3. questa
-essere opera inutile. By opera we must here understand libro di
-pittura and particularly the treatise on Perspective.]; and they
-will be those of whom Demetrius [Footnote: 4. Demetrio. "With regard
-to the passage attributed to Demetrius", Dr. H. MULLER STRUBING
-writes, "I know not what to make of it. It is certainly not
-Demetrius Phalereus that is meant and it can hardly be Demetrius
-Poliorcetes. Who then can it be--for the name is a very common one?
-It may be a clerical error for Demades and the maxim is quite in the
-spirit of his writings I have not however been able to find any
-corresponding passage either in the 'Fragments' (C. MULLER, _Orat.
-Att._, II. 441) nor in the Supplements collected by DIETZ (_Rhein.
-Mus._, vol. 29, p. 108)."
-
-The same passage occurs as a simple Memorandum in the MS. Tr. 57,
-apparently as a note for this '_Proemio_' thus affording some data
-as to the time where these introductions were written.] declared
-that he took no more account of the wind that came out their mouth
-in words, than of that they expelled from their lower parts: men who
-desire nothing but material riches and are absolutely devoid of that
-of wisdom, which is the food and the only true riches of the mind.
-For so much more worthy as the soul is than the body, so much more
-noble are the possessions of the soul than those of the body. And
-often, when I see one of these men take this work in his hand, I
-wonder that he does not put it to his nose, like a monkey, or ask me
-if it is something good to eat.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, the Proemio di prospettiva cioe
-dell'uffitio dell'occhio (see No. 21) stands between this and the
-preceding one, No. 9.]
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-I am fully concious that, not being a literary man, certain
-presumptuous persons will think that they may reasonably blame me;
-alleging that I am not a man of letters. Foolish folks! do they not
-know that I might retort as Marius did to the Roman Patricians
-[Footnote 21: _Come Mario disse ai patriti Romani_. "I am unable to
-find the words here attributed by Leonardo to Marius, either in
-Plutarch's Life of Marius or in the Apophthegmata (_Moralia_,
-p.202). Nor do they occur in the writings of Valerius Maximus (who
-frequently mentions Marius) nor in Velleius Paterculus (II, 11 to
-43), Dio Cassius, Aulus Gellius, or Macrobius. Professor E.
-MENDELSON of Dorpat, the editor of Herodian, assures me that no such
-passage is the found in that author" (communication from Dr. MULLER
-STRUBING). Leonardo evidently meant to allude to some well known
-incident in Roman history and the mention of Marius is the result
-probably of some confusion. We may perhaps read, for Marius,
-Menenius Agrippa, though in that case it is true we must alter
-Patriti to Plebei. The change is a serious one. but it would render
-the passage perfectly clear.] by saying: That they, who deck
-themselves out in the labours of others will not allow me my own.
-They will say that I, having no literary skill, cannot properly
-express that which I desire to treat of [Footnote 26: _le mie cose
-.... che d'altra parola_. This can hardly be reconciled with Mons.
-RAVAISSON'S estimate of L. da Vinci's learning. "_Leonard de Vinci
-etait un admirateur et un disciple des anciens, aussi bien dans
-l'art que dans la science et il tenait a passer pour tel meme aux
-yeux de la posterite._" _Gaz. des Beaux arts. Oct. 1877.]; but they
-do not know that my subjects are to be dealt with by experience
-rather than by words [Footnote 28: See Footnote 26]; and
-[experience] has been the mistress of those who wrote well. And so,
-as mistress, I will cite her in all cases.
-
-11.
-
-Though I may not, like them, be able to quote other authors, I shall
-rely on that which is much greater and more worthy:--on experience,
-the mistress of their Masters. They go about puffed up and pompous,
-dressed and decorated with [the fruits], not of their own labours,
-but of those of others. And they will not allow me my own. They will
-scorn me as an inventor; but how much more might they--who are not
-inventors but vaunters and declaimers of the works of others--be
-blamed.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-And those men who are inventors and interpreters between Nature and
-Man, as compared with boasters and declaimers of the works of
-others, must be regarded and not otherwise esteemed than as the
-object in front of a mirror, when compared with its image seen in
-the mirror. For the first is something in itself, and the other
-nothingness.--Folks little indebted to Nature, since it is only by
-chance that they wear the human form and without it I might class
-them with the herds of beasts.
-
-12.
-
-Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my
-proofs are opposed to the authority of certain men held in the
-highest reverence by their inexperienced judgments; not considering
-that my works are the issue of pure and simple experience, who is
-the one true mistress. These rules are sufficient to enable you to
-know the true from the false--and this aids men to look only for
-things that are possible and with due moderation--and not to wrap
-yourself in ignorance, a thing which can have no good result, so
-that in despair you would give yourself up to melancholy.
-
-13.
-
-Among all the studies of natural causes and reasons Light chiefly
-delights the beholder; and among the great features of Mathematics
-the certainty of its demonstrations is what preeminently (tends to)
-elevate the mind of the investigator. Perspective, therefore, must
-be preferred to all the discourses and systems of human learning. In
-this branch [of science] the beam of light is explained on those
-methods of demonstration which form the glory not so much of
-Mathematics as of Physics and are graced with the flowers of both
-[Footnote: 5. Such of Leonardo's notes on Optics or on Perspective
-as bear exclusively on Mathematics or Physics could not be included
-in the arrangement of the _libro di pittura_ which is here presented
-to the reader. They are however but few.]. But its axioms being laid
-down at great length, I shall abridge them to a conclusive brevity,
-arranging them on the method both of their natural order and of
-mathematical demonstration; sometimes by deduction of the effects
-from the causes, and sometimes arguing the causes from the effects;
-adding also to my own conclusions some which, though not included in
-them, may nevertheless be inferred from them. Thus, if the Lord--who
-is the light of all things--vouchsafe to enlighten me, I will treat
-of Light; wherefore I will divide the present work into 3 Parts
-[Footnote: 10. In the middle ages--for instance, by ROGER BACON, by
-VITELLONE, with whose works Leonardo was certainly familiar, and by
-all the writers of the Renaissance Perspective and Optics were not
-regarded as distinct sciences. Perspective, indeed, is in its widest
-application the science of seeing. Although to Leonardo the two
-sciences were clearly separate, it is not so as to their names; thus
-we find axioms in Optics under the heading Perspective. According to
-this arrangement of the materials for the theoretical portion of the
-_libro di pittura_ propositions in Perspective and in Optics stand
-side by side or occur alternately. Although this particular chapter
-deals only with Optics, it is not improbable that the words _partiro
-la presente opera in 3 parti_ may refer to the same division into
-three sections which is spoken of in chapters 14 to 17.].
-
-The plan of the book on Painting (14--17).
-
-14.
-
-ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the
-reasons of the (apparent) diminution of objects as they recede from
-the eye, and is known as Diminishing Perspective.--The second
-contains the way in which colours vary as they recede from the eye.
-The third and last is concerned with the explanation of how the
-objects [in a picture] ought to be less finished in proportion as
-they are remote (and the names are as follows):
-
-Linear Perspective. The Perspective of Colour. The Perspective of
-Disappearance.
-
-[Footnote: 13. From the character of the handwriting I infer that
-this passage was written before the year 1490.].
-
-15.
-
-ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The divisions of Perspective are 3, as used in drawing; of these,
-the first includes the diminution in size of opaque objects; the
-second treats of the diminution and loss of outline in such opaque
-objects; the third, of the diminution and loss of colour at long
-distances.
-
-[Footnote: The division is here the same as in the previous chapter
-No. 14, and this is worthy of note when we connect it with the fact
-that a space of about 20 years must have intervened between the
-writing of the two passages.]
-
-16.
-
-THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING.
-
-Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three principal
-sections; of which the first treats of the diminution in the size of
-bodies at different distances. The second part is that which treats
-of the diminution in colour in these objects. The third [deals with]
-the diminished distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by
-the objects at various distances.
-
-17.
-
-ON THE SECTIONS OF [THE BOOK ON] PAINTING.
-
-The first thing in painting is that the objects it represents should
-appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding them at different
-distances shall appear within the vertical plane of the foreground
-of the picture by means of the 3 branches of Perspective, which are:
-the diminution in the distinctness of the forms of the objects, the
-diminution in their magnitude; and the diminution in their colour.
-And of these 3 classes of Perspective the first results from [the
-structure of] the eye, while the other two are caused by the
-atmosphere which intervenes between the eye and the objects seen by
-it. The second essential in painting is appropriate action and a due
-variety in the figures, so that the men may not all look like
-brothers, &c.
-
-[Footnote: This and the two foregoing chapters must have been
-written in 1513 to 1516. They undoubtedly indicate the scheme which
-Leonardo wished to carry out in arranging his researches on
-Perspective as applied to Painting. This is important because it is
-an evidence against the supposition of H. LUDWIG and others, that
-Leonardo had collected his principles of Perspective in one book so
-early as before 1500; a Book which, according to the hypothesis,
-must have been lost at a very early period, or destroyed possibly,
-by the French (!) in 1500 (see H. LUDWIG. L. da Vinci: _Das Buch van
-der Malerei_. Vienna 1882 III, 7 and 8).]
-
-The use of the book on Painting.
-
-18.
-
-These rules are of use only in correcting the figures; since every
-man makes some mistakes in his first compositions and he who knows
-them not, cannot amend them. But you, knowing your errors, will
-correct your works and where you find mistakes amend them, and
-remember never to fall into them again. But if you try to apply
-these rules in composition you will never make an end, and will
-produce confusion in your works.
-
-These rules will enable you to have a free and sound judgment; since
-good judgment is born of clear understanding, and a clear
-understanding comes of reasons derived from sound rules, and sound
-rules are the issue of sound experience--the common mother of all
-the sciences and arts. Hence, bearing in mind the precepts of my
-rules, you will be able, merely by your amended judgment, to
-criticise and recognise every thing that is out of proportion in a
-work, whether in the perspective or in the figures or any thing
-else.
-
-Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19. 20).
-
-19.
-
-OF THE MISTAKES MADE BY THOSE WHO PRACTISE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE.
-
-Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the
-sailor who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never
-can be certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded
-on sound theory, and to this Perspective is the guide and the
-gateway; and without this nothing can be done well in the matter of
-drawing.
-
-20.
-
-The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye, without any
-reason, is like a mirror which copies every thing placed in front of
-it without being conscious of their existence.
-
-The function of the eye (21-23).
-
-21.
-
-INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:--THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE.
-
-Behold here O reader! a thing concerning which we cannot trust our
-forefathers, the ancients, who tried to define what the Soul and
-Life are--which are beyond proof, whereas those things, which can at
-any time be clearly known and proved by experience, remained for
-many ages unknown or falsely understood. The eye, whose function we
-so certainly know by experience, has, down to my own time, been
-defined by an infinite number of authors as one thing; but I find,
-by experience, that it is quite another. [Footnote 13: Compare the
-note to No. 70.]
-
-[Footnote: In section 13 we already find it indicated that the study
-of Perspective and of Optics is to be based on that of the functions
-of the eye. Leonardo also refers to the science of the eye, in his
-astronomical researches, for instance in MS. F 25b '_Ordine del
-provare la terra essere una stella: Imprima difinisce l'occhio'_,
-&c. Compare also MS. E 15b and F 60b. The principles of astronomical
-perspective.]
-
-22.
-
-Here [in the eye] forms, here colours, here the character of every
-part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is
-so marvellous a thing ... Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity--by
-thy laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of
-its cause, by the shortest path. These [indeed] are miracles;...
-
-In so small a space it can be reproduced and rearranged in its whole
-expanse. Describe in your anatomy what proportion there is between
-the diameters of all the images in the eye and the distance from
-them of the crystalline lens.
-
-23.
-
-OF THE 10 ATTRIBUTES OF THE EYE, ALL CONCERNED IN PAINTING.
-
-Painting is concerned with all the 10 attributes of sight; which
-are:--Darkness, Light, Solidity and Colour, Form and Position,
-Distance and Propinquity, Motion and Rest. This little work of mine
-will be a tissue [of the studies] of these attributes, reminding the
-painter of the rules and methods by which he should use his art to
-imitate all the works of Nature which adorn the world.
-
-24.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Variability of the eye.
-
-1st. The pupil of the eye contracts, in proportion to the increase
-of light which is reflected in it. 2nd. The pupil of the eye expands
-in proportion to the diminution in the day light, or any other
-light, that is reflected in it. 3rd. [Footnote: 8. The subject of
-this third proposition we find fully discussed in MS. G. 44a.]. The
-eye perceives and recognises the objects of its vision with greater
-intensity in proportion as the pupil is more widely dilated; and
-this can be proved by the case of nocturnal animals, such as cats,
-and certain birds--as the owl and others--in which the pupil varies
-in a high degree from large to small, &c., when in the dark or in
-the light. 4th. The eye [out of doors] in an illuminated atmosphere
-sees darkness behind the windows of houses which [nevertheless] are
-light. 5th. All colours when placed in the shade appear of an equal
-degree of darkness, among themselves. 6th. But all colours when
-placed in a full light, never vary from their true and essential
-hue.
-
-25.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-Focus of sight.
-
-If the eye is required to look at an object placed too near to it,
-it cannot judge of it well--as happens to a man who tries to see the
-tip of his nose. Hence, as a general rule, Nature teaches us that an
-object can never be seen perfectly unless the space between it and
-the eye is equal, at least, to the length of the face.
-
-Differences of perception by one eye and by both eyes (26-29).
-
-26.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-When both eyes direct the pyramid of sight to an object, that object
-becomes clearly seen and comprehended by the eyes.
-
-27.
-
-Objects seen by one and the same eye appear sometimes large, and
-sometimes small.
-
-28.
-
-The motion of a spectator who sees an object at rest often makes it
-seem as though the object at rest had acquired the motion of the
-moving body, while the moving person appears to be at rest.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Objects in relief, when seen from a short distance with one eye,
-look like a perfect picture. If you look with the eye _a_, _b_ at
-the spot _c_, this point _c_ will appear to be at _d_, _f_, and if
-you look at it with the eye _g_, _h_ will appear to be at _m_. A
-picture can never contain in itself both aspects.
-
-29.
-
-Let the object in relief _t_ be seen by both eyes; if you will look
-at the object with the right eye _m_, keeping the left eye _n_ shut,
-the object will appear, or fill up the space, at _a_; and if you
-shut the right eye and open the left, the object (will occupy the)
-space _b_; and if you open both eyes, the object will no longer
-appear at _a_ or _b_, but at _e_, _r_, _f_. Why will not a picture
-seen by both eyes produce the effect of relief, as [real] relief
-does when seen by both eyes; and why should a picture seen with one
-eye give the same effect of relief as real relief would under the
-same conditions of light and shade?
-
-[Footnote: In the sketch, _m_ is the left eye and _n_ the right,
-while the text reverses this lettering. We must therefore suppose
-that the face in which the eyes _m_ and _n_ are placed is opposite
-to the spectator.]
-
-30.
-
-The comparative size of the image depends on the amount of light
-(30-39).
-
-The eye will hold and retain in itself the image of a luminous body
-better than that of a shaded object. The reason is that the eye is
-in itself perfectly dark and since two things that are alike cannot
-be distinguished, therefore the night, and other dark objects cannot
-be seen or recognised by the eye. Light is totally contrary and
-gives more distinctness, and counteracts and differs from the usual
-darkness of the eye, hence it leaves the impression of its image.
-
-31.
-
-Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,
-and larger in the morning than at midday.
-
-This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
-than at any other time.
-
-32.
-
-The pupil which is largest will see objects the largest. This is
-evident when we look at luminous bodies, and particularly at those
-in the sky. When the eye comes out of darkness and suddenly looks up
-at these bodies, they at first appear larger and then diminish; and
-if you were to look at those bodies through a small opening, you
-would see them smaller still, because a smaller part of the pupil
-would exercise its function.
-
-[Footnote: 9. _buso_ in the Lomb. dialect is the same as _buco_.]
-
-33.
-
-When the eye, coming out of darkness suddenly sees a luminous body,
-it will appear much larger at first sight than after long looking at
-it. The illuminated object will look larger and more brilliant, when
-seen with two eyes than with only one. A luminous object will appear
-smaller in size, when the eye sees it through a smaller opening. A
-luminous body of an oval form will appear rounder in proportion as
-it is farther from the eye.
-
-34.
-
-Why when the eye has just seen the light, does the half light look
-dark to it, and in the same way if it turns from the darkness the
-half light look very bright?
-
-35.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-If the eye, when [out of doors] in the luminous atmosphere, sees a
-place in shadow, this will look very much darker than it really is.
-This happens only because the eye when out in the air contracts the
-pupil in proportion as the atmosphere reflected in it is more
-luminous. And the more the pupil contracts, the less luminous do the
-objects appear that it sees. But as soon as the eye enters into a
-shady place the darkness of the shadow suddenly seems to diminish.
-This occurs because the greater the darkness into which the pupil
-goes the more its size increases, and this increase makes the
-darkness seem less.
-
-[Footnote 14: _La luce entrera_. _Luce_ occurs here in the sense of
-pupil of the eye as in no 51: C. A. 84b; 245a; I--5; and in many
-other places.]
-
-36.
-
-ON PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The eye which turns from a white object in the light of the sun and
-goes into a less fully lighted place will see everything as dark.
-And this happens either because the pupils of the eyes which have
-rested on this brilliantly lighted white object have contracted so
-much that, given at first a certain extent of surface, they will
-have lost more than 3/4 of their size; and, lacking in size, they
-are also deficient in [seeing] power. Though you might say to me: A
-little bird (then) coming down would see comparatively little, and
-from the smallness of his pupils the white might seem black! To this
-I should reply that here we must have regard to the proportion of
-the mass of that portion of the brain which is given up to the sense
-of sight and to nothing else. Or--to return--this pupil in Man
-dilates and contracts according to the brightness or darkness of
-(surrounding) objects; and since it takes some time to dilate and
-contract, it cannot see immediately on going out of the light and
-into the shade, nor, in the same way, out of the shade into the
-light, and this very thing has already deceived me in painting an
-eye, and from that I learnt it.
-
-37.
-
-Experiment [showing] the dilatation and contraction of the pupil,
-from the motion of the sun and other luminaries. In proportion as
-the sky is darker the stars appear of larger size, and if you were
-to light up the medium these stars would look smaller; and this
-difference arises solely from the pupil which dilates and contracts
-with the amount of light in the medium which is interposed between
-the eye and the luminous body. Let the experiment be made, by
-placing a candle above your head at the same time that you look at a
-star; then gradually lower the candle till it is on a level with the
-ray that comes from the star to the eye, and then you will see the
-star diminish so much that you will almost lose sight of it.
-
-[Footnote: No reference is made in the text to the letters on the
-accompanying diagram.]
-
-38.
-
-The pupil of the eye, in the open air, changes in size with every
-degree of motion from the sun; and at every degree of its changes
-one and the same object seen by it will appear of a different size;
-although most frequently the relative scale of surrounding objects
-does not allow us to detect these variations in any single object we
-may look at.
-
-39.
-
-The eye--which sees all objects reversed--retains the images for
-some time. This conclusion is proved by the results; because, the
-eye having gazed at light retains some impression of it. After
-looking (at it) there remain in the eye images of intense
-brightness, that make any less brilliant spot seem dark until the
-eye has lost the last trace of the impression of the stronger light.
-
-_II.
-
-Linear Perspective.
-
-We see clearly from the concluding sentence of section 49, where the
-author directly addresses the painter, that he must certainly have
-intended to include the elements of mathematics in his Book on the
-art of Painting. They are therefore here placed at the beginning. In
-section 50 the theory of the "Pyramid of Sight" is distinctly and
-expressly put forward as the fundamental principle of linear
-perspective, and sections 52 to 57 treat of it fully. This theory of
-sight can scarcely be traced to any author of antiquity. Such
-passages as occur in Euclid for instance, may, it is true, have
-proved suggestive to the painters of the Renaissance, but it would
-be rash to say any thing decisive on this point.
-
-Leon Battista Alberti treats of the "Pyramid of Sight" at some
-length in his first Book of Painting; but his explanation differs
-widely from Leonardo's in the details. Leonardo, like Alberti, may
-have borrowed the broad lines of his theory from some views commonly
-accepted among painters at the time; but he certainly worked out its
-application in a perfectly original manner.
-
-The axioms as to the perception of the pyramid of rays are followed
-by explanations of its origin, and proofs of its universal
-application (58--69). The author recurs to the subject with endless
-variations; it is evidently of fundamental importance in his
-artistic theory and practice. It is unnecessary to discuss how far
-this theory has any scientific value at the present day; so much as
-this, at any rate, seems certain: that from the artist's point of
-view it may still claim to be of immense practical utility.
-
-According to Leonardo, on one hand, the laws of perspective are an
-inalienable condition of the existence of objects in space; on the
-other hand, by a natural law, the eye, whatever it sees and wherever
-it turns, is subjected to the perception of the pyramid of rays in
-the form of a minute target. Thus it sees objects in perspective
-independently of the will of the spectator, since the eye receives
-the images by means of the pyramid of rays "just as a magnet
-attracts iron".
-
-In connection with this we have the function of the eye explained by
-the Camera obscura, and this is all the more interesting and
-important because no writer previous to Leonardo had treated of this
-subject_ (70--73). _Subsequent passages, of no less special interest,
-betray his knowledge of refraction and of the inversion of the image
-in the camera and in the eye_ (74--82).
-
-_From the principle of the transmission of the image to the eye and
-to the camera obscura he deduces the means of producing an
-artificial construction of the pyramid of rays or--which is the same
-thing--of the image. The fundamental axioms as to the angle of sight
-and the vanishing point are thus presented in a manner which is as
-complete as it is simple and intelligible_ (86--89).
-
-_Leonardo distinguishes between simple and complex perspective_ (90,
-91). _The last sections treat of the apparent size of objects at
-various distances and of the way to estimate it_ (92--109).
-
-General remarks on perspective (40-41).
-
-40.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-Perspective is the best guide to the art of Painting.
-
-[Footnote: 40. Compare 53, 2.]
-
-41.
-
-The art of perspective is of such a nature as to make what is flat
-appear in relief and what is in relief flat.
-
-The elements of perspective--Of the Point (42-46).
-
-42.
-
-All the problems of perspective are made clear by the five terms of
-mathematicians, which are:--the point, the line, the angle, the
-superficies and the solid. The point is unique of its kind. And the
-point has neither height, breadth, length, nor depth, whence it is
-to be regarded as indivisible and as having no dimensions in space.
-The line is of three kinds, straight, curved and sinuous and it has
-neither breadth, height, nor depth. Hence it is indivisible,
-excepting in its length, and its ends are two points. The angle is
-the junction of two lines in a point.
-
-43.
-
-A point is not part of a line.
-
-44.
-
-OF THE NATURAL POINT.
-
-The smallest natural point is larger than all mathematical points,
-and this is proved because the natural point has continuity, and any
-thing that is continuous is infinitely divisible; but the
-mathematical point is indivisible because it has no size.
-
-[Footnote: This definition was inserted by Leonardo on a MS. copy on
-parchment of the well-known _"Trattato d'Architettura civile e
-militare"_ &c. by FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO; opposite a passage where the
-author says: _'In prima he da sapere che punto e quella parie della
-quale he nulla--Linia he luncheza senza apieza; &c.]
-
-45.
-
-1, The superficies is a limitation of the body. 2, and the
-limitation of a body is no part of that body. 4, and the limitation
-of one body is that which begins another. 3, that which is not part
-of any body is nothing. Nothing is that which fills no space.
-
-If one single point placed in a circle may be the starting point of
-an infinite number of lines, and the termination of an infinite
-number of lines, there must be an infinite number of points
-separable from this point, and these when reunited become one again;
-whence it follows that the part may be equal to the whole.
-
-46.
-
-The point, being indivisible, occupies no space. That which occupies
-no space is nothing. The limiting surface of one thing is the
-beginning of another. 2. That which is no part of any body is called
-nothing. 1. That which has no limitations, has no form. The
-limitations of two conterminous bodies are interchangeably the
-surface of each. All the surfaces of a body are not parts of that
-body.
-
-Of the line (47-48).
-
-47.
-
-DEFINITION OF THE NATURE OF THE LINE.
-
-The line has in itself neither matter nor substance and may rather
-be called an imaginary idea than a real object; and this being its
-nature it occupies no space. Therefore an infinite number of lines
-may be conceived of as intersecting each other at a point, which has
-no dimensions and is only of the thickness (if thickness it may be
-called) of one single line.
-
-HOW WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT A SUPERFICIES TERMINATES IN A POINT?
-
-An angular surface is reduced to a point where it terminates in an
-angle. Or, if the sides of that angle are produced in a straight
-line, then--beyond that angle--another surface is generated,
-smaller, or equal to, or larger than the first.
-
-48.
-
-OF DRAWING OUTLINE.
-
-Consider with the greatest care the form of the outlines of every
-object, and the character of their undulations. And these
-undulations must be separately studied, as to whether the curves are
-composed of arched convexities or angular concavities.
-
-49.
-
-The nature of the outline.
-
-The boundaries of bodies are the least of all things. The
-proposition is proved to be true, because the boundary of a thing is
-a surface, which is not part of the body contained within that
-surface; nor is it part of the air surrounding that body, but is the
-medium interposted between the air and the body, as is proved in its
-place. But the lateral boundaries of these bodies is the line
-forming the boundary of the surface, which line is of invisible
-thickness. Wherefore O painter! do not surround your bodies with
-lines, and above all when representing objects smaller than nature;
-for not only will their external outlines become indistinct, but
-their parts will be invisible from distance.
-
-50.
-
-Definition of Perspective.
-
-[Drawing is based upon perspective, which is nothing else than a
-thorough knowledge of the function of the eye. And this function
-simply consists in receiving in a pyramid the forms and colours of
-all the objects placed before it. I say in a pyramid, because there
-is no object so small that it will not be larger than the spot where
-these pyramids are received into the eye. Therefore, if you extend
-the lines from the edges of each body as they converge you will
-bring them to a single point, and necessarily the said lines must
-form a pyramid.]
-
-[Perspective is nothing more than a rational demonstration applied
-to the consideration of how objects in front of the eye transmit
-their image to it, by means of a pyramid of lines. The _Pyramid_ is
-the name I apply to the lines which, starting from the surface and
-edges of each object, converge from a distance and meet in a single
-point.]
-
-[Perspective is a rational demonstration, by which we may
-practically and clearly understand how objects transmit their own
-image, by lines forming a Pyramid (centred) in the eye.]
-
-Perspective is a rational demonstration by which experience confirms
-that every object sends its image to the eye by a pyramid of lines;
-and bodies of equal size will result in a pyramid of larger or
-smaller size, according to the difference in their distance, one
-from the other. By a pyramid of lines I mean those which start from
-the surface and edges of bodies, and, converging from a distance
-meet in a single point. A point is said to be that which [having no
-dimensions] cannot be divided, and this point placed in the eye
-receives all the points of the cone.
-
-[Footnote: 50. 1-5. Compare with this the Proem. No. 21. The
-paragraphs placed in brackets: lines 1-9, 10-14, and 17--20, are
-evidently mere sketches and, as such, were cancelled by the writer;
-but they serve as a commentary on the final paragraph, lines 22-29.]
-
-51.
-
-IN WHAT WAY THE EYE SEES OBJECTS PLACED IN FRONT OF IT.
-
-The perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye.
-
-Supposing that the ball figured above is the ball of the eye and let
-the small portion of the ball which is cut off by the line _s t_ be
-the pupil and all the objects mirrored on the centre of the face of
-the eye, by means of the pupil, pass on at once and enter the pupil,
-passing through the crystalline humour, which does not interfere in
-the pupil with the things seen by means of the light. And the pupil
-having received the objects, by means of the light, immediately
-refers them and transmits them to the intellect by the line _a b_.
-And you must know that the pupil transmits nothing perfectly to the
-intellect or common sense excepting when the objects presented to it
-by means of light, reach it by the line _a b;_ as, for instance, by
-the line _b c_. For although the lines _m n_ and _f g_ may be seen
-by the pupil they are not perfectly taken in, because they do not
-coincide with the line _a b_. And the proof is this: If the eye,
-shown above, wants to count the letters placed in front, the eye
-will be obliged to turn from letter to letter, because it cannot
-discern them unless they lie in the line _a b;_ as, for instance, in
-the line _a c_. All visible objects reach the eye by the lines of a
-pyramid, and the point of the pyramid is the apex and centre of it,
-in the centre of the pupil, as figured above.
-
-[Footnote: 51. In this problem the eye is conceived of as fixed and
-immovable; this is plain from line 11.]
-
-Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight (52-55).
-
-52.
-
-Perspective is a rational demonstration, confirmed by experience,
-that all objects transmit their image to the eye by a pyramid of
-lines.
-
-By a pyramid of lines I understand those lines which start from the
-edges of the surface of bodies, and converging from a distance, meet
-in a single point; and this point, in the present instance, I will
-show to be situated in the eye which is the universal judge of all
-objects. By a point I mean that which cannot be divided into parts;
-therefore this point, which is situated in the eye, being
-indivisible, no body is seen by the eye, that is not larger than
-this point. This being the case it is inevitable that the lines
-which come from the object to the point must form a pyramid. And if
-any man seeks to prove that the sense of sight does not reside in
-this point, but rather in the black spot which is visible in the
-middle of the pupil, I might reply to him that a small object could
-never diminish at any distance, as it might be a grain of millet or
-of oats or of some similar thing, and that object, if it were larger
-than the said [black] spot would never be seen as a whole; as may be
-seen in the diagram below. Let _a_. be the seat of sight, _b e_ the
-lines which reach the eye. Let _e d_ be the grains of millet within
-these lines. You plainly see that these will never diminish by
-distance, and that the body _m n_ could not be entirely covered by
-it. Therefore you must confess that the eye contains within itself
-one single indivisible point _a_, to which all the points converge
-of the pyramid of lines starting from an object, as is shown below.
-Let _a_. _b_. be the eye; in the centre of it is the point above
-mentioned. If the line _e f_ is to enter as an image into so small
-an opening in the eye, you must confess that the smaller object
-cannot enter into what is smaller than itself unless it is
-diminished, and by diminishing it must take the form of a pyramid.
-
-53.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Perspective comes in where judgment fails [as to the distance] in
-objects which diminish. The eye can never be a true judge for
-determining with exactitude how near one object is to another which
-is equal to it [in size], if the top of that other is on the level
-of the eye which sees them on that side, excepting by means of the
-vertical plane which is the standard and guide of perspective. Let
-_n_ be the eye, _e f_ the vertical plane above mentioned. Let _a b c
-d_ be the three divisions, one below the other; if the lines _a n_
-and _c n_ are of a given length and the eye _n_ is in the centre,
-then _a b_ will look as large as _b c. c d_ is lower and farther off
-from _n_, therefore it will look smaller. And the same effect will
-appear in the three divisions of a face when the eye of the painter
-who is drawing it is on a level with the eye of the person he is
-painting.
-
-54.
-
-TO PROVE HOW OBJECTS REACH THE EYE.
-
-If you look at the sun or some other luminous body and then shut
-your eyes you will see it again inside your eye for a long time.
-This is evidence that images enter into the eye.
-
-The relations of the distance points to the vanishing point (55-56).
-
-55.
-
-ELEMENTS OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-All objects transmit their image to the eye in pyramids, and the
-nearer to the eye these pyramids are intersected the smaller will
-the image appear of the objects which cause them. Therefore, you may
-intersect the pyramid with a vertical plane [Footnote 4: _Pariete_.
-Compare the definitions in 85, 2-5, 6-27. These lines refer
-exclusively to the third diagram. For the better understanding of
-this it should be observed that _c s_ must be regarded as
-representing the section or profile of a square plane, placed
-horizontally (comp. lines 11, 14, 17) for which the word _pianura_
-is subsequently employed (20, 22). Lines 6-13 contain certain
-preliminary observations to guide the reader in understanding the
-diagram; the last three seem to have been added as a supplement.
-Leonardo's mistake in writing _t denota_ (line 6) for _f denota_ has
-been rectified.] which reaches the base of the pyramid as is shown
-in the plane _a n_.
-
-The eye _f_ and the eye _t_ are one and the same thing; but the eye
-_f_ marks the distance, that is to say how far you are standing from
-the object; and the eye _t_ shows you the direction of it; that is
-whether you are opposite, or on one side, or at an angle to the
-object you are looking at. And remember that the eye _f_ and the eye
-_t_ must always be kept on the same level. For example if you raise
-or lower the eye from the distance point _f_ you must do the same
-with the direction point _t_. And if the point _f_ shows how far the
-eye is distant from the square plane but does not show on which side
-it is placed--and, if in the same way, the point _t_ show _s_ the
-direction and not the distance, in order to ascertain both you must
-use both points and they will be one and the same thing. If the eye
-_f_ could see a perfect square of which all the sides were equal to
-the distance between _s_ and _c_, and if at the nearest end of the
-side towards the eye a pole were placed, or some other straight
-object, set up by a perpendicular line as shown at _r s_--then, I
-say, that if you were to look at the side of the square that is
-nearest to you it will appear at the bottom of the vertical plane _r
-s_, and then look at the farther side and it would appear to you at
-the height of the point _n_ on the vertical plane. Thus, by this
-example, you can understand that if the eye is above a number of
-objects all placed on the same level, one beyond another, the more
-remote they are the higher they will seem, up to the level of the
-eye, but no higher; because objects placed upon the level on which
-your feet stand, so long as it is flat--even if it be extended into
-infinity--would never be seen above the eye; since the eye has in
-itself the point towards which all the cones tend and converge which
-convey the images of the objects to the eye. And this point always
-coincides with the point of diminution which is the extreme of all
-we can see. And from the base line of the first pyramid as far as
-the diminishing point
-
-[Footnote: The two diagrams above the chapter are explained by the
-first five lines. They have, however, more letters than are referred
-to in the text, a circumstance we frequently find occasion to
-remark.]
-
-56.
-
-there are only bases without pyramids which constantly diminish up
-to this point. And from the first base where the vertical plane is
-placed towards the point in the eye there will be only pyramids
-without bases; as shown in the example given above. Now, let _a b_
-be the said vertical plane and _r_ the point of the pyramid
-terminating in the eye, and _n_ the point of diminution which is
-always in a straight line opposite the eye and always moves as the
-eye moves--just as when a rod is moved its shadow moves, and moves
-with it, precisely as the shadow moves with a body. And each point
-is the apex of a pyramid, all having a common base with the
-intervening vertical plane. But although their bases are equal their
-angles are not equal, because the diminishing point is the
-termination of a smaller angle than that of the eye. If you ask me:
-"By what practical experience can you show me these points?" I
-reply--so far as concerns the diminishing point which moves with you
---when you walk by a ploughed field look at the straight furrows
-which come down with their ends to the path where you are walking,
-and you will see that each pair of furrows will look as though they
-tried to get nearer and meet at the [farther] end.
-
-[Footnote: For the easier understanding of the diagram and of its
-connection with the preceding I may here remark that the square
-plane shown above in profile by the line _c s_ is here indicated by
-_e d o p_. According to lines 1, 3 _a b_ must be imagined as a plane
-of glass placed perpendicularly at _o p_.]
-
-57.
-
-How to measure the pyramid of vision.
-
-As regards the point in the eye; it is made more intelligible by
-this: If you look into the eye of another person you will see your
-own image. Now imagine 2 lines starting from your ears and going to
-the ears of that image which you see in the other man's eye; you
-will understand that these lines converge in such a way that they
-would meet in a point a little way beyond your own image mirrored in
-the eye. And if you want to measure the diminution of the pyramid in
-the air which occupies the space between the object seen and the
-eye, you must do it according to the diagram figured below. Let _m
-n_ be a tower, and _e f_ a, rod, which you must move backwards and
-forwards till its ends correspond with those of the tower [Footnote
-9: _I sua stremi .. della storre_ (its ends ... of the tower) this
-is the case at _e f_.]; then bring it nearer to the eye, at _c d_
-and you will see that the image of the tower seems smaller, as at _r
-o_. Then [again] bring it closer to the eye and you will see the rod
-project far beyond the image of the tower from _a_ to _b_ and from
-_t_ to _b_, and so you will discern that, a little farther within,
-the lines must converge in a point.
-
-The Production of pyramid of Vision (58-60).
-
-58.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The instant the atmosphere is illuminated it will be filled with an
-infinite number of images which are produced by the various bodies
-and colours assembled in it. And the eye is the target, a loadstone,
-of these images.
-
-59.
-
-The whole surface of opaque bodies displays its whole image in all
-the illuminated atmosphere which surrounds them on all sides.
-
-60.
-
-That the atmosphere attracts to itself, like a loadstone, all the
-images of the objects that exist in it, and not their forms merely
-but their nature may be clearly seen by the sun, which is a hot and
-luminous body. All the atmosphere, which is the all-pervading
-matter, absorbs light and heat, and reflects in itself the image of
-the source of that heat and splendour and, in each minutest portion,
-does the same. The Northpole does the same as the loadstone shows;
-and the moon and the other planets, without suffering any
-diminution, do the same. Among terrestrial things musk does the same
-and other perfumes.
-
-61.
-
-All bodies together, and each by itself, give off to the surrounding
-air an infinite number of images which are all-pervading and each
-complete, each conveying the nature, colour and form of the body
-which produces it.
-
-It can clearly be shown that all bodies are, by their images,
-all-pervading in the surrounding atmosphere, and each complete in
-itself as to substance form and colour; this is seen by the images
-of the various bodies which are reproduced in one single perforation
-through which they transmit the objects by lines which intersect and
-cause reversed pyramids, from the objects, so that they are upside
-down on the dark plane where they are first reflected. The reason of
-this is--
-
-[Footnote: The diagram intended to illustrate the statement (Pl. II
-No. i) occurs in the original between lines 3 and 4. The three
-circles must be understood to represent three luminous bodies which
-transmit their images through perforations in a wall into a dark
-chamber, according to a law which is more fully explained in 75?81.
-So far as concerns the present passage the diagram is only intended
-to explain that the images of the three bodies may be made to
-coalesce at any given spot. In the circles are written,
-giallo--yellow, biacho--white, rosso--red.
-
-The text breaks off at line 8. The paragraph No.40 follows here in
-the original MS.]
-
-62.
-
-Every point is the termination of an infinite number of lines, which
-diverge to form a base, and immediately, from the base the same
-lines converge to a pyramid [imaging] both the colour and form. No
-sooner is a form created or compounded than suddenly infinite lines
-and angles are produced from it; and these lines, distributing
-themselves and intersecting each other in the air, give rise to an
-infinite number of angles opposite to each other. Given a base, each
-opposite angle, will form a triangle having a form and proportion
-equal to the larger angle; and if the base goes twice into each of
-the 2 lines of the pyramid the smaller triangle will do the same.
-
-63.
-
-Every body in light and shade fills the surrounding air with
-infinite images of itself; and these, by infinite pyramids diffused
-in the air, represent this body throughout space and on every side.
-Each pyramid that is composed of a long assemblage of rays includes
-within itself an infinite number of pyramids and each has the same
-power as all, and all as each. A circle of equidistant pyramids of
-vision will give to their object angles of equal size; and an eye at
-each point will see the object of the same size. The body of the
-atmosphere is full of infinite pyramids composed of radiating
-straight lines, which are produced from the surface of the bodies in
-light and shade, existing in the air; and the farther they are from
-the object which produces them the more acute they become and
-although in their distribution they intersect and cross they never
-mingle together, but pass through all the surrounding air,
-independently converging, spreading, and diffused. And they are all
-of equal power [and value]; all equal to each, and each equal to
-all. By these the images of objects are transmitted through all
-space and in every direction, and each pyramid, in itself, includes,
-in each minutest part, the whole form of the body causing it.
-
-64.
-
-The body of the atmosphere is full of infinite radiating pyramids
-produced by the objects existing in it. These intersect and cross
-each other with independent convergence without interfering with
-each other and pass through all the surrounding atmosphere; and are
-of equal force and value--all being equal to each, each to all. And
-by means of these, images of the body are transmitted everywhere and
-on all sides, and each receives in itself every minutest portion of
-the object that produces it.
-
-Proof by experiment (65-66).
-
-65.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The air is filled with endless images of the objects distributed in
-it; and all are represented in all, and all in one, and all in each,
-whence it happens that if two mirrors are placed in such a manner as
-to face each other exactly, the first will be reflected in the
-second and the second in the first. The first being reflected in the
-second takes to it the image of itself with all the images
-represented in it, among which is the image of the second mirror,
-and so, image within image, they go on to infinity in such a manner
-as that each mirror has within it a mirror, each smaller than the
-last and one inside the other. Thus, by this example, it is clearly
-proved that every object sends its image to every spot whence the
-object itself can be seen; and the converse: That the same object
-may receive in itself all the images of the objects that are in
-front of it. Hence the eye transmits through the atmosphere its own
-image to all the objects that are in front of it and receives them
-into itself, that is to say on its surface, whence they are taken in
-by the common sense, which considers them and if they are pleasing
-commits them to the memory. Whence I am of opinion: That the
-invisible images in the eyes are produced towards the object, as the
-image of the object to the eye. That the images of the objects must
-be disseminated through the air. An instance may be seen in several
-mirrors placed in a circle, which will reflect each other endlessly.
-When one has reached the other it is returned to the object that
-produced it, and thence--being diminished--it is returned again to
-the object and then comes back once more, and this happens
-endlessly. If you put a light between two flat mirrors with a
-distance of 1 braccio between them you will see in each of them an
-infinite number of lights, one smaller than another, to the last. If
-at night you put a light between the walls of a room, all the parts
-of that wall will be tinted with the image of that light. And they
-will receive the light and the light will fall on them, mutually,
-that is to say, when there is no obstacle to interrupt the
-transmission of the images. This same example is seen in a greater
-degree in the distribution of the solar rays which all together, and
-each by itself, convey to the object the image of the body which
-causes it. That each body by itself alone fills with its images the
-atmosphere around it, and that the same air is able, at the same
-time, to receive the images of the endless other objects which are
-in it, this is clearly proved by these examples. And every object is
-everywhere visible in the whole of the atmosphere, and the whole in
-every smallest part of it; and all the objects in the whole, and all
-in each smallest part; each in all and all in every part.
-
-66.
-
-The images of objects are all diffused through the atmosphere which
-receives them; and all on every side in it. To prove this, let _a c
-e_ be objects of which the images are admitted to a dark chamber by
-the small holes _n p_ and thrown upon the plane _f i_ opposite to
-these holes. As many images will be produced in the chamber on the
-plane as the number of the said holes.
-
-67.
-
-General conclusions.
-
-All objects project their whole image and likeness, diffused and
-mingled in the whole of the atmosphere, opposite to themselves. The
-image of every point of the bodily surface, exists in every part of
-the atmosphere. All the images of the objects are in every part of
-the atmosphere. The whole, and each part of the image of the
-atmosphere is [reflected] in each point of the surface of the bodies
-presented to it. Therefore both the part and the whole of the images
-of the objects exist, both in the whole and in the parts of the
-surface of these visible bodies. Whence we may evidently say that
-the image of each object exists, as a whole and in every part, in
-each part and in the whole interchangeably in every existing body.
-As is seen in two mirrors placed opposite to each other.
-
-68.
-
-That the contrary is impossible.
-
-It is impossible that the eye should project from itself, by visual
-rays, the visual virtue, since, as soon as it opens, that front
-portion [of the eye] which would give rise to this emanation would
-have to go forth to the object and this it could not do without
-time. And this being so, it could not travel so high as the sun in a
-month's time when the eye wanted to see it. And if it could reach
-the sun it would necessarily follow that it should perpetually
-remain in a continuous line from the eye to the sun and should
-always diverge in such a way as to form between the sun and the eye
-the base and the apex of a pyramid. This being the case, if the eye
-consisted of a million worlds, it would not prevent its being
-consumed in the projection of its virtue; and if this virtue would
-have to travel through the air as perfumes do, the winds would bent
-it and carry it into another place. But we do [in fact] see the mass
-of the sun with the same rapidity as [an object] at the distance of
-a braccio, and the power of sight is not disturbed by the blowing of
-the winds nor by any other accident.
-
-[Footnote: The view here refuted by Leonardo was maintained among
-others by Bramantino, Leonardo's Milanese contemporary. LOMAZZO
-writes as follows in his Trattato dell' Arte della pittura &c.
-(Milano 1584. Libr. V cp. XXI): Sovviemmi di aver gia letto in certi
-scritti alcune cose di Bramantino milanese, celebratissimo pittore,
-attenente alla prospettiva, le quali ho voluto riferire, e quasi
-intessere in questo luogo, affinche sappiamo qual fosse l'opinione
-di cosi chiaro e famoso pittore intorno alla prospettiva . . Scrive
-Bramantino che la prospettiva e una cosa che contrafa il naturale, e
-che cio si fa in tre modi
-
-Circa il primo modo che si fa con ragione, per essere la cosa in
-poche parole conclusa da Bramantino in maniera che giudico non
-potersi dir meglio, contenendovi si tutta Parte del principio al
-fine, io riferiro per appunto le proprie parole sue (cp. XXII, Prima
-prospettiva di Bramantino). La prima prospettiva fa le cose di
-punto, e l'altra non mai, e la terza piu appresso. Adunque la prima
-si dimanda prospettiva, cioe ragione, la quale fa l'effetto dell'
-occhio, facendo crescere e calare secondo gli effetti degli occhi.
-Questo crescere e calare non procede della cosa propria, che in se
-per esser lontana, ovvero vicina, per quello effetto non puo
-crescere e sminuire, ma procede dagli effetti degli occhi, i quali
-sono piccioli, e percio volendo vedere tanto gran cosa_, bisogna che
-mandino fuora la virtu visiva, _la quale si dilata in tanta
-larghezza, che piglia tutto quello che vuoi vedere, ed_ arrivando a
-quella cosa la vede dove e: _e da lei agli occhi per quello circuito
-fino all' occhio, e tutto quello termine e pieno di quella cosa_.
-
-It is worthy of note that Leonardo had made his memorandum refuting
-this view, at Milan in 1492]
-
-69.
-
-A parallel case.
-
-Just as a stone flung into the water becomes the centre and cause of
-many circles, and as sound diffuses itself in circles in the air: so
-any object, placed in the luminous atmosphere, diffuses itself in
-circles, and fills the surrounding air with infinite images of
-itself. And is repeated, the whole every-where, and the whole in
-every smallest part. This can be proved by experiment, since if you
-shut a window that faces west and make a hole [Footnote: 6. Here the
-text breaks off.] . .
-
-[Footnote: Compare LIBRI, _Histoire des sciences mathematiques en
-Italie_. Tome III, p. 43.]
-
-The function of the eye as explained by the camera obscura (70. 71).
-
-70.
-
-If the object in front of the eye sends its image to the eye, the
-eye, on the other hand, sends its image to the object, and no
-portion whatever of the object is lost in the images it throws off,
-for any reason either in the eye or the object. Therefore we may
-rather believe it to be the nature and potency of our luminous
-atmosphere which absorbs the images of the objects existing in it,
-than the nature of the objects, to send their images through the
-air. If the object opposite to the eye were to send its image to the
-eye, the eye would have to do the same to the object, whence it
-might seem that these images were an emanation. But, if so, it would
-be necessary [to admit] that every object became rapidly smaller;
-because each object appears by its images in the surrounding
-atmosphere. That is: the whole object in the whole atmosphere, and
-in each part; and all the objects in the whole atmosphere and all of
-them in each part; speaking of that atmosphere which is able to
-contain in itself the straight and radiating lines of the images
-projected by the objects. From this it seems necessary to admit that
-it is in the nature of the atmosphere, which subsists between the
-objects, and which attracts the images of things to itself like a
-loadstone, being placed between them.
-
-PROVE HOW ALL OBJECTS, PLACED IN ONE POSITION, ARE ALL EVERYWHERE
-AND ALL IN EACH PART.
-
-I say that if the front of a building--or any open piazza or
-field--which is illuminated by the sun has a dwelling opposite to
-it, and if, in the front which does not face the sun, you make a
-small round hole, all the illuminated objects will project their
-images through that hole and be visible inside the dwelling on the
-opposite wall which may be made white; and there, in fact, they will
-be upside down, and if you make similar openings in several places
-in the same wall you will have the same result from each. Hence the
-images of the illuminated objects are all everywhere on this wall
-and all in each minutest part of it. The reason, as we clearly know,
-is that this hole must admit some light to the said dwelling, and
-the light admitted by it is derived from one or many luminous
-bodies. If these bodies are of various colours and shapes the rays
-forming the images are of various colours and shapes, and so will
-the representations be on the wall.
-
-[Footnote: 70. 15--23. This section has already been published in the
-"_Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo da Vinci_" Milan 1872, pp. 13, 14.
-G. Govi observes upon it, that Leonardo is not to be regarded as the
-inventor of the Camera obscura, but that he was the first to explain
-by it the structure of the eye. An account of the Camera obscura
-first occurs in CESARE CESARINI's Italian version of Vitruvius, pub.
-1523, four years after Leonardo's death. Cesarini expressly names
-Benedettino Don Papnutio as the inventor of the Camera obscura. In
-his explanation of the function of the eye by a comparison with the
-Camera obscura Leonardo was the precursor of G. CARDANO, Professor
-of Medicine at Bologna (died 1576) and it appears highly probable
-that this is, in fact, the very discovery which Leonardo ascribes to
-himself in section 21 without giving any further details.]
-
-71.
-
-HOW THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS RECEIVED BY THE EYE INTERSECT WITHIN THE
-CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR OF THE EYE.
-
-An experiment, showing how objects transmit their images or
-pictures, intersecting within the eye in the crystalline humour, is
-seen when by some small round hole penetrate the images of
-illuminated objects into a very dark chamber. Then, receive these
-images on a white paper placed within this dark room and rather near
-to the hole and you will see all the objects on the paper in their
-proper forms and colours, but much smaller; and they will be upside
-down by reason of that very intersection. These images being
-transmitted from a place illuminated by the sun will seem actually
-painted on this paper which must be extremely thin and looked at
-from behind. And let the little perforation be made in a very thin
-plate of iron. Let _a b e d e_ be the object illuminated by the sun
-and _o r_ the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at
-_n m_. Let _s t_ be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the
-images of these objects upside down, because the rays being
-straight, _a_ on the right hand becomes _k_ on the left, and _e_ on
-the left becomes _f_ on the right; and the same takes place inside
-the pupil.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is already known through a translation into
-French by VENTURI. Compare his '_Essai sur les ouvrages
-physico-mathematiques de L. da Vinci avec des fragments tires de ses
-Manuscrits, apportes de l'Italie. Lu a la premiere classe de
-l'Institut national des Sciences et Arts.' Paris, An V_ (1797).]
-
-The practice of perspective (72. 73).
-
-72.
-
-In the practice of perspective the same rules apply to light and to
-the eye.
-
-73.
-
-The object which is opposite to the pupil of the eye is seen by that
-pupil and that which is opposite to the eye is seen by the pupil.
-
-Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye (74. 75)
-
-74.
-
-The lines sent forth by the image of an object to the eye do not
-reach the point within the eye in straight lines.
-
-75.
-
-If the judgment of the eye is situated within it, the straight lines
-of the images are refracted on its surface because they pass through
-the rarer to the denser medium. If, when you are under water, you
-look at objects in the air you will see them out of their true
-place; and the same with objects under water seen from the air.
-
-The intersection of the rays (76-82).
-
-76.
-
-The inversion of the images.
-
-All the images of objects which pass through a window [glass pane]
-from the free outer air to the air confined within walls, are seen
-on the opposite side; and an object which moves in the outer air
-from east to west will seem in its shadow, on the wall which is
-lighted by this confined air, to have an opposite motion.
-
-77.
-
-THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH THE IMAGES OF BODIES PASS IN BETWEEN THE
-MARGINS OF THE OPENINGS BY WHICH THEY ENTER.
-
-What difference is there in the way in which images pass through
-narrow openings and through large openings, or in those which pass
-by the sides of shaded bodies? By moving the edges of the opening
-through which the images are admitted, the images of immovable
-objects are made to move. And this happens, as is shown in the 9th
-which demonstrates: [Footnote 11: _per la 9a che dicie_. When
-Leonardo refers thus to a number it serves to indicate marginal
-diagrams; this can in some instances be distinctly proved. The ninth
-sketch on the page W. L. 145 b corresponds to the middle sketch of
-the three reproduced.] the images of any object are all everywhere,
-and all in each part of the surrounding air. It follows that if one
-of the edges of the hole by which the images are admitted to a dark
-chamber is moved it cuts off those rays of the image that were in
-contact with it and gets nearer to other rays which previously were
-remote from it &c.
-
-OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE EDGE AT THE RIGHT OR LEFT, OR THE UPPER, OR
-LOWER EDGE.
-
-If you move the right side of the opening the image on the left will
-move [being that] of the object which entered on the right side of
-the opening; and the same result will happen with all the other
-sides of the opening. This can be proved by the 2nd of this which
-shows: all the rays which convey the images of objects through the
-air are straight lines. Hence, if the images of very large bodies
-have to pass through very small holes, and beyond these holes
-recover their large size, the lines must necessarily intersect.
-
-[Footnote: 77. 2. In the first of the three diagrams Leonardo had
-drawn only one of the two margins, et _m_.]
-
-78.
-
-Necessity has provided that all the images of objects in front of
-the eye shall intersect in two places. One of these intersections is
-in the pupil, the other in the crystalline lens; and if this were
-not the case the eye could not see so great a number of objects as
-it does. This can be proved, since all the lines which intersect do
-so in a point. Because nothing is seen of objects excepting their
-surface; and their edges are lines, in contradistinction to the
-definition of a surface. And each minute part of a line is equal to
-a point; for _smallest_ is said of that than which nothing can be
-smaller, and this definition is equivalent to the definition of the
-point. Hence it is possible for the whole circumference of a circle
-to transmit its image to the point of intersection, as is shown in
-the 4th of this which shows: all the smallest parts of the images
-cross each other without interfering with each other. These
-demonstrations are to illustrate the eye. No image, even of the
-smallest object, enters the eye without being turned upside down;
-but as it penetrates into the crystalline lens it is once more
-reversed and thus the image is restored to the same position within
-the eye as that of the object outside the eye.
-
-79.
-
-OF THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE EYE.
-
-Only one line of the image, of all those that reach the visual
-virtue, has no intersection; and this has no sensible dimensions
-because it is a mathematical line which originates from a
-mathematical point, which has no dimensions.
-
-According to my adversary, necessity requires that the central line
-of every image that enters by small and narrow openings into a dark
-chamber shall be turned upside down, together with the images of the
-bodies that surround it.
-
-80.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE IMAGE CAN BE INTERSECTED, OR
-NOT, WITHIN THE OPENING.
-
-It is impossible that the line should intersect itself; that is,
-that its right should cross over to its left side, and so, its left
-side become its right side. Because such an intersection demands two
-lines, one from each side; for there can be no motion from right to
-left or from left to right in itself without such extension and
-thickness as admit of such motion. And if there is extension it is
-no longer a line but a surface, and we are investigating the
-properties of a line, and not of a surface. And as the line, having
-no centre of thickness cannot be divided, we must conclude that the
-line can have no sides to intersect each other. This is proved by
-the movement of the line _a f_ to _a b_ and of the line _e b_ to _e
-f_, which are the sides of the surface _a f e b_. But if you move
-the line _a b_ and the line _e f_, with the frontends _a e_, to the
-spot _c_, you will have moved the opposite ends _f b_ towards each
-other at the point _d_. And from the two lines you will have drawn
-the straight line _c d_ which cuts the middle of the intersection of
-these two lines at the point _n_ without any intersection. For, you
-imagine these two lines as having breadth, it is evident that by
-this motion the first will entirely cover the other--being equal
-with it--without any intersection, in the position _c d_. And this
-is sufficient to prove our proposition.
-
-81.
-
-HOW THE INNUMERABLE RAYS FROM INNUMERABLE IMAGES CAN CONVERGE TO A
-POINT.
-
-Just as all lines can meet at a point without interfering with each
-other--being without breadth or thickness--in the same way all the
-images of surfaces can meet there; and as each given point faces the
-object opposite to it and each object faces an opposite point, the
-converging rays of the image can pass through the point and diverge
-again beyond it to reproduce and re-magnify the real size of that
-image. But their impressions will appear reversed--as is shown in
-the first, above; where it is said that every image intersects as it
-enters the narrow openings made in a very thin substance.
-
-Read the marginal text on the other side.
-
-In proportion as the opening is smaller than the shaded body, so
-much less will the images transmitted through this opening intersect
-each other. The sides of images which pass through openings into a
-dark room intersect at a point which is nearer to the opening in
-proportion as the opening is narrower. To prove this let _a b_ be an
-object in light and shade which sends not its shadow but the image
-of its darkened form through the opening _d e_ which is as wide as
-this shaded body; and its sides _a b_, being straight lines (as has
-been proved) must intersect between the shaded object and the
-opening; but nearer to the opening in proportion as it is smaller
-than the object in shade. As is shown, on your right hand and your
-left hand, in the two diagrams _a_ _b_ _c_ _n_ _m_ _o_ where, the
-right opening _d_ _e_, being equal in width to the shaded object _a_
-_b_, the intersection of the sides of the said shaded object occurs
-half way between the opening and the shaded object at the point _c_.
-But this cannot happen in the left hand figure, the opening _o_
-being much smaller than the shaded object _n_ _m_.
-
-It is impossible that the images of objects should be seen between
-the objects and the openings through which the images of these
-bodies are admitted; and this is plain, because where the atmosphere
-is illuminated these images are not formed visibly.
-
-When the images are made double by mutually crossing each other they
-are invariably doubly as dark in tone. To prove this let _d_ _e_ _h_
-be such a doubling which although it is only seen within the space
-between the bodies in _b_ and _i_ this will not hinder its being
-seen from _f_ _g_ or from _f_ _m_; being composed of the images _a_
-_b_ _i_ _k_ which run together in _d_ _e_ _h_.
-
-[Footnote: 81. On the original diagram at the beginning of this
-chapter Leonardo has written "_azurro_" (blue) where in the
-facsimile I have marked _A_, and "_giallo_" (yellow) where _B_
-stands.]
-
-[Footnote: 15--23. These lines stand between the diagrams I and III.]
-
-[Footnote: 24--53. These lines stand between the diagrams I and II.]
-
-[Footnote: 54--97 are written along the left side of diagram I.]
-
-82.
-
-An experiment showing that though the pupil may not be moved from
-its position the objects seen by it may appear to move from their
-places.
-
-If you look at an object at some distance from you and which is
-below the eye, and fix both your eyes upon it and with one hand
-firmly hold the upper lid open while with the other you push up the
-under lid--still keeping your eyes fixed on the object gazed at--you
-will see that object double; one [image] remaining steady, and the
-other moving in a contrary direction to the pressure of your finger
-on the lower eyelid. How false the opinion is of those who say that
-this happens because the pupil of the eye is displaced from its
-position.
-
-How the above mentioned facts prove that the pupil acts upside down
-in seeing.
-
-[Footnote: 82. 14--17. The subject indicated by these two headings is
-fully discussed in the two chapters that follow them in the
-original; but it did not seem to me appropriate to include them
-here.]
-
-Demostration of perspective by means of a vertical glass plane
-(83-85).
-
-83.
-
-OF THE PLANE OF GLASS.
-
-Perspective is nothing else than seeing place [or objects] behind a
-plane of glass, quite transparent, on the surface of which the
-objects behind that glass are to be drawn. These can be traced in
-pyramids to the point in the eye, and these pyramids are intersected
-on the glass plane.
-
-84.
-
-Pictorial perspective can never make an object at the same distance,
-look of the same size as it appears to the eye. You see that the
-apex of the pyramid _f c d_ is as far from the object _c_ _d_ as the
-same point _f_ is from the object _a_ _b_; and yet _c_ _d_, which is
-the base made by the painter's point, is smaller than _a_ _b_ which
-is the base of the lines from the objects converging in the eye and
-refracted at _s_ _t_, the surface of the eye. This may be proved by
-experiment, by the lines of vision and then by the lines of the
-painter's plumbline by cutting the real lines of vision on one and
-the same plane and measuring on it one and the same object.
-
-85.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The vertical plane is a perpendicular line, imagined as in front of
-the central point where the apex of the pyramids converge. And this
-plane bears the same relation to this point as a plane of glass
-would, through which you might see the various objects and draw them
-on it. And the objects thus drawn would be smaller than the
-originals, in proportion as the distance between the glass and the
-eye was smaller than that between the glass and the objects.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The different converging pyramids produced by the objects, will
-show, on the plane, the various sizes and remoteness of the objects
-causing them.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-All those horizontal planes of which the extremes are met by
-perpendicular lines forming right angles, if they are of equal width
-the more they rise to the level of eye the less this is seen, and
-the more the eye is above them the more will their real width be
-seen.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The farther a spherical body is from the eye the more you will see
-of it.
-
-The angle of sight varies with the distance (86-88)
-
-86.
-
-A simple and natural method; showing how objects appear to the eye
-without any other medium.
-
-The object that is nearest to the eye always seems larger than
-another of the same size at greater distance. The eye _m_, seeing
-the spaces _o v x_, hardly detects the difference between them, and
-the. reason of this is that it is close to them [Footnote 6: It is
-quite inconceivable to me why M. RAVAISSON, in a note to his French
-translation of this simple passage should have remarked: _Il est
-clair que c'est par erreur que Leonard a ecrit_ per esser visino _au
-lieu de_ per non esser visino. (See his printed ed. of MS. A. p.
-38.)]; but if these spaces are marked on the vertical plane _n o_
-the space _o v_ will be seen at _o r_, and in the same way the space
-_v x_ will appear at _r q_. And if you carry this out in any place
-where you can walk round, it will look out of proportion by reason
-of the great difference in the spaces _o r_ and _r q_. And this
-proceeds from the eye being so much below [near] the plane that the
-plane is foreshortened. Hence, if you wanted to carry it out, you
-would have [to arrange] to see the perspective through a single hole
-which must be at the point _m_, or else you must go to a distance of
-at least 3 times the height of the object you see. The plane _o p_
-being always equally remote from the eye will reproduce the objects
-in a satisfactory way, so that they may be seen from place to place.
-
-87.
-
-How every large mass sends forth its images, which may diminish
-through infinity.
-
-The images of any large mass being infinitely divisible may be
-infinitely diminished.
-
-88.
-
-Objects of equal size, situated in various places, will be seen by
-different pyramids which will each be smaller in proportion as the
-object is farther off.
-
-89.
-
-Perspective, in dealing with distances, makes use of two opposite
-pyramids, one of which has its apex in the eye and the base as
-distant as the horizon. The other has the base towards the eye and
-the apex on the horizon. Now, the first includes the [visible]
-universe, embracing all the mass of the objects that lie in front of
-the eye; as it might be a vast landscape seen through a very small
-opening; for the more remote the objects are from the eye, the
-greater number can be seen through the opening, and thus the pyramid
-is constructed with the base on the horizon and the apex in the eye,
-as has been said. The second pyramid is extended to a spot which is
-smaller in proportion as it is farther from the eye; and this second
-perspective [= pyramid] results from the first.
-
-90.
-
-SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Simple perspective is that which is constructed by art on a vertical
-plane which is equally distant from the eye in every part. Complex
-perspective is that which is constructed on a ground-plan in which
-none of the parts are equally distant from the eye.
-
-91.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No surface can be seen exactly as it is, if the eye that sees it is
-not equally remote from all its edges.
-
-92.
-
-WHY WHEN AN OBJECT IS PLACED CLOSE TO THE EYE ITS EDGES ARE
-INDISTINCT.
-
-When an object opposite the eye is brought too close to it, its
-edges must become too confused to be distinguished; as it happens
-with objects close to a light, which cast a large and indistinct
-shadow, so is it with an eye which estimates objects opposite to it;
-in all cases of linear perspective, the eye acts in the same way as
-the light. And the reason is that the eye has one leading line (of
-vision) which dilates with distance and embraces with true
-discernment large objects at a distance as well as small ones that
-are close. But since the eye sends out a multitude of lines which
-surround this chief central one and since these which are farthest
-from the centre in this cone of lines are less able to discern with
-accuracy, it follows that an object brought close to the eye is not
-at a due distance, but is too near for the central line to be able
-to discern the outlines of the object. So the edges fall within the
-lines of weaker discerning power, and these are to the function of
-the eye like dogs in the chase which can put up the game but cannot
-take it. Thus these cannot take in the objects, but induce the
-central line of sight to turn upon them, when they have put them up.
-Hence the objects which are seen with these lines of sight have
-confused outlines.
-
-The relative size of objects with regard to their distance from the
-eye (93-98).
-
-93.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Small objects close at hand and large ones at a distance, being seen
-within equal angles, will appear of the same size.
-
-94.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There is no object so large but that at a great distance from the
-eye it does not appear smaller than a smaller object near.
-
-95.
-
-Among objects of equal size that which is most remote from the eye
-will look the smallest. [Footnote: This axiom, sufficiently clear in
-itself, is in the original illustrated by a very large diagram,
-constructed like that here reproduced under No. 108.
-
-The same idea is repeated in C. A. I a; I a, stated as follows:
-_Infra le cose d'equal grandeza quella si dimostra di minor figura
-che sara piu distante dall' ochio_.--]
-
-96.
-
-Why an object is less distinct when brought near to the eye, and why
-with spectacles, or without the naked eye sees badly either close or
-far off [as the case may be].
-
-97.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Among objects of equal size, that which is most remote from the eye
-will look the smallest.
-
-98.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No second object can be so much lower than the first as that the eye
-will not see it higher than the first, if the eye is above the
-second.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-And this second object will never be so much higher than the first
-as that the eye, being below them, will not see the second as lower
-than the first.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If the eye sees a second square through the centre of a smaller one,
-that is nearer, the second, larger square will appear to be
-surrounded by the smaller one.
-
-PERSPECTIVE--PROPOSITION.
-
-Objects that are farther off can never be so large but that those in
-front, though smaller, will conceal or surround them.
-
-DEFINITION.
-
-This proposition can be proved by experiment. For if you look
-through a small hole there is nothing so large that it cannot be
-seen through it and the object so seen appears surrounded and
-enclosed by the outline of the sides of the hole. And if you stop it
-up, this small stopping will conceal the view of the largest object.
-
-The apparent size of objects defined by calculation (99-105)
-
-99.
-
-OF LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Linear Perspective deals with the action of the lines of sight, in
-proving by measurement how much smaller is a second object than the
-first, and how much the third is smaller than the second; and so on
-by degrees to the end of things visible. I find by experience that
-if a second object is as far beyond the first as the first is from
-the eye, although they are of the same size, the second will seem
-half the size of the first and if the third object is of the same
-size as the 2nd, and the 3rd is as far beyond the second as the 2nd
-from the first, it will appear of half the size of the second; and
-so on by degrees, at equal distances, the next farthest will be half
-the size of the former object. So long as the space does not exceed
-the length of 20 braccia. But, beyond 20 braccia figures of equal
-size will lose 2/4 and at 40 braccia they will lose 9/10, and 19/20
-at 60 braccia, and so on diminishing by degrees. This is if the
-picture plane is distant from you twice your own height. If it is
-only as far off as your own height, there will be a great difference
-between the first braccia and the second.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is included in DUFRESNE'S and MANZI'S
-editions of the Treatise on Painting. H. LUDWIG, in his commentary,
-calls this chapter "_eines der wichtigsten im ganzen Tractat_", but
-at the same time he asserts that its substance has been so
-completely disfigured in the best MS. copies that we ought not to
-regard Leonardo as responsible for it. However, in the case of this
-chapter, the old MS. copies agree with the original as it is
-reproduced above. From the chapters given later in this edition,
-which were written at a subsequent date, it would appear that
-Leonardo corrected himself on these points.]
-
-100.
-
-OF THE DIMINUTION OF OBJECTS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES.
-
-A second object as far distant from the first as the first is from
-the eye will appear half the size of the first, though they be of
-the same size really.
-
-OF THE DEGREES OF DIMINUTION.
-
-If you place the vertical plane at one braccio from the eye, the
-first object, being at a distance of 4 braccia from your eye will
-diminish to 3/4 of its height at that plane; and if it is 8 braccia
-from the eye, to 7/8; and if it is 16 braccia off, it will diminish
-to 15/16 of its height and so on by degrees, as the space doubles
-the diminution will double.
-
-101.
-
-Begin from the line _m f_ with the eye below; then go up and do the
-same with the line _n f_, then with the eye above and close to the 2
-gauges on the ground look at _m n_; then as _c m_ is to _m n_ so
-will _n m_ be to _n s_.
-
-If _a n_ goes 3 times into _f b, m p_ will do the same into _p g_.
-Then go backwards so far as that _c d_ goes twice into _a n_ and _p
-g_ will be equal to _g h_. And _m p_ will go into _h p_ as often as
-_d c_ into _o p_.
-
-[Footnote: The first three lines are unfortunately very obscure.]
-
-102.
-
-I GIVE THE DEGREES OF THE OBJECTS SEEN BY THE EYE AS THE MUSICIAN
-DOES THE NOTES HEARD BY THE EAR.
-
-Although the objects seen by the eye do, in fact, touch each other
-as they recede, I will nevertheless found my rule on spaces of 20
-braccia each; as a musician does with notes, which, though they can
-be carried on one into the next, he divides into degrees from note
-to note calling them 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th; and has affixed a name
-to each degree in raising or lowering the voice.
-
-103.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Let _f_ be the level and distance of the eye; and _a_ the vertical
-plane, as high as a man; let _e_ be a man, then I say that on the
-plane this will be the distance from the plane to the 2nd man.
-
-104.
-
-The differences in the diminution of objects of equal size in
-consequence of their various remoteness from the eye will bear among
-themselves the same proportions as those of the spaces between the
-eye and the different objects.
-
-Find out how much a man diminishes at a certain distance and what
-its length is; and then at twice that distance and at 3 times, and
-so make your general rule.
-
-105.
-
-The eye cannot judge where an object high up ought to descend.
-
-106.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If two similar and equal objects are placed one beyond the other at
-a given distance the difference in their size will appear greater in
-proportion as they are nearer to the eye that sees them. And
-conversely there will seem to be less difference in their size in
-proportion as they are remote from the eve.
-
-This is proved by the proportions of their distances among
-themselves; for, if the first of these two objects were as far from
-the eye, as the 2nd from the first this would be called the second
-proportion: since, if the first is at 1 braccia from the eye and the
-2nd at two braccia, two being twice as much as one, the first object
-will look twice as large as the second. But if you place the first
-at a hundred braccia from you and the second at a hundred and one,
-you will find that the first is only so much larger than the second
-as 100 is less than 101; and the converse is equally true. And
-again, the same thing is proved by the 4th of this book which shows
-that among objects that are equal, there is the same proportion in
-the diminution of the size as in the increase in the distance from
-the eye of the spectator.
-
-On natural perspective (107--109).
-
-107.
-
-OF EQUAL OBJECTS THE MOST REMOTE LOOK THE SMALLEST.
-
-The practice of perspective may be divided into ... parts [Footnote
-4: _in_ ... _parte_. The space for the number is left blank in the
-original.], of which the first treats of objects seen by the eye at
-any distance; and it shows all these objects just as the eye sees
-them diminished, without obliging a man to stand in one place rather
-than another so long as the plane does not produce a second
-foreshortening.
-
-But the second practice is a combination of perspective derived
-partly from art and partly from nature and the work done by its
-rules is in every portion of it, influenced by natural perspective
-and artificial perspective. By natural perspective I mean that the
-plane on which this perspective is represented is a flat surface,
-and this plane, although it is parallel both in length and height,
-is forced to diminish in its remoter parts more than in its nearer
-ones. And this is proved by the first of what has been said above,
-and its diminution is natural. But artificial perspective, that is
-that which is devised by art, does the contrary; for objects equal
-in size increase on the plane where it is foreshortened in
-proportion as the eye is more natural and nearer to the plane, and
-as the part of the plane on which it is figured is farther from the
-eye.
-
-And let this plane be _d e_ on which are seen 3 equal circles which
-are beyond this plane _d e_, that is the circles _a b c_. Now you
-see that the eye _h_ sees on the vertical plane the sections of the
-images, largest of those that are farthest and smallest of the
-nearest.
-
-108.
-
-Here follows what is wanting in the margin at the foot on the other
-side of this page.
-
-Natural perspective acts in a contrary way; for, at greater
-distances the object seen appears smaller, and at a smaller distance
-the object appears larger. But this said invention requires the
-spectator to stand with his eye at a small hole and then, at that
-small hole, it will be very plain. But since many (men's) eyes
-endeavour at the same time to see one and the same picture produced
-by this artifice only one can see clearly the effect of this
-perspective and all the others will see confusion. It is well
-therefore to avoid such complex perspective and hold to simple
-perspective which does not regard planes as foreshortened, but as
-much as possible in their proper form. This simple perspective, in
-which the plane intersects the pyramids by which the images are
-conveyed to the eye at an equal distance from the eye is our
-constant experience, from the curved form of the pupil of the eye on
-which the pyramids are intersected at an equal distance from the
-visual virtue.
-
-[Footnote 24: _la prima di sopra_ i. e. the first of the three
-diagrams which, in the original MS., are placed in the margin at the
-beginning of this chapter.]
-
-109.
-
-OF A MIXTURE OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-This diagram distinguishes natural from artificial perspective. But
-before proceeding any farther I will define what is natural and what
-is artificial perspective. Natural perspective says that the more
-remote of a series of objects of equal size will look the smaller,
-and conversely, the nearer will look the larger and the apparent
-size will diminish in proportion to the distance. But in artificial
-perspective when objects of unequal size are placed at various
-distances, the smallest is nearer to the eye than the largest and
-the greatest distance looks as though it were the least of all; and
-the cause of this is the plane on which the objects are represented;
-and which is at unequal distances from the eye throughout its
-length. And this diminution of the plane is natural, but the
-perspective shown upon it is artificial since it nowhere agrees with
-the true diminution of the said plane. Whence it follows, that when
-the eye is somewhat removed from the [station point of the]
-perspective that it has been gazing at, all the objects represented
-look monstrous, and this does not occur in natural perspective,
-which has been defined above. Let us say then, that the square _a b
-c d_ figured above is foreshortened being seen by the eye situated
-in the centre of the side which is in front. But a mixture of
-artificial and natural perspective will be seen in this tetragon
-called _el main_ [Footnote 20: _el main_ is quite legibly written in
-the original; the meaning and derivation of the word are equally
-doubtful.], that is to say _e f g h_ which must appear to the eye of
-the spectator to be equal to _a b c d_ so long as the eye remains in
-its first position between _c_ and _d_. And this will be seen to
-have a good effect, because the natural perspective of the plane
-will conceal the defects which would [otherwise] seem monstrous.
-
-_III._
-
-_Six books on Light and Shade._
-
-_Linear Perspective cannot be immediately followed by either the_
-"prospettiva de' perdimenti" _or the_ "prospettiva de' colori" _or
-the aerial perspective; since these branches of the subject
-presuppose a knowledge of the principles of Light and Shade. No
-apology, therefore, is here needed for placing these immediately
-after Linear Perspective._
-
-_We have various plans suggested by Leonardo for the arrangement of
-the mass of materials treating of this subject. Among these I have
-given the preference to a scheme propounded in No._ III, _because,
-in all probability, we have here a final and definite purpose
-expressed. Several authors have expressed it as their opinion that
-the Paris Manuscript_ C _is a complete and finished treatise on
-Light and Shade. Certainly, the Principles of Light and Shade form
-by far the larger portion of this MS. which consists of two separate
-parts; still, the materials are far from being finally arranged. It
-is also evident that he here investigates the subject from the point
-of view of the Physicist rather than from that of the Painter._
-
-_The plan of a scheme of arrangement suggested in No._ III _and
-adopted by me has been strictly adhered to for the first four Books.
-For the three last, however, few materials have come down to us; and
-it must be admitted that these three Books would find a far more
-appropriate place in a work on Physics than in a treatise on
-Painting. For this reason I have collected in Book V all the
-chapters on Reflections, and in Book VI I have put together and
-arranged all the sections of MS._ C _that belong to the book on
-Painting, so far as they relate to Light and Shade, while the
-sections of the same MS. which treat of the_ "Prospettiva de'
-perdimenti" _have, of course, been excluded from the series on Light
-and Shade._
-
-[Footnote III: This text has already been published with some slight
-variations in Dozio's pamphlet _Degli scritti e disegni di Leonardo
-da Vinci_, Milan 1871, pp. 30--31. Dozio did not transcribe it from
-the original MS. which seems to have remained unknown to him, but
-from an old copy (MS. H. 227 in the Ambrosian Library).]
-
-GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
-
-Prolegomena.
-
-110.
-
-You must first explain the theory and then the practice. First you
-must describe the shadows and lights on opaque objects, and then on
-transparent bodies.
-
-Scheme of the books on Light and shade.
-
-111.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-[Having already treated of the nature of shadows and the way in
-which they are cast [Footnote 2: _Avendo io tractato._--We may
-suppose that he here refers to some particular MS., possibly Paris
-C.], I will now consider the places on which they fall; and their
-curvature, obliquity, flatness or, in short, any character I may be
-able to detect in them.]
-
-Shadow is the obstruction of light. Shadows appear to me to be of
-supreme importance in perspective, because, without them opaque and
-solid bodies will be ill defined; that which is contained within
-their outlines and their boundaries themselves will be
-ill-understood unless they are shown against a background of a
-different tone from themselves. And therefore in my first
-proposition concerning shadow I state that every opaque body is
-surrounded and its whole surface enveloped in shadow and light. And
-on this proposition I build up the first Book. Besides this, shadows
-have in themselves various degrees of darkness, because they are
-caused by the absence of a variable amount of the luminous rays; and
-these I call Primary shadows because they are the first, and
-inseparable from the object to which they belong. And on this I will
-found my second Book. From these primary shadows there result
-certain shaded rays which are diffused through the atmosphere and
-these vary in character according to that of the primary shadows
-whence they are derived. I shall therefore call these shadows
-Derived shadows because they are produced by other shadows; and the
-third Book will treat of these. Again these derived shadows, where
-they are intercepted by various objects, produce effects as various
-as the places where they are cast and of this I will treat in the
-fourth Book. And since all round the derived shadows, where the
-derived shadows are intercepted, there is always a space where the
-light falls and by reflected dispersion is thrown back towards its
-cause, it meets the original shadow and mingles with it and modifies
-it somewhat in its nature; and on this I will compose my fifth Book.
-Besides this, in the sixth Book I will investigate the many and
-various diversities of reflections resulting from these rays which
-will modify the original [shadow] by [imparting] some of the various
-colours from the different objects whence these reflected rays are
-derived. Again, the seventh Book will treat of the various distances
-that may exist between the spot where the reflected rays fall and
-that where they originate, and the various shades of colour which
-they will acquire in falling on opaque bodies.
-
-Different principles and plans of treatment (112--116).
-
-112.
-
-First I will treat of light falling through windows which I will
-call Restricted [Light] and then I will treat of light in the open
-country, to which I will give the name of diffused Light. Then I
-will treat of the light of luminous bodies.
-
-113.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The conditions of shadow and light [as seen] by the eye are 3. Of
-these the first is when the eye and the light are on the same side
-of the object seen; the 2nd is when the eye is in front of the
-object and the light is behind it. The 3rd is when the eye is in
-front of the object and the light is on one side, in such a way as
-that a line drawn from the object to the eye and one from the object
-to the light should form a right angle where they meet.
-
-114.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-This is another section: that is, of the nature of a reflection
-(from) an object placed between the eye and the light under various
-aspects.
-
-115.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-As regards all visible objects 3 things must be considered. These
-are the position of the eye which sees: that of the object seen
-[with regard] to the light, and the position of the light which
-illuminates the object, _b_ is the eye, _a_ the object seen, _c_ the
-light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the illuminating body, _c_ is the
-illuminated object.
-
-116.
-
-Let _a_ be the light, _b_ the eye, _c_ the object seen by the eye
-and in the light. These show, first, the eye between the light and
-the body; the 2nd, the light between the eye and the body; the 3rd
-the body between the eye and the light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the
-illuminated object, _c_ the light.
-
-117.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-OF THE THREE KINDS OF LIGHT THAT ILLUMINATE OPAQUE BODIES.
-
-The first kind of Light which may illuminate opaque bodies is called
-Direct light--as that of the sun or any other light from a window or
-flame. The second is Diffused [universal] light, such as we see in
-cloudy weather or in mist and the like. The 3rd is Subdued light,
-that is when the sun is entirely below the horizon, either in the
-evening or morning.
-
-118.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-The lights which may illuminate opaque bodies are of 4 kinds. These
-are: diffused light as that of the atmosphere, within our horizon.
-And Direct, as that of the sun, or of a window or door or other
-opening. The third is Reflected light; and there is a 4th which is
-that which passes through [semi] transparent bodies, as linen or
-paper or the like, but not transparent like glass, or crystal, or
-other diaphanous bodies, which produce the same effect as though
-nothing intervened between the shaded object and the light that
-falls upon it; and this we will discuss fully in our discourse.
-
-Definition of the nature of shadows (119--122).
-
-119.
-
-WHAT LIGHT AND SHADOW ARE.
-
-Shadow is the absence of light, merely the obstruction of the
-luminous rays by an opaque body. Shadow is of the nature of
-darkness. Light [on an object] is of the nature of a luminous body;
-one conceals and the other reveals. They are always associated and
-inseparable from all objects. But shadow is a more powerful agent
-than light, for it can impede and entirely deprive bodies of their
-light, while light can never entirely expel shadow from a body, that
-is from an opaque body.
-
-120.
-
-Shadow is the diminution of light by the intervention of an opaque
-body. Shadow is the counterpart of the luminous rays which are cut
-off by an opaque body.
-
-This is proved because the shadow cast is the same in shape and size
-as the luminous rays were which are transformed into a shadow.
-
-121.
-
-Shadow is the diminution alike of light and of darkness, and stands
-between darkness and light.
-
-A shadow may be infinitely dark, and also of infinite degrees of
-absence of darkness.
-
-The beginnings and ends of shadow lie between the light and darkness
-and may be infinitely diminished and infinitely increased. Shadow is
-the means by which bodies display their form.
-
-The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail but for
-shadow.
-
-122.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF SHADOW.
-
-Shadow partakes of the nature of universal matter. All such matters
-are more powerful in their beginning and grow weaker towards the
-end, I say at the beginning, whatever their form or condition may be
-and whether visible or invisible. And it is not from small
-beginnings that they grow to a great size in time; as it might be a
-great oak which has a feeble beginning from a small acorn. Yet I may
-say that the oak is most powerful at its beginning, that is where it
-springs from the earth, which is where it is largest (To return:)
-Darkness, then, is the strongest degree of shadow and light is its
-least. Therefore, O Painter, make your shadow darkest close to the
-object that casts it, and make the end of it fading into light,
-seeming to have no end.
-
-Of the various kinds of shadows. (123-125).
-
-123.
-
-Darkness is absence of light. Shadow is diminution of light.
-Primitive shadow is that which is inseparable from a body not in the
-light. Derived shadow is that which is disengaged from a body in
-shadow and pervades the air. A cast transparent shadow is that which
-is surrounded by an illuminated surface. A simple shadow is one
-which receives no light from the luminous body which causes it. A
-simple shadow begins within the line which starts from the edge of
-the luminous body _a b_.
-
-124.
-
-A simple shadow is one where no light at all interferes with it.
-
-A compound shadow is one which is somewhat illuminated by one or
-more lights.
-
-125.
-
-WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SHADOW THAT IS INSEPARABLE FROM A
-BODY AND A CAST SHADOW?
-
-An inseparable shadow is that which is never absent from the
-illuminated body. As, for instance a ball, which so long as it is in
-the light always has one side in shadow which never leaves it for
-any movement or change of position in the ball. A separate shadow
-may be and may not be produced by the body itself. Suppose the ball
-to be one braccia distant from a wall with a light on the opposite
-side of it; this light will throw upon the wall exactly as broad a
-shadow as is to be seen on the side of the ball that is turned
-towards the wall. That portion of the cast shadow will not be
-visible when the light is below the ball and the shadow is thrown up
-towards the sky and finding no obstruction on its way is lost.
-
-126.
-
-HOW THERE ARE 2 KINDS OF LIGHT, ONE SEPARABLE FROM, AND THE OTHER
-INSEPARABLE FROM BODIES.
-
-Of the various kinds of light (126, 127).
-
-Separate light is that which falls upon the body. Inseparable light
-is the side of the body that is illuminated by that light. One is
-called primary, the other derived. And, in the same way there are
-two kinds of shadow:--One primary and the other derived. The primary
-is that which is inseparable from the body, the derived is that
-which proceeds from the body conveying to the surface of the wall
-the form of the body causing it.
-
-127.
-
-How there are 2 different kinds of light; one being called diffused,
-the other restricted. The diffused is that which freely illuminates
-objects. The restricted is that which being admitted through an
-opening or window illuminates them on that side only.
-
-[Footnote: At the spot marked _A_ in the first diagram Leonardo
-wrote _lume costretto_ (restricted light). At the spot _B_ on the
-second diagram he wrote _lume libero_ (diffused light).]
-
-General remarks (128. 129).
-
-128.
-
-Light is the chaser away of darkness. Shade is the obstruction of
-light. Primary light is that which falls on objects and causes light
-and shade. And derived lights are those portions of a body which are
-illuminated by the primary light. A primary shadow is that side of a
-body on which the light cannot fall.
-
-The general distribution of shadow and light is that sum total of
-the rays thrown off by a shaded or illuminated body passing through
-the air without any interference and the spot which intercepts and
-cuts off the distribution of the dark and light rays.
-
-And the eye can best distinguish the forms of objects when it is
-placed between the shaded and the illuminated parts.
-
-129.
-
-MEMORANDUM OF THINGS I REQUIRE TO HAVE GRANTED [AS AXIOMS] IN MY
-EXPLANATION OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-I ask to have this much granted me--to assert that every ray
-passing through air of equal density throughout, travels in a
-straight line from its cause to the object or place it falls upon.
-
-FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-On the nature of light (130. 131).
-
-130.
-
-The reason by which we know that a light radiates from a single
-centre is this: We plainly see that a large light is often much
-broader than some small object which nevertheless--and although the
-rays [of the large light] are much more than twice the extent [of
-the small body]--always has its shadow cast on the nearest surface
-very visibly. Let _c f_ be a broad light and _n_ be the object in
-front of it, casting a shadow on the plane, and let _a b_ be the
-plane. It is clear that it is not the broad light that will cast the
-shadow _n_ on the plane, but that the light has within it a centre
-is shown by this experiment. The shadow falls on the plane as is
-shown at _m o t r_.
-
-[Footnote 13: In the original MS. no explanatory text is placed
-after this title-line; but a space is left for it and the text
-beginning at line 15 comes next.] Why, to two [eyes] or in front of
-two eyes do 3 objects appear as two?
-
-Why, when you estimate the direction of an object with two sights
-the nearer appears confused. I say that the eye projects an infinite
-number of lines which mingle or join those reaching it which come to
-it from the object looked at. And it is only the central and
-sensible line that can discern and discriminate colours and objects;
-all the others are false and illusory. And if you place 2 objects at
-half an arm's length apart if the nearer of the two is close to the
-eye its form will remain far more confused than that of the second;
-the reason is that the first is overcome by a greater number of
-false lines than the second and so is rendered vague.
-
-Light acts in the same manner, for in the effects of its lines
-(=rays), and particularly in perspective, it much resembles the eye;
-and its central rays are what cast the true shadow. When the object
-in front of it is too quickly overcome with dim rays it will cast a
-broad and disproportionate shadow, ill defined; but when the object
-which is to cast the shadow and cuts off the rays near to the place
-where the shadow falls, then the shadow is distinct; and the more so
-in proportion as the light is far off, because at a long distance
-the central ray is less overcome by false rays; because the lines
-from the eye and the solar and other luminous rays passing through
-the atmosphere are obliged to travel in straight lines. Unless they
-are deflected by a denser or rarer air, when they will be bent at
-some point, but so long as the air is free from grossness or
-moisture they will preserve their direct course, always carrying the
-image of the object that intercepts them back to their point of
-origin. And if this is the eye, the intercepting object will be seen
-by its colour, as well as by form and size. But if the intercepting
-plane has in it some small perforation opening into a darker
-chamber--not darker in colour, but by absence of light--you will see
-the rays enter through this hole and transmitting to the plane
-beyond all the details of the object they proceed from both as to
-colour and form; only every thing will be upside down. But the size
-[of the image] where the lines are reconstructed will be in
-proportion to the relative distance of the aperture from the plane
-on which the lines fall [on one hand] and from their origin [on the
-other]. There they intersect and form 2 pyramids with their point
-meeting [a common apex] and their bases opposite. Let _a b_ be the
-point of origin of the lines, _d e_ the first plane, and _c_ the
-aperture with the intersection of the lines; _f g_ is the inner
-plane. You will find that _a_ falls upon the inner plane below at
-_g_, and _b_ which is below will go up to the spot _f_; it will be
-quite evident to experimenters that every luminous body has in
-itself a core or centre, from which and to which all the lines
-radiate which are sent forth by the surface of the luminous body and
-reflected back to it; or which, having been thrown out and not
-intercepted, are dispersed in the air.
-
-131.
-
-THE RAYS WHETHER SHADED OR LUMINOUS HAVE GREATER STRENGTH AND EFFECT
-AT THEIR POINTS THAN AT THEIR SIDES.
-
-Although the points of luminous pyramids may extend into shaded
-places and those of pyramids of shadow into illuminated places, and
-though among the luminous pyramids one may start from a broader base
-than another; nevertheless, if by reason of their various length
-these luminous pyramids acquire angles of equal size their light
-will be equal; and the case will be the same with the pyramids of
-shadow; as may be seen in the intersected pyramids _a b c_ and _d e
-f_, which though their bases differ in size are equal as to breadth
-and light.
-
-[Footnote: 51--55: This supplementary paragraph is indicated as being
-a continuation of line 45, by two small crosses.]
-
-The difference between light and lustre (132--135).
-
-132.
-
-Of the difference between light and lustre; and that lustre is not
-included among colours, but is saturation of whiteness, and derived
-from the surface of wet bodies; light partakes of the colour of the
-object which reflects it (to the eye) as gold or silver or the like.
-
-133.
-
-OF THE HIGHEST LIGHTS WHICH TURN AND MOVE AS THE EYE MOVES WHICH
-SEES THE OBJECT.
-
-Suppose the body to be the round object figured here and let the
-light be at the point _a_, and let the illuminated side of the
-object be _b c_ and the eye at the point _d_: I say that, as lustre
-is every where and complete in each part, if you stand at the point
-_d_ the lustre will appear at _c_, and in proportion as the eye
-moves from _d_ to _a_, the lustre will move from _c_ to _n_.
-
-134.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Heigh light or lustre on any object is not situated [necessarily] in
-the middle of an illuminated object, but moves as and where the eye
-moves in looking at it.
-
-135.
-
-OF LIGHT AND LUSTRE.
-
-What is the difference between light and the lustre which is seen on
-the polished surface of opaque bodies?
-
-The lights which are produced from the polished surface of opaque
-bodies will be stationary on stationary objects even if the eye on
-which they strike moves. But reflected lights will, on those same
-objects, appear in as many different places on the surface as
-different positions are taken by the eye.
-
-WHAT BODIES HAVE LIGHT UPON THEM WITHOUT LUSTRE?
-
-Opaque bodies which have a hard and rough surface never display any
-lustre in any portion of the side on which the light falls.
-
-WHAT BODIES WILL DISPLAY LUSTRE BUT NOT LOOK ILLUMINATED?
-
-Those bodies which are opaque and hard with a hard surface reflect
-light [lustre] from every spot on the illuminated side which is in a
-position to receive light at the same angle of incidence as they
-occupy with regard to the eye; but, as the surface mirrors all the
-surrounding objects, the illuminated [body] is not recognisable in
-these portions of the illuminated body.
-
-136.
-
-The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies.
-
-The middle of the light and shade on an object in light and shade is
-opposite to the middle of the primary light. All light and shadow
-expresses itself in pyramidal lines. The middle of the shadow on any
-object must necessarily be opposite the middle of its light, with a
-direct line passing through the centre of the body. The middle of
-the light will be at _a_, that of the shadow at _b_. [Again, in
-bodies shown in light and shade the middle of each must coincide
-with the centre of the body, and a straight line will pass through
-both and through that centre.]
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS., at the spot marked _a_ of the first
-diagram Leonardo wrote _primitiuo_, and at the spot marked
-_c_--_primitiva_ (primary); at the spot marked _b_ he wrote
-_dirivatiuo_ and at _d deriuatiua_ (derived).]
-
-Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room
-(137--140).
-
-137.
-
-SHOWS HOW LIGHT FROM ANY SIDE CONVERGES TO ONE POINT.
-
-Although the balls _a b c_ are lighted from one window,
-nevertheless, if you follow the lines of their shadows you will see
-they intersect at a point forming the angle _n_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is slightly
-sketched on Pl. XXXII; a square with three balls below it. The first
-three lines of the text belonging to it are written above the sketch
-and the six others below it.]
-
-138.
-
-Every shadow cast by a body has a central line directed to a single
-point produced by the intersection of luminous lines in the middle
-of the opening and thickness of the window. The proposition stated
-above, is plainly seen by experiment. Thus if you draw a place with
-a window looking northwards, and let this be _s f_, you will see a
-line starting from the horizon to the east, which, touching the 2
-angles of the window _o f_, reaches _d_; and from the horizon on the
-west another line, touching the other 2 angles _r s_, and ending at
-_c_; and their intersection falls exactly in the middle of the
-opening and thickness of the window. Again, you can still better
-confirm this proof by placing two sticks, as shown at _g h_; and you
-will see the line drawn from the centre of the shadow directed to
-the centre _m_ and prolonged to the horizon _n f_.
-
-[Footnote: _B_ here stands for _cerchio del' orizonte tramontano_ on
-the original diagram (the circle of the horizon towards the North);
-_A_ for _levante_ (East) and _C_ for _ponete_ (West).]
-
-139.
-
-Every shadow with all its variations, which becomes larger as its
-distance from the object is greater, has its external lines
-intersecting in the middle, between the light and the object. This
-proposition is very evident and is confirmed by experience. For, if
-_a b_ is a window without any object interposed, the luminous
-atmosphere to the right hand at _a_ is seen to the left at _d_. And
-the atmosphere at the left illuminates on the right at _c_, and the
-lines intersect at the point _m_.
-
-[Footnote: _A_ here stands for _levante_ (East), _B_ for _ponente_
-(West).]
-
-140.
-
-Every body in light and shade is situated between 2 pyramids one
-dark and the other luminous, one is visible the other is not. But
-this only happens when the light enters by a window. Supposing _a b_
-to be the window and _r_ the body in light and shade, the light to
-the right hand _z_ will pass the object to the left and go on to
-_p_; the light to the left at _k_ will pass to the right of the
-object at _i_ and go on to _m_ and the two lines will intersect at
-_c_ and form a pyramid. Then again _a_ _b_ falls on the shaded body
-at _i_ _g_ and forms a pyramid _f_ _i_ _g_. _f_ will be dark because
-the light _a_ _b_ can never fall there; _i_ _g_ _c_ will be
-illuminated because the light falls upon it.
-
-Light and shadow with regard to the position of the eye (141--145).
-
-141.
-
-Every shaded body that is larger than the pupil and that interposes
-between the luminous body and the eye will be seen dark.
-
-When the eye is placed between the luminous body and the objects
-illuminated by it, these objects will be seen without any shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which in the original stands above line 1 is
-given on Plate II, No 2. Then, after a blank space of about eight
-lines, the diagram Plate II No 3 is placed in the original. There is
-no explanation of it beyond the one line written under it.]
-
-142.
-
-Why the 2 lights one on each side of a body having two pyramidal
-sides of an obtuse apex leave it devoid of shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch illustrating this is on Plate XLI No 1.]
-
-143.
-
-A body in shadow situated between the light and the eye can never
-display its illuminated portion unless the eye can see the whole of
-the primary light.
-
-[Footnote: _A_ stands for _corpo_ (body), _B_ for _lume_ (light).]
-
-144.
-
-The eye which looks (at a spot) half way between the shadow and the
-light which surrounds the body in shadow will see that the deepest
-shadows on that body will meet the eye at equal angles, that is at
-the same angle as that of sight.
-
-[Footnote: In both these diagrams _A_ stands for _lume_ (light) _B_
-for _ombra_ (shadow).]
-
-145.
-
-OF THE DIFFERENT LIGHT AND SHADE IN VARIOUS ASPECTS AND OF OBJECTS
-PLACED IN THEM.
-
-If the sun is in the East and you look towards the West you will see
-every thing in full light and totally without shadow because you see
-them from the same side as the sun: and if you look towards the
-South or North you will see all objects in light and shade, because
-you see both the side towards the sun and the side away from it; and
-if you look towards the coming of the sun all objects will show you
-their shaded side, because on that side the sun cannot fall upon
-them.
-
-The law of the incidence of light.
-
-146.
-
-The edges of a window which are illuminated by 2 lights of equal
-degrees of brightness will not reflect light of equal brightness
-into the chamber within.
-
-If _b_ is a candle and _a c_ our hemisphere both will illuminate the
-edges of the window _m_ _n_, but light _b_ will only illuminate _f
-g_ and the hemisphere _a_ will light all of _d e_.
-
-147.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-That part of a body which receives the luminous rays at equal angles
-will be in a higher light than any other part of it.
-
-And the part which the luminous rays strike between less equal
-angles will be less strongly illuminated.
-
-SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Gradations of strength in the shadows (148. 149).
-
-148.
-
-THAT PORTION OF A BODY IN LIGHT AND SHADE WILL BE LEAST LUMINOUS
-WHICH IS SEEN UNDER THE LEAST AMOUNT OF LIGHT.
-
-That part of the object which is marked _m_ is in the highest light
-because it faces the window _a d_ by the line _a f_; _n_ is in the
-second grade because the light _b d_ strikes it by the line _b e_;
-_o_ is in the third grade, as the light falls on it from _c d_ by
-the line _c h_; _p_ is the lowest light but one as _c d_ falls on it
-by the line _d v_; _q_ is the deepest shadow for no light falls on
-it from any part of the window.
-
-In proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_ so will _n r s_ be darker
-than _m_, and all the rest is space without shadow.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 1 on Plate
-III. The letters _a b e d_ and _r_ are not reproduced in facsimile
-of the original, but have been replaced by ordinary type in the
-margin. 5-12. The original text of these lines is reproduced within
-the diagram.--Compare No 275.]
-
-149.
-
-The light which falls on a shaded body at the acutest angle receives
-the highest light, and the darkest portion is that which receives it
-at an obtuse angle and both the light and the shadow form pyramids.
-The angle _c_ receives the highest grade of light because it is
-directly in front of the window _a b_ and the whole horizon of the
-sky _m x_. The angle _a_ differs but little from _c_ because the
-angles which divide it are not so unequal as those below, and only
-that portion of the horizon is intercepted which lies between _y_
-and _x_. Although it gains as much on the other side its line is
-nevertheless not very strong because one angle is smaller than its
-fellow. The angles _e i_ will have less light because they do not
-see much of the light _m s_ and the light _v x_ and their angles are
-very unequal. Yhe angle _k_ and the angle _f_ are each placed
-between very unequal angles and therefore have but little light,
-because at _k_ it has only the light _p t_, and at _f_ only _t q_;
-_o g_ is the lowest grade of light because this part has no light at
-all from the sky; and thence come the lines which will reconstruct a
-pyramid that is the counterpart of the pyramid _c_; and this pyramid
-_l_ is in the first grade of shadow; for this too is placed between
-equal angles directly opposite to each other on either side of a
-straight line which passes through the centre of the body and goes
-to the centre of the light. The several luminous images cast within
-the frame of the window at the points _a_ and _b_ make a light which
-surrounds the derived shadow cast by the solid body at the points 4
-and 6. The shaded images increase from _o g_ and end at 7 and 8.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 2 on Plate
-III. In the original it is placed between lines 3 and 4, and in the
-reproduction these are shown in part. The semi circle above is
-marked _orizonte_ (horizon). The number 6 at the left hand side,
-outside the facsimile, is in the place of a figure which has become
-indistinct in the original.]
-
-On the intensity of shadows as dependent on the distance from the
-light (150-152).
-
-150.
-
-The smaller the light that falls upon an object the more shadow it
-will display. And the light will illuminate a smaller portion of the
-object in proportion as it is nearer to it; and conversely, a larger
-extent of it in proportion as it is farther off.
-
-A light which is smaller than the object on which it falls will
-light up a smaller extent of it in proportion as it is nearer to it,
-and the converse, as it is farther from it. But when the light is
-larger than the object illuminated it will light a larger extent of
-the object in proportion as it is nearer and the converse when they
-are farther apart.
-
-151.
-
-That portion of an illuminated object which is nearest to the source
-of light will be the most strongly illuminated.
-
-152.
-
-That portion of the primary shadow will be least dark which is
-farthest from the edges.
-
-The derived shadow will be darker than the primary shadow where it
-is contiguous with it.
-
-On the proportion of light and shade (153-157).
-
-153.
-
-That portion of an opaque body will be more in shade or more in
-light, which is nearer to the dark body, by which it is shaded, or
-to the light that illuminates it.
-
-Objects seen in light and shade show in greater relief than those
-which are wholly in light or in shadow.
-
-154.
-
-OF PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The shaded and illuminated sides of opaque objects will display the
-same proportion of light and darkness as their objects [Footnote 6:
-The meaning of _obbietti_ (objects) is explained in no 153, lines
-1-4.--Between the title-line and the next there is, in the
-original, a small diagram representing a circle described round a
-square.].
-
-155.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The outlines and form of any part of a body in light and shade are
-indistinct in the shadows and in the high lights; but in the
-portions between the light and the shadows they are highly
-conspicuous.
-
-156.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Among objects in various degrees of shade, when the light proceeds
-from a single source, there will be the same proportion in their
-shadows as in the natural diminution of the light and the same must
-be understood of the degrees of light.
-
-157.
-
-A single and distinct luminous body causes stronger relief in the
-object than a diffused light; as may be seen by comparing one side
-of a landscape illuminated by the sun, and one overshadowed by
-clouds, and so illuminated only by the diffused light of the
-atmosphere.
-
-THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Definition of derived shadow (158. 159).
-
-158.
-
-Derived shadow cannot exist without primary shadow. This is proved
-by the first of this which says: Darkness is the total absence of
-light, and shadow is an alleviation of darkness and of light, and it
-is more or less dark or light in proportion as the darkness is
-modified by the light.
-
-159.
-
-Shadow is diminution of light.
-
-Darkness is absence of light.
-
-Shadow is divided into two kinds, of which the first is called
-primary shadow, the second is derived shadow. The primary shadow is
-always the basis of the derived shadow.
-
-The edges of the derived shadow are straight lines.
-
-[Footnote: The theory of the _ombra_ dirivativa_--a technical
-expression for which there is no precise English equivalent is
-elaborately treated by Leonardo. But both text and diagrams (as Pl.
-IV, 1-3 and Pl. V) must at once convince the student that the
-distinction he makes between _ombra primitiva_ and _ombra
-dirivativa_ is not merely justifiable but scientific. _Ombra
-dirivativa_ is by no means a mere abstract idea. This is easily
-proved by repeating the experiment made by Leonardo, and by filling
-with smoke the room in which the existence of the _ombra dirivativa_
-is investigated, when the shadow becomes visible. Nor is it
-difficult to perceive how much of Leonardo's teaching depended on
-this theory. The recognised, but extremely complicated science of
-cast shadows--_percussione dell' ombre dirivative_ as Leonardo
-calls them--is thus rendered more intelligible if not actually
-simpler, and we must assume this theory as our chief guide through
-the investigations which follow.]
-
-The darkness of the derived shadow diminishes in proportion as it is
-remote from the primary shadow.
-
-Different sorts of derived shadows (160-162).
-
-160.
-
-SHADOW AND LIGHT.
-
-The forms of shadows are three: inasmuch as if the solid body which
-casts the shadow is equal (in size) to the light, the shadow
-resembles a column without any termination (in length). If the body
-is larger than the light the shadow resembles a truncated and
-inverted pyramid, and its length has also no defined termination.
-But if the body is smaller than the light, the shadow will resemble
-a pyramid and come to an end, as is seen in eclipses of the moon.
-
-161.
-
-OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-The simple derived shadow is of two kinds: one kind which has its
-length defined, and two kinds which are undefined; and the defined
-shadow is pyramidal. Of the two undefined, one is a column and the
-other spreads out; and all three have rectilinear outlines. But the
-converging, that is the pyramidal, shadow proceeds from a body that
-is smaller than the light, and the columnar from a body equal in
-size to the light, and the spreading shadow from a body larger than
-the light; &c.
-
-OF COMPOUND DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-Compound derived shadows are of two kinds; that is columnar and
-spreading.
-
-162.
-
-OF SHADOW.
-
-Derived shadows are of three kinds of which one is spreading, the
-second columnar, the third converging to the point where the two
-sides meet and intersect, and beyond this intersection the sides are
-infinitely prolonged or straight lines. And if you say, this shadow
-must terminate at the angle where the sides meet and extend no
-farther, I deny this, because above in the first on shadow I have
-proved: that a thing is completely terminated when no portion of it
-goes beyond its terminating lines. Now here, in this shadow, we see
-the converse of this, in as much as where this derived shadow
-originates we obviously have the figures of two pyramids of shadow
-which meet at their angles. Hence, if, as [my] opponent says, the
-first pyramid of shadow terminates the derivative shadow at the
-angle whence it starts, then the second pyramid of shadow--so says
-the adversary--must be caused by the angle and not from the body in
-shadow; and this is disproved with the help of the 2nd of this which
-says: Shadow is a condition produced by a body casting a shadow, and
-interposed between this shadow and the luminous body. By this it is
-made clear that the shadow is not produced by the angle of the
-derived shadow but only by the body casting the shadow; &c. If a
-spherical solid body is illuminated by a light of elongated form the
-shadow produced by the longest portion of this light will have less
-defined outlines than that which is produced by the breadth of the
-same light. And this is proved by what was said before, which is:
-That a shadow will have less defined outlines in proportion as the
-light which causes it is larger, and conversely, the outlines are
-clearer in proportion as it is smaller.
-
-[Footnote: The two diagrams to this chapter are on Plate IV, No. 1.]
-
-On the relation of derived and primary shadow (163-165).
-
-163.
-
-The derived shadow can never resemble the body from which it
-proceeds unless the light is of the same form and size as the body
-causing the shadow.
-
-The derived shadow cannot be of the same form as the primary shadow
-unless it is intercepted by a plane parallel to it.
-
-164.
-
-HOW A CAST SHADOW CAN NEVER BE OF THE SAME SIZE AS THE BODY THAT
-CASTS IT.
-
-If the rays of light proceed, as experience shows, from a single
-point and are diffused in a sphere round this point, radiating and
-dispersed through the air, the farther they spread the wider they
-must spread; and an object placed between the light and a wall is
-always imaged larger in its shadow, because the rays that strike it
-[Footnote: 7. The following lines are wanting to complete the
-logical connection.] would, by the time they have reached the wall,
-have become larger.
-
-165.
-
-Any shadow cast by a body in light and shade is of the same nature
-and character as that which is inseparable from the body. The centre
-of the length of a shadow always corresponds to that of the luminous
-body [Footnote 6: This second statement of the same idea as in the
-former sentence, but in different words, does not, in the original,
-come next to the foregoing; sections 172 and 127 are placed between
-them.]. It is inevitable that every shadow must have its centre in a
-line with the centre of the light.
-
-On the shape of derived shadows (166-174).
-
-166.
-
-OF THE PYRAMIDAL SHADOW.
-
-The pyramidal shadow produced by a columnar body will be narrower
-than the body itself in proportion as the simple derived shadow is
-intersected farther from the body which casts it.
-
-[Footnote 166: Compare the first diagram to No. 161. If we here
-conceive of the outlines of the pyramid of shadow on the ground as
-prolonged beyond its apex this gives rise to a second pyramid; this
-is what is spoken of at the beginning of No. 166.]
-
-167.
-
-The cast shadow will be longest when the light is lowest.
-
-The cast shadow will be shortest when the light is highest.
-
-168.
-
-Both the primary and derived shadow will be larger when caused by
-the light of a candle than by diffused light. The difference between
-the larger and smaller shadows will be in inverse proportion to the
-larger and smaller lights causing them.
-
-[Footnote: In the diagrams _A_ stands for _celo_ (sky), _B_ for
-_cadela_ (candle).]
-
-169.
-
-ALL BODIES, IN PROPORTION AS THEY ARE NEARER TO, OR FARTHER FROM THE
-SOURCE OF LIGHT, WILL PRODUCE LONGER OR SHORTER DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-Among bodies of equal size, that one which is illuminated by the
-largest light will have the shortest shadow. Experiment confirms
-this proposition. Thus the body _m_ _n_ is surrounded by a larger
-amount of light than the body _p q_, as is shown above. Let us say
-that _v c a b d x_ is the sky, the source of light, and that _s t_
-is a window by which the luminous rays enter, and so _m n_ and _p q_
-are bodies in light and shade as exposed to this light; _m n_ will
-have a small derived shadow, because its original shadow will be
-small; and the derivative light will be large, again, because the
-original light _c d_ will be large and _p q_ will have more derived
-shadow because its original shadow will be larger, and its derived
-light will be smaller than that of the body _m n_ because that
-portion of the hemisphere _a b_ which illuminates it is smaller than
-the hemisphere _c d_ which illuminates the body _m n_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram, given on Pl. IV, No. 2, stands in the
-original between lines 2 and 7, while the text of lines 3 to 6 is
-written on its left side. In the reproduction of this diagram the
-letter _v_ at the outer right-hand end has been omitted.]
-
-170.
-
-The shadow _m_ bears the same proportion to the shadow _n_ as the
-line _b c_ to the line _f c_.
-
-171.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Of different shadows of equal strength that which is nearest the eye
-will seem the least strong.
-
-Why is the shadow _e a b_ in the first grade of strength, _b c_ in
-the second; _c d_ in the third? The reason is that as from _e a b_
-the sky is nowhere visible, it gets no light whatever from the sky,
-and so has no direct [primary] light. _b c_ faces the portion of the
-sky _f g_ and is illuminated by it. _c d_ faces the sky at _h k_. _c
-d_, being exposed to a larger extent of sky than _b c_, it is
-reasonable that it should be more lighted. And thus, up to a certain
-distance, the wall _a d_ will grow lighter for the reasons here
-given, until the darkness of the room overpowers the light from the
-window.
-
-172.
-
-When the light of the atmosphere is restricted [by an opening] and
-illuminates bodies which cast shadows, these bodies being equally
-distant from the centre of the window, that which is most obliquely
-placed will cast the largest shadow beyond it.
-
-173.
-
-These bodies standing apart in a room lighted by a single window
-will have derivative shadows more or less short according as they
-are more or less opposite to the window. Among the shadows cast by
-bodies of equal mass but at unequal distances from the opening by
-which they are illuminated, that shadow will be the longest of the
-body which is least in the light. And in proportion as one body is
-better illuminated than another its shadow will be shorter than
-another. The proportion _n m_ and _e v k_ bear to _r t_ and _v x_
-corresponds with that of the shadow _x_ to 4 and _y_.
-
-The reason why those bodies which are placed most in front of the
-middle of the window throw shorter shadows than those obliquely
-situated is:--That the window appears in its proper form and to the
-obliquely placed ones it appears foreshortened; to those in the
-middle, the window shows its full size, to the oblique ones it
-appears smaller; the one in the middle faces the whole hemisphere
-that is _e f_ and those on the side have only a strip; that is _q r_
-faces _a b_; and _m n_ faces _c d_; the body in the middle having a
-larger quantity of light than those at the sides is lighted from a
-point much below its centre, and thus the shadow is shorter. And the
-pyramid _g_ 4 goes into _l y_ exactly as often as _a b_ goes into _e
-f_. The axis of every derivative shadow passes through 6 1/2
-[Footnote 31: _passa per_ 6 1/2 (passes through 6 1/2). The meaning
-of these words is probably this: Each of the three axes of the
-derived shadow intersects the centre (_mezzo_) of the primary shadow
-(_ombra originale_) and, by prolongation upwards crosses six lines.
-
-This is self evident only in the middle diagram; but it is equally
-true of the side figures if we conceive of the lines 4 _f_, _x n v
-m_, _y l k v_, and 4 _e_, as prolonged beyond the semicircle of the
-horizon.] and is in a straight line with the centre of the primary
-shadow, with the centre of the body casting it and of the derivative
-light and with the centre of the window and, finally, with the
-centre of that portion of the source of light which is the celestial
-hemisphere, _y h_ is the centre of the derived shade, _l h_ of the
-primary shadow, _l_ of the body throwing it, _l k_ of the derived
-light, _v_ is the centre of the window, _e_ is the final centre of
-the original light afforded by that portion of the hemisphere of the
-sky which illuminates the solid body.
-
-[Footnote: Compare the diagram on Pl. IV, No. 3. In the original
-this drawing is placed between lines 3 and 22; the rest, from line 4
-to line 21, is written on the left hand margin.]
-
-174.
-
-THE FARTHER THE DERIVED SHADOW IS PROLONGED THE LIGHTER IT BECOMES.
-
-You will find that the proportion of the diameter of the derived
-shadow to that of the primary shadow will be the same as that
-between the darkness of the primary shadow and that of the derived
-shadow.
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare No. 177.] Let _a b_ be the diameter of the
-primary shadow and _c d_ that of the derived shadow, I say that _a
-b_ going, as you see, three times into _d c_, the shadow _d c_ will
-be three times as light as the shadow _a b_. [Footnote 8: Compare
-No. 177.]
-
-If the size of the illuminating body is larger than that of the
-illuminated body an intersection of shadow will occur, beyond which
-the shadows will run off in two opposite directions as if they were
-caused by two separate lights.
-
-On the relative intensity of derived shadows (175-179).
-
-175.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-The derived shadow is stronger in proportion as it is nearer to its
-place of origin.
-
-176.
-
-HOW SHADOWS FADE AWAY AT LONG DISTANCES.
-
-Shadows fade and are lost at long distances because the larger
-quantity of illuminated air which lies between the eye and the
-object seen tints the shadow with its own colour.
-
-177.
-
-_a b_ will be darker than _c d_ in proportion as _c d_ is broader
-than _a b_.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. the word _lume_ (light) is written at
-the apex of the pyramid.]
-
-178.
-
-It can be proved why the shadow _o p c h_ is darker in proportion as
-it is nearer to the line _p h_ and is lighter in proportion as it is
-nearer to the line _o c_. Let the light _a b_, be a window, and let
-the dark wall in which this window is, be _b s_, that is, one of the
-sides of the wall.
-
-Then we may say that the line _p h_ is darker than any other part of
-the space _o p c h_, because this line faces the whole surface in
-shadow of [Footnote: In the original the diagram is placed between
-lines 27 and 28.] the wall _b s_. The line _o c_ is lighter than the
-other part of this space _o p c h_, because this line faces the
-luminous space _a b_.
-
-Where the shadow is larger, or smaller, or equal the body which
-casts it.
-
-[First of the character of divided lights. [Footnote 14: _lumi
-divisi_. The text here breaks off abruptly.]
-
-OF THE COMPOUND SHADOW _F, R, C, H_ CAUSED BY A SINGLE LIGHT.
-
-The shadow _f r c h_ is under such conditions as that where it is
-farthest from its inner side it loses depth in proportion. To prove
-this:
-
-Let _d a_, be the light and _f n_ the solid body, and let _a e_ be
-one of the side walls of the window that is _d a_. Then I
-say--according to the 2nd [proposition]: that the surface of any
-body is affected by the tone of the objects surrounding it,--that
-the side _r c_, which faces the dark wall _a e_ must participate of
-its darkness and, in the same way that the outer surface which faces
-the light _d a_ participates of the light; thus we get the outlines
-of the extremes on each side of the centre included between them.]
-
-This is divided into four parts. The first the extremes, which
-include the compound shadow, secondly the compound shadow between
-these extremes.
-
-179.
-
-THE ACTION OF THE LIGHT AS FROM ITS CENTRE.
-
-If it were the whole of the light that caused the shadows beyond the
-bodies placed in front of it, it would follow that any body much
-smaller than the light would cast a pyramidal shadow; but experience
-not showing this, it must be the centre of the light that produces
-this effect.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is between lines 4
-and 5 in the original. Comp. the reproduction Pl. IV, No. 4. The
-text and drawing of this chapter have already been published with
-tolerable accuracy. See M. JORDAN: "_Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da
-Vinci_". Leipzig 1873, P. 90.]
-
-PROOF.
-
-Let _a b_ be the width of the light from a window, which falls on a
-stick set up at one foot from _a c_ [Footnote 6: _bastone_ (stick).
-The diagram has a sphere in place of a stick.]. And let _a d_ be the
-space where all the light from the window is visible. At _c e_ that
-part of the window which is between _l b_ cannot be seen. In the
-same way _a m_ cannot be seen from _d f_ and therefore in these two
-portions the light begins to fail.
-
-Shadow as produced by two lights of different size (180. 181).
-
-180.
-
-A body in light and shade placed between two equal lights side by
-side will cast shadows in proportion to the [amount of] light. And
-the shadows will be one darker than the other in proportion as one
-light is nearer to the said body than the other on the opposite
-side.
-
-A body placed at an equal distance between two lights will cast two
-shadows, one deeper than the other in proportion, as the light which
-causes it is brighter than the other.
-
-[Footnote: In the MS. the larger diagram is placed above the first
-line; the smaller one between l. 4 & 5.]
-
-181.
-
-A light which is smaller than the body it illuminates produces
-shadows of which the outlines end within [the surface of] the body,
-and not much compound shadow; and falls on less than half of it. A
-light which is larger than the body it illuminates, falls on more
-than half of it, and produces much compound shadow.
-
-The effect of light at different distances.
-
-182.
-
-OF THE SHADOW CAST BY A BODY PLACED BETWEEN 2 EQUAL LIGHTS.
-
-A body placed between 2 equal lights will cast 2 shadows of itself
-in the direction of the lines of the 2 lights; and if you move this
-body placing it nearer to one of the lights the shadow cast towards
-the nearer light will be less deep than that which falls towards the
-more distant one.
-
-Further complications in the derived shadows (183-187).
-
-183.
-
-The greatest depth of shadow is in the simple derived shadow because
-it is not lighted by either of the two lights _a b, c d_.
-
-The next less deep shadow is the derived shadow _e f n_; and in this
-the shadow is less by half, because it is illuminated by a single
-light, that is _c d_.
-
-This is uniform in natural tone because it is lighted throughout by
-one only of the two luminous bodies [10]. But it varies with the
-conditions of shadow, inasmuch as the farther it is away from the
-light the less it is illuminated by it [13].
-
-The third degree of depth is the middle shadow [Footnote 15: We
-gather from what follows that _q g r_ here means _ombra media_ (the
-middle shadow).]. But this is not uniform in natural tone; because
-the nearer it gets to the simple derived shadow the deeper it is
-[Footnote 18: Compare lines 10-13], and it is the uniformly gradual
-diminution by increase of distance which is what modifies it
-[Footnote 20: See Footnote 18]: that is to say the depth of a shadow
-increases in proportion to the distance from the two lights.
-
-The fourth is the shadow _k r s_ and this is all the darker in
-natural tone in proportion as it is nearer to _k s_, because it gets
-less of the light _a o_, but by the accident [of distance] it is
-rendered less deep, because it is nearer to the light _c d_, and
-thus is always exposed to both lights.
-
-The fifth is less deep in shadow than either of the others because
-it is always entirely exposed to one of the lights and to the whole
-or part of the other; and it is less deep in proportion as it is
-nearer to the two lights, and in proportion as it is turned towards
-the outer side _x t_; because it is more exposed to the second light
-_a b_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram to this section is given on Pl. V. To the
-left is the facsimile of the beginning of the text belonging to it.]
-
-184.
-
-OF SIMPLE SHADOWS.
-
-Why, at the intersections _a_, _b_ of the two compound shadows _e f_
-and _m e_, is a simple shadow pfoduced as at _e h_ and _m g_, while
-no such simple shadow is produced at the other two intersections _c
-d_ made by the very same compound shadows?
-
-ANSWER.
-
-Compound shadow are a mixture of light and shade and simple shadows
-are simply darkness. Hence, of the two lights _n_ and _o_, one falls
-on the compound shadow from one side, and the other on the compound
-shadow from the other side, but where they intersect no light falls,
-as at _a b_; therefore it is a simple shadow. Where there is a
-compound shadow one light or the other falls; and here a difficulty
-arises for my adversary since he says that, where the compound
-shadows intersect, both the lights which produce the shadows must of
-necessity fall and therefore these shadows ought to be neutralised;
-inasmuch as the two lights do not fall there, we say that the shadow
-is a simple one and where only one of the two lights falls, we say
-the shadow is compound, and where both the lights fall the shadow is
-neutralised; for where both lights fall, no shadow of any kind is
-produced, but only a light background limiting the shadow. Here I
-shall say that what my adversary said was true: but he only mentions
-such truths as are in his favour; and if we go on to the rest he
-must conclude that my proposition is true. And that is: That if both
-lights fell on the point of intersection, the shadows would be
-neutralised. This I confess to be true if [neither of] the two
-shadows fell in the same spot; because, where a shadow and a light
-fall, a compound shadow is produced, and wherever two shadows or two
-equal lights fall, the shadow cannot vary in any part of it, the
-shadows and the lights both being equal. And this is proved in the
-eighth [proposition] on proportion where it is said that if a given
-quantity has a single unit of force and resistance, a double
-quantity will have double force and double resistance.
-
-DEFINITION.
-
-The intersection _n_ is produced by the shadows caused by the light
-_b_, because this light _b_ produces the shadow _x b_, and the
-shadow _s b_, but the intersection _m_ is produced by the light _a_
-which causes the shadow _s a_, and the shadow _x a_.
-
-But if you uncover both the lights _a b_, then you get the two
-shadows _n m_ both at once, and besides these, two other, simple
-shadows are produced at _r o_ where neither of the two lights falls
-at all. The grades of depth in compound shadows are fewer in
-proportion as the lights falling on, and crossing them are less
-numerous.
-
-186.
-
-Why the intersections at _n_ being composed of two compound derived
-shadows, forms a compound shadow and not a simple one, as happens
-with other intersections of compound shadows. This occurs, according
-to the 2nd [diagram] of this [prop.] which says:--The intersection
-of derived shadows when produced by the intersection of columnar
-shadows caused by a single light does not produce a simple shadow.
-And this is the corollary of the 1st [prop.] which says:--The
-intersection of simple derived shadows never results in a deeper
-shadow, because the deepest shadows all added together cannot be
-darker than one by itself. Since, if many deepest shadows increased
-in depth by their duplication, they could not be called the
-_deepest_ shadows, but only part-shadows. But if such intersections
-are illuminated by a second light placed between the eye and the
-intersecting bodies, then those shadows would become compound
-shadows and be uniformly dark just as much at the intersection as
-throughout the rest. In the 1st and 2nd above, the intersections _i
-k_ will not be doubled in depth as it is doubled in quantity. But in
-this 3rd, at the intersections _g n_ they will be double in depth
-and in quantity.
-
-187.
-
-HOW AND WHEN THE SURROUNDINGS IN SHADOW MINGLE THEIR DERIVED SHADOW
-WITH THE LIGHT DERIVED FROM THE LUMINOUS BODY.
-
-The derived shadow of the dark walls on each side of the bright
-light of the window are what mingle their various degrees of shade
-with the light derived from the window; and these various depths of
-shade modify every portion of the light, except where it is
-strongest, at _c_. To prove this let _d a_ be the primary shadow
-which is turned towards the point _e_, and darkens it by its derived
-shadow; as may be seen by the triangle _a e d_, in which the
-angle _e_ faces the darkened base _d a e_; the point _v_ faces the
-dark shadow _a s_ which is part of _a d_, and as the whole is
-greater than a part, _e_ which faces the whole base [of the
-triangle], will be in deeper shadow than _v_ which only faces part
-of it. In consequence of the conclusion [shown] in the above
-diagram, _t_ will be less darkened than _v_, because the base of the
-_t_ is part of the base of the _v_; and in the same way it follows
-that _p_ is less in shadow than _t_, because the base of the _p_ is
-part of the base of the _t_. And _c_ is the terminal point of the
-derived shadow and the chief beginning of the highest light.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram on Pl. IV, No. 5 belongs to this passage; but
-it must be noted that the text explains only the figure on the
-right-hand side.]
-
-FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-On the shape of the cast shadows (188-191).
-
-188.
-
-The form of the shadow cast by any body of uniform density can never
-be the same as that of the body producing it. [Footnote: Comp. the
-drawing on PI. XXVIII, No. 5.]
-
-189.
-
-No cast shadow can produce the true image of the body which casts it
-on a vertical plane unless the centre of the light is equally
-distant from all the edges of that body.
-
-190.
-
-If a window _a b_ admits the sunlight into a room, the sunlight will
-magnify the size of the window and diminish the shadow of a man in
-such a way as that when the man makes that dim shadow of himself,
-approach to that which defines the real size of the window, he will
-see the shadows where they come into contact, dim and confused from
-the strength of the light, shutting off and not allowing the solar
-rays to pass; the effect of the shadow of the man cast by this
-contact will be exactly that figured above.
-
-[Footnote: It is scarcely possible to render the meaning of this
-sentence with strict accuracy; mainly because the grammatical
-construction is defective in the most important part--line 4. In the
-very slight original sketch the shadow touches the upper arch of the
-window and the correction, here given is perhaps not justified.]
-
-191.
-
-A shadow is never seen as of uniform depth on the surface which
-intercepts it unless every portion of that surface is equidistant
-from the luminous body. This is proved by the 7th which says:--The
-shadow will appear lighter or stronger as it is surrounded by a
-darker or a lighter background. And by the 8th of this:--The
-background will be in parts darker or lighter, in proportion as it
-is farther from or nearer to the luminous body. And:--Of various
-spots equally distant from the luminous body those will always be in
-the highest light on which the rays fall at the smallest angles: The
-outline of the shadow as it falls on inequalities in the surface
-will be seen with all the contours similar to those of the body that
-casts it, if the eye is placed just where the centre of the light
-was.
-
-The shadow will look darkest where it is farthest from the body that
-casts it. The shadow _c d_, cast by the body in shadow _a b_ which
-is equally distant in all parts, is not of equal depth because it is
-seen on a back ground of varying brightness. [Footnote: Compare the
-three diagrams on Pl. VI, no 1 which, in the original accompany this
-section.]
-
-On the outlines of cast shadows (192-195).
-
-192.
-
-The edges of a derived shadow will be most distinct where it is cast
-nearest to the primary shadow.
-
-193.
-
-As the derived shadow gets more distant from the primary shadow, the
-more the cast shadow differs from the primary shadow.
-
-194.
-
-OF SHADOWS WHICH NEVER COME TO AN END.
-
-The greater the difference between a light and the body lighted by
-it, the light being the larger, the more vague will be the outlines
-of the shadow of that object.
-
-The derived shadow will be most confused towards the edges of its
-interception by a plane, where it is remotest from the body casting
-it.
-
-195.
-
-What is the cause which makes the outlines of the shadow vague and
-confused?
-
-Whether it is possible to give clear and definite outlines to the
-edges of shadows.
-
-On the relative size of shadows (196. 197).
-
-196.
-
-THE BODY WHICH IS NEAREST TO THE LIGHT CASTS THE LARGEST SHADOW, AND
-WHY?
-
-If an object placed in front of a single light is very close to it
-you will see that it casts a very large shadow on the opposite wall,
-and the farther you remove the object from the light the smaller
-will the image of the shadow become.
-
-WHY A SHADOW LARGER THAN THE BODY THAT PRODUCES IT BECOMES OUT OF
-PROPORTION.
-
-The disproportion of a shadow which is larger than the body
-producing it, results from the light being smaller than the body, so
-that it cannot be at an equal distance from the edges of the body
-[Footnote 11: H. LUDWIG in his edition of the old copies, in the
-Vatican library--in which this chapter is included under Nos. 612,
-613 and 614 alters this passage as follows: _quella parte ch'e piu
-propinqua piu cresce che le distanti_, although the Vatican copy
-agrees with the original MS. in having _distante_ in the former and
-_propinque_ in the latter place. This supposed amendment seems to me
-to invert the facts. Supposing for instance, that on Pl. XXXI No. 3.
-_f_ is the spot where the light is that illuminates the figure there
-represented, and that the line behind the figure represents a wall
-on which the shadow of the figure is thrown. It is evident, that in
-that case the nearest portion, in this case the under part of the
-thigh, is very little magnified in the shadow, and the remoter
-parts, for instance the head, are more magnified.]; and the portions
-which are most remote are made larger than the nearer portions for
-this reason [Footnote 12: See Footnote 11].
-
-WHY A SHADOW WHICH IS LARGER THAN THE BODY CAUSING IT HAS
-ILL-DEFINED OUTLINES.
-
-The atmosphere which surrounds a light is almost like light itself
-for brightness and colour; but the farther off it is the more it
-loses this resemblance. An object which casts a large shadow and is
-near to the light, is illuminated both by that light by the luminous
-atmosphere; hence this diffused light gives the shadow ill-defined
-edges.
-
-197.
-
-A luminous body which is long and narrow in shape gives more
-confused outlines to the derived shadow than a spherical light, and
-this contradicts the proposition next following: A shadow will have
-its outlines more clearly defined in proportion as it is nearer to
-the primary shadow or, I should say, the body casting the shadow;
-[Footnote 14: The lettering refers to the lower diagram, Pl. XLI,
-No. 5.] the cause of this is the elongated form of the luminous body
-_a c_, &c. [Footnote 16: See Footnote 14].
-
-Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground.
-
-198.
-
-OF MODIFIED SHADOWS.
-
-Modified shadows are those which are cast on light walls or other
-illuminated objects.
-
-A shadow looks darkest against a light background. The outlines of a
-derived shadow will be clearer as they are nearer to the primary
-shadow. A derived shadow will be most defined in shape where it is
-intercepted, where the plane intercepts it at the most equal angle.
-
-Those parts of a shadow will appear darkest which have darker
-objects opposite to them. And they will appear less dark when they
-face lighter objects. And the larger the light object opposite, the
-more the shadow will be lightened.
-
-And the larger the surface of the dark object the more it will
-darken the derived shadow where it is intercepted.
-
-A disputed proposition.
-
-199.
-
-OF THE OPINION OF SOME THAT A TRIANGLE CASTS NO SHADOW ON A PLANE
-SURFACE.
-
-Certain mathematicians have maintained that a triangle, of which the
-base is turned to the light, casts no shadow on a plane; and this
-they prove by saying [5] that no spherical body smaller than the
-light can reach the middle with the shadow. The lines of radiant
-light are straight lines [6]; therefore, suppose the light to be _g
-h_ and the triangle _l m n_, and let the plane be _i k_; they say
-the light _g_ falls on the side of the triangle _l n_, and the
-portion of the plane _i q_. Thus again _h_ like _g_ falls on the
-side _l m_, and then on _m n_ and the plane _p k_; and if the whole
-plane thus faces the lights _g h_, it is evident that the triangle
-has no shadow; and that which has no shadow can cast none. This, in
-this case appears credible. But if the triangle _n p g_ were not
-illuminated by the two lights _g_ and _h_, but by _i p_ and _g_ and
-_k_ neither side is lighted by more than one single light: that is
-_i p_ is invisible to _h g_ and _k_ will never be lighted by _g_;
-hence _p q_ will be twice as light as the two visible portions that
-are in shadow.
-
-[Footnote: 5--6. This passage is so obscure that it would be rash to
-offer an explanation. Several words seem to have been omitted.]
-
-On the relative depth of cast shadows (200-202).
-
-200.
-
-A spot is most in the shade when a large number of darkened rays
-fall upon it. The spot which receives the rays at the widest angle
-and by darkened rays will be most in the dark; a will be twice as
-dark as b, because it originates from twice as large a base at an
-equal distance. A spot is most illuminated when a large number of
-luminous rays fall upon it. d is the beginning of the shadow _d f_,
-and tinges _c_ but _a_ little; _d e_ is half of the shadow _d f_ and
-gives a deeper tone where it is cast at _b_ than at _f_. And the
-whole shaded space _e_ gives its tone to the spot _a_. [Footnote:
-The diagram here referred to is on Pl. XLI, No. 2.]
-
-201.
-
-_A n_ will be darker than _c r_ in proportion to the number of times
-that _a b_ goes into _c d_.
-
-202.
-
-The shadow cast by an object on a plane will be smaller in
-proportion as that object is lighted by feebler rays. Let _d e_ be
-the object and _d c_ the plane surface; the number of times that _d
-e_ will go into _f g_ gives the proportion of light at _f h_ to _d
-c_. The ray of light will be weaker in proportion to its distance
-from the hole through which it falls.
-
-FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Principles of reflection (203. 204).
-
-203.
-
-OF THE WAY IN WHICH THE SHADOWS CAST BY OBJECTS OUGHT TO BE DEFINED.
-
-If the object is the mountain here figured, and the light is at the
-point _a_, I say that from _b d_ and also from _c f_ there will be
-no light but from reflected rays. And this results from the fact
-that rays of light can only act in straight lines; and the same is
-the case with the secondary or reflected rays.
-
-204.
-
-The edges of the derived shadow are defined by the hues of the
-illuminated objects surrounding the luminous body which produces the
-shadow.
-
-On reverberation.
-
-205.
-
-OF REVERBERATION.
-
-Reverberation is caused by bodies of a bright nature with a flat and
-semi opaque surface which, when the light strikes upon them, throw
-it back again, like the rebound of a ball, to the former object.
-
-WHERE THERE CAN BE NO REFLECTED LIGHTS.
-
-All dense bodies have their surfaces occupied by various degrees of
-light and shade. The lights are of two kinds, one called original,
-the other borrowed. Original light is that which is inherent in the
-flame of fire or the light of the sun or of the atmosphere. Borrowed
-light will be reflected light; but to return to the promised
-definition: I say that this luminous reverberation is not produced
-by those portions of a body which are turned towards darkened
-objects, such as shaded spots, fields with grass of various height,
-woods whether green or bare; in which, though that side of each
-branch which is turned towards the original light has a share of
-that light, nevertheless the shadows cast by each branch separately
-are so numerous, as well as those cast by one branch on the others,
-that finally so much shadow is the result that the light counts for
-nothing. Hence objects of this kind cannot throw any reflected light
-on opposite objects.
-
-Reflection on water (206. 207).
-
-206.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The shadow or object mirrored in water in motion, that is to say in
-small wavelets, will always be larger than the external object
-producing it.
-
-207.
-
-It is impossible that an object mirrored on water should correspond
-in form to the object mirrored, since the centre of the eye is above
-the surface of the water.
-
-This is made plain in the figure here given, which demonstrates that
-the eye sees the surface _a b_, and cannot see it at _l f_, and at
-_r t_; it sees the surface of the image at _r t_, and does not see
-it in the real object _c d_. Hence it is impossible to see it, as
-has been said above unless the eye itself is situated on the surface
-of the water as is shown below [13].
-
-[Footnote: _A_ stands for _ochio_ [eye], _B_ for _aria_ [air], _C_
-for _acqua_ [water], _D_ for _cateto_ [cathetus].--In the original
-MS. the second diagram is placed below line 13.]
-
-Experiments with the mirror (208-210).
-
-208.
-
-THE MIRROR.
-
-If the illuminated object is of the same size as the luminous body
-and as that in which the light is reflected, the amount of the
-reflected light will bear the same proportion to the intermediate
-light as this second light will bear to the first, if both bodies
-are smooth and white.
-
-209.
-
-Describe how it is that no object has its limitation in the mirror
-but in the eye which sees it in the mirror. For if you look at your
-face in the mirror, the part resembles the whole in as much as the
-part is everywhere in the mirror, and the whole is in every part of
-the same mirror; and the same is true of the whole image of any
-object placed opposite to this mirror, &c.
-
-210.
-
-No man can see the image of another man in a mirror in its proper
-place with regard to the objects; because every object falls on [the
-surface of] the mirror at equal angles. And if the one man, who sees
-the other in the mirror, is not in a direct line with the image he
-will not see it in the place where it really falls; and if he gets
-into the line, he covers the other man and puts himself in the place
-occupied by his image. Let _n o_ be the mirror, _b_ the eye of your
-friend and _d_ your own eye. Your friend's eye will appear to you at
-_a_, and to him it will seem that yours is at _c_, and the
-intersection of the visual rays will occur at _m_, so that either of
-you touching _m_ will touch the eye of the other man which shall be
-open. And if you touch the eye of the other man in the mirror it
-will seem to him that you are touching your own.
-
-Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211. 212).
-
-211.
-
-OF THE SHADOW AND ITS MOTION.
-
-When two bodies casting shadows, and one in front of the other, are
-between a window and the wall with some space between them, the
-shadow of the body which is nearest to the plane of the wall will
-move if the body nearest to the window is put in transverse motion
-across the window. To prove this let _a_ and _b_ be two bodies
-placed between the window _n m_ and the plane surface _o p_ with
-sufficient space between them as shown by the space _a b_. I say
-that if the body _a_ is moved towards _s_ the shadow of the body _b_
-which is at _c_ will move towards _d_.
-
-212.
-
-OF THE MOTION OF SHADOWS.
-
-The motion of a shadow is always more rapid than that of the body
-which produces it if the light is stationary. To prove this let _a_
-be the luminous body, and _b_ the body casting the shadow, and _d_
-the shadow. Then I say that in the time while the solid body moves
-from _b_ to _c_, the shadow _d_ will move to _e_; and this
-proportion in the rapidity of the movements made in the same space
-of time, is equal to that in the length of the space moved over.
-Thus, given the proportion of the space moved over by the body _b_
-to _c_, to that moved over by the shadow _d_ to _e_, the proportion
-in the rapidity of their movements will be the same.
-
-But if the luminous body is also in movement with a velocity equal
-to that of the solid body, then the shadow and the body that casts
-it will move with equal speed. And if the luminous body moves more
-rapidly than the solid body, the motion of the shadow will be slower
-than that of the body casting it.
-
-But if the luminous body moves more slowly than the solid body, then
-the shadow will move more rapidly than that body.
-
-SIXTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-The effect of rays passing through holes (213. 214).
-
-213.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-If you transmit the rays of the sun through a hole in the shape of a
-star you will see a beautiful effect of perspective in the spot
-where the sun's rays fall.
-
-[Footnote: In this and the following chapters of MS. C the order of
-the original paging has been adhered to, and is shown in
-parenthesis. Leonardo himself has but rarely worked out the subject
-of these propositions. The space left for the purpose has
-occasionally been made use of for quite different matter. Even the
-numerous diagrams, most of them very delicately sketched, lettered
-and numbered, which occur on these pages, are hardly ever explained,
-with the exception of those few which are here given.]
-
-214.
-
-No small hole can so modify the convergence of rays of light as to
-prevent, at a long distance, the transmission of the true form of
-the luminous body causing them. It is impossible that rays of light
-passing through a parallel [slit], should not display the form of
-the body causing them, since all the effects produced by a luminous
-body are [in fact] the reflection of that body: The moon, shaped
-like a boat, if transmitted through a hole is figured in the surface
-[it falls on] as a boatshaped object. [Footnote 8: In the MS. a
-blank space is left after this question.] Why the eye sees bodies at
-a distance, larger than they measure on the vertical plane?.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter, taken from another MS. may, as an
-exception, be placed here, as it refers to the same subject as the
-preceding section.]
-
-On gradation of shadows (215. 216).
-
-215.
-
-Although the breadth and length of lights and shadow will be
-narrower and shorter in foreshortening, the quality and quantity of
-the light and shade is not increased nor diminished.
-
-[3]The function of shade and light when diminished by
-foreshortening, will be to give shadow and to illuminate an object
-opposite, according to the quality and quantity in which they fall
-on the body.
-
-[5]In proportion as a derived shadow is nearer to its penultimate
-extremities the deeper it will appear, _g z_ beyond the intersection
-faces only the part of the shadow [marked] _y z_; this by
-intersection takes the shadow from _m n_ but by direct line it takes
-the shadow _a m_ hence it is twice as deep as _g z_. _Y x_, by
-intersection takes the shadow _n o_, but by direct line the shadow
-_n m a_, therefore _x y_ is three times as dark as _z g_; _x f_, by
-intersection faces _o b_ and by direct line _o n m a_, therefore we
-must say that the shadow between _f x_ will be four times as dark as
-the shadow _z g_, because it faces four times as much shadow.
-
-Let _a b_ be the side where the primary shadow is, and _b c_ the
-primary light, _d_ will be the spot where it is intercepted,_f g_
-the derived shadow and _f e_ the derived light.
-
-And this must be at the beginning of the explanation.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. the text of No. 252 precedes the one
-given here. In the text of No. 215 there is a blank space of about
-four lines between the lines 2 and 3. The diagram given on Pl. VI,
-No. 2 is placed between lines 4 and 5. Between lines 5 and 6 there
-is another space of about three lines and one line left blank
-between lines 8 and 9. The reader will find the meaning of the whole
-passage much clearer if he first reads the final lines 11--13.
-Compare also line 4 of No. 270.]
-
-On relative proportion of light and shadows (216--221).
-
-216.
-
-That part of the surface of a body on which the images [reflection]
-from other bodies placed opposite fall at the largest angle will
-assume their hue most strongly. In the diagram below, 8 is a larger
-angle than 4, since its base _a n_ is larger than _e n_ the base of
-4. This diagram below should end at _a n_ 4 8. [4]That portion of
-the illuminated surface on which a shadow is cast will be brightest
-which lies contiguous to the cast shadow. Just as an object which is
-lighted up by a greater quantity of luminous rays becomes brighter,
-so one on which a greater quantity of shadow falls, will be darker.
-
-Let 4 be the side of an illuminated surface 4 8, surrounding the
-cast shadow _g e_ 4. And this spot 4 will be lighter than 8, because
-less shadow falls on it than on 8. Since 4 faces only the shadow _i
-n_; and 8 faces and receives the shadow _a e_ as well as _i n_ which
-makes it twice as dark. And the same thing happens when you put the
-atmosphere and the sun in the place of shade and light.
-
-[12] The distribution of shadow, originating in, and limited by,
-plane surfaces placed near to each other, equal in tone and directly
-opposite, will be darker at the ends than at the beginning, which
-will be determined by the incidence of the luminous rays. You will
-find the same proportion in the depth of the derived shadows _a n_
-as in the nearness of the luminous bodies _m b_, which cause them;
-and if the luminous bodies were of equal size you would still
-farther find the same proportion in the light cast by the luminous
-circles and their shadows as in the distance of the said luminous
-bodies.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram originally placed between lines 3 and 4 is on
-Pl. VI, No. 3. In the diagram given above line 14 of the original,
-and here printed in the text, the words _corpo luminoso_ [luminous
-body] are written in the circle _m_, _luminoso_ in the circle _b_
-and _ombroso_ [body in shadow] in the circle _o_.]
-
-217.
-
-THAT PART OF THE REFLECTION WILL BE BRIGHTEST WHERE THE REFLECTED
-RAYS ARE SHORTEST.
-
-[2] The darkness occasioned by the casting of combined shadows will
-be in conformity with its cause, which will originate and terminate
-between two plane surfaces near together, alike in tone and directly
-opposite each other.
-
-[4] In proportion as the source of light is larger, the luminous and
-shadow rays will be more mixed together. This result is produced
-because wherever there is a larger quantity of luminous rays, there
-is most light, but where there are fewer there is least light,
-consequently the shadow rays come in and mingle with them.
-
-[Footnote: Diagrams are inserted before lines 2 and 4.]
-
-218.
-
-In all the proportions I lay down it must be understood that the
-medium between the bodies is always the same. [2] The smaller the
-luminous body the more distinct will the transmission of the shadows
-be.
-
-[3] When of two opposite shadows, produced by the same body, one is
-twice as dark as the other though similar in form, one of the two
-lights causing them must have twice the diameter that the other has
-and be at twice the distance from the opaque body. If the object is
-lowly moved across the luminous body, and the shadow is intercepted
-at some distance from the object, there will be the same relative
-proportion between the motion of the derived shadow and the motion
-of the primary shadow, as between the distance from the object to
-the light, and that from the object to the spot where the shadow is
-intercepted; so that though the object is moved slowly the shadow
-moves fast.
-
-[Footnote: There are diagrams inserted before lines 2 and 3 but they
-are not reproduced here. The diagram above line 6 is written upon as
-follows: at _A lume_ (light), at _B obbietto_ (body), at _C ombra
-d'obbietto_ (shadow of the object).]
-
-219.
-
-A luminous body will appear less brilliant when surrounded by a
-bright background.
-
-[2] I have found that the stars which are nearest to the horizon
-look larger than the others because light falls upon them from a
-larger proportion of the solar body than when they are above us; and
-having more light from the sun they give more light, and the bodies
-which are most luminous appear the largest. As may be seen by the
-sun through a mist, and overhead; it appears larger where there is
-no mist and diminished through mist. No portion of the luminous body
-is ever visible from any spot within the pyramid of pure derived
-shadow.
-
-[Footnote: Between lines 1 and 2 there is in the original a large
-diagram which does not refer to this text. ]
-
-220.
-
-A body on which the solar rays fall between the thin branches of
-trees far apart will cast but a single shadow.
-
-[2] If an opaque body and a luminous one are (both) spherical the
-base of the pyramid of rays will bear the same proportion to the
-luminous body as the base of the pyramid of shade to the opaque
-body.
-
-[4] When the transmitted shadow is intercepted by a plane surface
-placed opposite to it and farther away from the luminous body than
-from the object [which casts it] it will appear proportionately
-darker and the edges more distinct.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which, in the original, is placed above line
-2, is similar to the one, here given on page 73 (section 120).--The
-diagram here given in the margin stands, in the original, between
-lines 3 and 4.]
-
-221.
-
-A body illuminated by the solar rays passing between the thick
-branches of trees will produce as many shadows as there are branches
-between the sun and itself.
-
-Where the shadow-rays from an opaque pyramidal body are intercepted
-they will cast a shadow of bifurcate outline and various depth at
-the points. A light which is broader than the apex but narrower than
-the base of an opaque pyramidal body placed in front of it, will
-cause that pyramid to cast a shadow of bifurcate form and various
-degrees of depth.
-
-If an opaque body, smaller than the light, casts two shadows and if
-it is the same size or larger, casts but one, it follows that a
-pyramidal body, of which part is smaller, part equal to, and part
-larger than, the luminous body, will cast a bifurcate shadow.
-
-[Footnote: Between lines 2 and 3 there are in the original two large
-diagrams.]
-
-_IV._
-
-_Perspective of Disappearance._
-
-_The theory of the_ "Prospettiva de' perdimenti" _would, in many
-important details, be quite unintelligible if it had not been led up
-by the principles of light and shade on which it is based. The word_
-"Prospettiva" _in the language of the time included the principles
-of optics; what Leonardo understood by_ "Perdimenti" _will be
-clearly seen in the early chapters, Nos._ 222--224. _It is in the
-very nature of the case that the farther explanations given in the
-subsequent chapters must be limited to general rules. The sections
-given as_ 227--231 _"On indistinctness at short distances" have, it
-is true, only an indirect bearing on the subject; but on the other
-hand, the following chapters,_ 232--234, _"On indistinctness at
-great distances," go fully into the matter, and in chapters_
-235--239, _which treat "Of the importance of light and shade in the
-Perspective of Disappearance", the practical issues are distinctly
-insisted on in their relation to the theory. This is naturally
-followed by the statements as to "the effect of light or dark
-backgrounds on the apparent size of bodies"_ (_Nos._ 240--250). _At
-the end I have placed, in the order of the original, those sections
-from the MS._ C _which treat of the "Perspective of Disappearance"
-and serve to some extent to complete the treatment of the subject_
-(251--262).
-
-Definition (222. 223).
-
-222.
-
-OF THE DIMINISHED DISTINCTNESS OF THE OUTLINES OF OPAQUE BODIES.
-
-If the real outlines of opaque bodies are indistinguishable at even
-a very short distance, they will be more so at long distances; and,
-since it is by its outlines that we are able to know the real form
-of any opaque body, when by its remoteness we fail to discern it as
-a whole, much more must we fail to discern its parts and outlines.
-
-223.
-
-OF THE DIMINUTION IN PERSPECTIVE OF OPAQUE OBJECTS.
-
-Among opaque objects of equal size the apparent diminution of size
-will be in proportion to their distance from the eye of the
-spectator; but it is an inverse proportion, since, where the
-distance is greater, the opaque body will appear smaller, and the
-less the distance the larger will the object appear. And this is the
-fundamental principle of linear perspective and it
-follows:--[11]every object as it becomes more remote loses first
-those parts which are smallest. Thus of a horse, we should lose the
-legs before the head, because the legs are thinner than the head;
-and the neck before the body for the same reason. Hence it follows
-that the last part of the horse which would be discernible by the
-eye would be the mass of the body in an oval form, or rather in a
-cylindrical form and this would lose its apparent thickness before
-its length--according to the 2nd rule given above, &c. [Footnote 23:
-Compare line 11.].
-
-If the eye remains stationary the perspective terminates in the
-distance in a point. But if the eye moves in a straight [horizontal]
-line the perspective terminates in a line and the reason is that
-this line is generated by the motion of the point and our sight;
-therefore it follows that as we move our sight [eye], the point
-moves, and as we move the point, the line is generated, &c.
-
-An illustration by experiment.
-
-224.
-
-Every visible body, in so far as it affects the eye, includes three
-attributes; that is to say: mass, form and colour; and the mass is
-recognisable at a greater distance from the place of its actual
-existence than either colour or form. Again, colour is discernible
-at a greater distance than form, but this law does not apply to
-luminous bodies.
-
-The above proposition is plainly shown and proved by experiment;
-because: if you see a man close to you, you discern the exact
-appearance of the mass and of the form and also of the colouring; if
-he goes to some distance you will not recognise who he is, because
-the character of the details will disappear, if he goes still
-farther you will not be able to distinguish his colouring, but he
-will appear as a dark object, and still farther he will appear as a
-very small dark rounded object. It appears rounded because distance
-so greatly diminishes the various details that nothing remains
-visible but the larger mass. And the reason is this: We know very
-well that all the images of objects reach the senses by a small
-aperture in the eye; hence, if the whole horizon _a d_ is admitted
-through such an aperture, the object _b c_ being but a very small
-fraction of this horizon what space can it fill in that minute image
-of so vast a hemisphere? And because luminous bodies have more power
-in darkness than any others, it is evident that, as the chamber of
-the eye is very dark, as is the nature of all colored cavities, the
-images of distant objects are confused and lost in the great light
-of the sky; and if they are visible at all, appear dark and black,
-as every small body must when seen in the diffused light of the
-atmosphere.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is placed between
-lines 5 and 6; it is No. 4 on Pl. VI. ]
-
-A guiding rule.
-
-225.
-
-OF THE ATMOSPHERE THAT INTERPOSES BETWEEN THE EYE AND VISIBLE
-OBJECTS.
-
-An object will appear more or less distinct at the same distance, in
-proportion as the atmosphere existing between the eye and that
-object is more or less clear. Hence, as I know that the greater or
-less quantity of the air that lies between the eye and the object
-makes the outlines of that object more or less indistinct, you must
-diminish the definiteness of outline of those objects in proportion
-to their increasing distance from the eye of the spectator.
-
-An experiment.
-
-226.
-
-When I was once in a place on the sea, at an equal distance from the
-shore and the mountains, the distance from the shore looked much
-greater than that from the mountains.
-
-On indistinctness at short distances (227-231).
-
-227.
-
-If you place an opaque object in front of your eye at a distance of
-four fingers' breadth, if it is smaller than the space between the
-two eyes it will not interfere with your seeing any thing that may
-be beyond it. No object situated beyond another object seen by the
-eye can be concealed by this [nearer] object if it is smaller than
-the space from eye to eye.
-
-228.
-
-The eye cannot take in a luminous angle which is too close to it.
-
-229.
-
-That part of a surface will be better lighted on which the light
-falls at the greater angle. And that part, on which the shadow falls
-at the greatest angle, will receive from those rays least of the
-benefit of the light.
-
-230.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-The edges of an object placed in front of the pupil of the eye will
-be less distinct in proportion as they are closer to the eye. This
-is shown by the edge of the object _n_ placed in front of the pupil
-_d_; in looking at this edge the pupil also sees all the space _a c_
-which is beyond the edge; and the images the eye receives from that
-space are mingled with the images of the edge, so that one image
-confuses the other, and this confusion hinders the pupil from
-distinguishing the edge.
-
-231.
-
-The outlines of objects will be least clear when they are nearest to
-the eye, and therefore remoter outlines will be clearer. Among
-objects which are smaller than the pupil of the eye those will be
-less distinct which are nearer to the eye.
-
-On indistinctness at great distances (232-234).
-
-232.
-
-Objects near to the eye will appear larger than those at a distance.
-
-Objects seen with two eyes will appear rounder than if they are seen
-with only one.
-
-Objects seen between light and shadow will show the most relief.
-
-233.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Our true perception of an object diminishes in proportion as its
-size is diminished by distance.
-
-234.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Why objects seen at a distance appear large to the eye and in the
-image on the vertical plane they appear small.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-I ask how far away the eye can discern a non-luminous body, as, for
-instance, a mountain. It will be very plainly visible if the sun is
-behind it; and could be seen at a greater or less distance according
-to the sun's place in the sky.
-
-[Footnote: The clue to the solution of this problem (lines 1-3) is
-given in lines 4-6, No. 232. Objects seen with both eyes appear
-solid since they are seen from two distinct points of sight
-separated by the distance between the eyes, but this solidity cannot
-be represented in a flat drawing. Compare No. 535.]
-
-The importance of light and shade in the perspective of
-disappearance (235-239).
-
-235.
-
-An opaque body seen in a line in which the light falls will reveal
-no prominences to the eye. For instance, let _a_ be the solid body
-and _c_ the light; _c m_ and _c n_ will be the lines of incidence of
-the light, that is to say the lines which transmit the light to the
-object _a_. The eye being at the point _b_, I say that since the
-light _c_ falls on the whole part _m n_ the portions in relief on
-that side will all be illuminated. Hence the eye placed at _c_
-cannot see any light and shade and, not seeing it, every portion
-will appear of the same tone, therefore the relief in the prominent
-or rounded parts will not be visible.
-
-236.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-When you represent in your work shadows which you can only discern
-with difficulty, and of which you cannot distinguish the edges so
-that you apprehend them confusedly, you must not make them sharp or
-definite lest your work should have a wooden effect.
-
-237.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-You will observe in drawing that among the shadows some are of
-undistinguishable gradation and form, as is shown in the 3rd
-[proposition] which says: Rounded surfaces display as many degrees
-of light and shade as there are varieties of brightness and darkness
-reflected from the surrounding objects.
-
-238.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-You who draw from nature, look (carefully) at the extent, the
-degree, and the form of the lights and shadows on each muscle; and
-in their position lengthwise observe towards which muscle the axis
-of the central line is directed.
-
-239.
-
-An object which is [so brilliantly illuminated as to be] almost as
-bright as light will be visible at a greater distance, and of larger
-apparent size than is natural to objects so remote.
-
-The effect of light or dark backgrounds on the apparent size of
-objects (240-250).
-
-240.
-
-A shadow will appear dark in proportion to the brilliancy of the
-light surrounding it and conversely it will be less conspicuous
-where it is seen against a darker background.
-
-241.
-
-OF ORDINARY PERSPECTIVE.
-
-An object of equal breadth and colour throughout, seen against a
-background of various colours will appear unequal in breadth.
-
-And if an object of equal breadth throughout, but of various
-colours, is seen against a background of uniform colour, that object
-will appear of various breadth. And the more the colours of the
-background or of the object seen against the ground vary, the
-greater will the apparent variations in the breadth be though the
-objects seen against the ground be of equal breadth [throughout].
-
-242.
-
-A dark object seen against a bright background will appear smaller
-than it is.
-
-A light object will look larger when it is seen against a background
-darker than itself.
-
-243.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-A luminous body when obscured by a dense atmosphere will appear
-smaller; as may be seen by the moon or sun veiled by mists.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-Of several luminous bodies of equal size and brilliancy and at an
-equal distance, that will look the largest which is surrounded by
-the darkest background.
-
-OF LIGHT.
-
-I find that any luminous body when seen through a dense and thick
-mist diminishes in proportion to its distance from the eye. Thus it
-is with the sun by day, as well as the moon and the other eternal
-lights by night. And when the air is clear, these luminaries appear
-larger in proportion as they are farther from the eye.
-
-244.
-
-That portion of a body of uniform breadth which is against a lighter
-background will look narrower [than the rest].
-
-[4] _e_ is a given object, itself dark and of uniform breadth; _a b_
-and _c d_ are two backgrounds one darker than the other; _b c_ is a
-bright background, as it might be a spot lighted by the sun through
-an aperture in a dark room. Then I say that the object _e g_ will
-appear larger at _e f_ than at _g h_; because _e f_ has a darker
-background than _g h_; and again at _f g_ it will look narrower from
-being seen by the eye _o_, on the light background _b c_. [Footnote
-12: The diagram to which the text, lines 1-11, refers, is placed in
-the original between lines 3 and 4, and is given on Pl. XLI, No. 3.
-Lines 12 to 14 are explained by the lower of the two diagrams on Pl.
-XLI, No. 4. In the original these are placed after line 14.] That
-part of a luminous body, of equal breadth and brilliancy throughout,
-will look largest which is seen against the darkest background; and
-the luminous body will seem on fire.
-
-245.
-
-WHY BODIES IN LIGHT AND SHADE HAVE THEIR OUTLINES ALTERED BY THE
-COLOUR AND BRIGHTNESS OF THE OBJECTS SERVING AS A BACKGROUND TO
-THEM.
-
-If you look at a body of which the illuminated portion lies and ends
-against a dark background, that part of the light which will look
-brightest will be that which lies against the dark [background] at
-_d_. But if this brighter part lies against a light background, the
-edge of the object, which is itself light, will be less distinct
-than before, and the highest light will appear to be between the
-limit of the background _m f_ and the shadow. The same thing is seen
-with regard to the dark [side], inasmuch as that edge of the shaded
-portion of the object which lies against a light background, as at
-_l_, it looks much darker than the rest. But if this shadow lies
-against a dark background, the edge of the shaded part will appear
-lighter than before, and the deepest shade will appear between the
-edge and the light at the point _o_.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram _o_ is inside the shaded surface
-at the level of _d_.]
-
-246.
-
-An opaque body will appear smaller when it is surrounded by a highly
-luminous background, and a light body will appear larger when it is
-seen against a darker background. This may be seen in the height of
-buildings at night, when lightning flashes behind them; it suddenly
-seems, when it lightens, as though the height of the building were
-diminished. For the same reason such buildings look larger in a
-mist, or by night than when the atmosphere is clear and light.
-
-247.
-
-ON LIGHT BETWEEN SHADOWS
-
-When you are drawing any object, remember, in comparing the grades
-of light in the illuminated portions, that the eye is often deceived
-by seeing things lighter than they are. And the reason lies in our
-comparing those parts with the contiguous parts. Since if two
-[separate] parts are in different grades of light and if the less
-bright is conterminous with a dark portion and the brighter is
-conterminous with a light background--as the sky or something
-equally bright--, then that which is less light, or I should say
-less radiant, will look the brighter and the brighter will seem the
-darker.
-
-248.
-
-Of objects equally dark in themselves and situated at a considerable
-and equal distance, that will look the darkest which is farthest
-above the earth.
-
-249.
-
-TO PROVE HOW IT IS THAT LUMINOUS BODIES APPEAR LARGER, AT A
-DISTANCE, THAN THEY ARE.
-
-If you place two lighted candles side by side half a braccio apart,
-and go from them to a distance 200 braccia you will see that by the
-increased size of each they will appear as a single luminous body
-with the light of the two flames, one braccio wide.
-
-TO PROVE HOW YOU MAY SEE THE REAL SIZE OF LUMINOUS BODIES.
-
-If you wish to see the real size of these luminous bodies, take a
-very thin board and make in it a hole no bigger than the tag of a
-lace and place it as close to your eye as possible, so that when you
-look through this hole, at the said light, you can see a large space
-of air round it. Then by rapidly moving this board backwards and
-forwards before your eye you will see the light increase [and
-diminish].
-
-Propositions on perspective of disappearance from MS. C. (250-262).
-
-250.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and equally distant from the eye,
-those will look the smallest which are against the lightest
-background.
-
-Every visible object must be surrounded by light and shade. A
-perfectly spherical body surrounded by light and shade will appear
-to have one side larger than the other in proportion as one is more
-highly lighted than the other.
-
-251.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-No visible object can be well understood and comprehended by the
-human eye excepting from the difference of the background against
-which the edges of the object terminate and by which they are
-bounded, and no object will appear [to stand out] separate from that
-background so far as the outlines of its borders are concerned. The
-moon, though it is at a great distance from the sun, when, in an
-eclipse, it comes between our eyes and the sun, appears to the eyes
-of men to be close to the sun and affixed to it, because the sun is
-then the background to the moon.
-
-252.
-
-A luminous body will appear more brilliant in proportion as it is
-surrounded by deeper shadow. [Footnote: The diagram which, in the
-original, is placed after this text, has no connection with it.]
-
-253.
-
-The straight edges of a body will appear broken when they are
-conterminous with a dark space streaked with rays of light.
-[Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
-connection with the text.]
-
-254.
-
-Of several bodies, all equally large and equally distant, that which
-is most brightly illuminated will appear to the eye nearest and
-largest. [Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no
-connection with the text.]
-
-255.
-
-If several luminous bodies are seen from a great distance although
-they are really separate they will appear united as one body.
-
-256.
-
-If several objects in shadow, standing very close together, are seen
-against a bright background they will appear separated by wide
-intervals.
-
-257.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and tone, that which is farthest
-will appear the lightest and smallest.
-
-258.
-
-Of several objects equal in size, brightness of background and
-length that which has the flattest surface will look the largest. A
-bar of iron equally thick throughout and of which half is red hot,
-affords an example, for the red hot part looks thicker than the
-rest.
-
-259.
-
-Of several bodies of equal size and length, and alike in form and in
-depth of shade, that will appear smallest which is surrounded by the
-most luminous background.
-
-260.
-
-DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF A WALL SURFACE WILL BE DARKER OR BRIGHTER IN
-PROPORTION AS THE LIGHT OR SHADOW FALLS ON THEM AT A LARGER ANGLE.
-
-The foregoing proposition can be clearly proved in this way. Let us
-say that _m q_ is the luminous body, then _f g_ will be the opaque
-body; and let _a e_ be the above-mentioned plane on which the said
-angles fall, showing [plainly] the nature and character of their
-bases. Then: _a_ will be more luminous than _b_; the base of the
-angle _a_ is larger than that of _b_ and it therefore makes a
-greater angle which will be _a m q_; and the pyramid _b p m_ will be
-narrower and _m o c_ will be still finer, and so on by degrees, in
-proportion as they are nearer to _e_, the pyramids will become
-narrower and darker. That portion of the wall will be the darkest
-where the breadth of the pyramid of shadow is greater than the
-breadth of the pyramid of light.
-
-At the point _a_ the pyramid of light is equal in strength to the
-pyramid of shadow, because the base _f g_ is equal to the base _r
-f_. At the point _d_ the pyramid of light is narrower than the
-pyramid of shadow by so much as the base _s f_ is less than the base
-_f g_.
-
-Divide the foregoing proposition into two diagrams, one with the
-pyramids of light and shadow, the other with the pyramids of light
-[only].
-
-261.
-
-Among shadows of equal depth those which are nearest to the eye will
-look least deep.
-
-262.
-
-The more brilliant the light given by a luminous body, the deeper
-will the shadows be cast by the objects it illuminates.
-
-_V._
-
-_Theory of colours._
-
-_Leonardo's theory of colours is even more intimately connected with
-his principles of light and shade than his Perspective of
-Disappearance and is in fact merely an appendix or supplement to
-those principles, as we gather from the titles to sections_ 264,
-267_, and _276_, while others again_ (_Nos._ 281, 282_) are headed_
-Prospettiva.
-
-_A very few of these chapters are to be found in the oldest copies
-and editions of the Treatise on Painting, and although the material
-they afford is but meager and the connection between them but
-slight, we must still attribute to them a special theoretical value
-as well as practical utility--all the more so because our knowledge
-of the theory and use of colours at the time of the Renaissance is
-still extremely limited._
-
-The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each
-other (263-272).
-
-263.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The hue of an illuminated object is affected by that of the luminous
-body.
-
-264.
-
-OF SHADOW.
-
-The surface of any opaque body is affected by the colour of
-surrounding objects.
-
-265.
-
-A shadow is always affected by the colour of the surface on which it
-is cast.
-
-266.
-
-An image produced in a mirror is affected by the colour of the
-mirror.
-
-267.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-Every portion of the surface of a body is varied [in hue] by the
-[reflected] colour of the object that may be opposite to it.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-If you place a spherical body between various objects that is to say
-with [direct] sunlight on one side of it, and on the other a wall
-illuminated by the sun, which wall may be green or of any other
-colour, while the surface on which it is placed may be red, and the
-two lateral sides are in shadow, you will see that the natural
-colour of that body will assume something of the hue reflected from
-those objects. The strongest will be [given by] the luminous body;
-the second by the illuminated wall, the third by the shadows. There
-will still be a portion which will take a tint from the colour of
-the edges.
-
-268.
-
-The surface of every opaque body is affected by the colour of the
-objects surrounding it. But this effect will be strong or weak in
-proportion as those objects are more or less remote and more or less
-strongly [coloured].
-
-269.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The surface of every opaque body assumes the hues reflected from
-surrounding objects.
-
-The surface of an opaque body assumes the hues of surrounding
-objects more strongly in proportion as the rays that form the images
-of those objects strike the surface at more equal angles.
-
-And the surface of an opaque body assumes a stronger hue from the
-surrounding objects in proportion as that surface is whiter and the
-colour of the object brighter or more highly illuminated.
-
-270.
-
-OF THE RAYS WHICH CONVEY THROUGH THE AIR THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS.
-
-All the minutest parts of the image intersect each other without
-interfering with each other. To prove this let _r_ be one of the
-sides of the hole, opposite to which let _s_ be the eye which sees
-the lower end _o_ of the line _n o_. The other extremity cannot
-transmit its image to the eye _s_ as it has to strike the end _r_
-and it is the same with regard to _m_ at the middle of the line. The
-case is the same with the upper extremity _n_ and the eye _u_. And
-if the end _n_ is red the eye _u_ on that side of the holes will not
-see the green colour of _o_, but only the red of _n_ according to
-the 7th of this where it is said: Every form projects images from
-itself by the shortest line, which necessarily is a straight line,
-&c.
-
-[Footnote: 13. This probably refers to the diagram given under No.
-66.]
-
-271.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The surface of a body assumes in some degree the hue of those around
-it. The colours of illuminated objects are reflected from the
-surfaces of one to the other in various spots, according to the
-various positions of those objects. Let _o_ be a blue object in full
-light, facing all by itself the space _b c_ on the white sphere _a b
-e d e f_, and it will give it a blue tinge, _m_ is a yellow body
-reflected onto the space _a b_ at the same time as _o_ the blue
-body, and they give it a green colour (by the 2nd [proposition] of
-this which shows that blue and yellow make a beautiful green &c.)
-And the rest will be set forth in the Book on Painting. In that Book
-it will be shown, that, by transmitting the images of objects and
-the colours of bodies illuminated by sunlight through a small round
-perforation and into a dark chamber onto a plane surface, which
-itself is quite white, &c.
-
-But every thing will be upside down.
-
-Combination of different colours in cast shadows.
-
-272.
-
-That which casts the shadow does not face it, because the shadows
-are produced by the light which causes and surrounds the shadows.
-The shadow caused by the light _e_, which is yellow, has a blue
-tinge, because the shadow of the body _a_ is cast upon the pavement
-at _b_, where the blue light falls; and the shadow produced by the
-light _d_, which is blue, will be yellow at _c_, because the yellow
-light falls there and the surrounding background to these shadows _b
-c_ will, besides its natural colour, assume a hue compounded of
-yellow and blue, because it is lighted by the yellow light and by
-the blue light both at once.
-
-Shadows of various colours, as affected by the lights falling on
-them. That light which causes the shadow does not face it.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram we find in the circle _e_
-"_giallo_" (yellow) and the cirle _d_ "_azurro"_ (blue) and also
-under the circle of shadow to the left "_giallo_" is written and
-under that to the right "_azurro_".
-
-In the second diagram where four circles are placed in a row we find
-written, beginning at the left hand, "_giallo_" (yellow), "_azurro_"
-(blue), "_verde_" (green), "_rosso_" (red).]
-
-The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273-274).
-
-273.
-
-The edges of a colour(ed object) transmitted through a small hole
-are more conspicuous than the central portions.
-
-The edges of the images, of whatever colour, which are transmitted
-through a small aperture into a dark chamber will always be stronger
-than the middle portions.
-
-274.
-
-OF THE INTERSECTIONS OF THE IMAGES IN THE PUPIL OF THE EYE.
-
-The intersections of the images as they enter the pupil do not
-mingle in confusion in the space where that intersection unites
-them; as is evident, since, if the rays of the sun pass through two
-panes of glass in close contact, of which one is blue and the other
-yellow, the rays, in penetrating them, do not become blue or yellow
-but a beautiful green. And the same thing would happen in the eye,
-if the images which were yellow or green should mingle where they
-[meet and] intersect as they enter the pupil. As this does not
-happen such a mingling does not exist.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE RAYS COMPOSED OF THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS, AND OF
-THEIR INTERSECTIONS.
-
-The directness of the rays which transmit the forms and colours of
-the bodies whence they proceed does not tinge the air nor can they
-affect each other by contact where they intersect. They affect only
-the spot where they vanish and cease to exist, because that spot
-faces and is faced by the original source of these rays, and no
-other object, which surrounds that original source can be seen by
-the eye where these rays are cut off and destroyed, leaving there
-the spoil they have conveyed to it. And this is proved by the 4th
-[proposition], on the colour of bodies, which says: The surface of
-every opaque body is affected by the colour of surrounding objects;
-hence we may conclude that the spot which, by means of the rays
-which convey the image, faces--and is faced by the cause of the
-image, assumes the colour of that object.
-
-On the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).
-
-275.
-
-ANY SHADOW CAST BY AN OPAQUE BODY SMALLER THAN THE LIGHT CAUSING THE
-SHADOW WILL THROW A DERIVED SHADOW WHICH IS TINGED BY THE COLOUR OF
-THE LIGHT.
-
-Let _n_ be the source of the shadow _e f_; it will assume its hue.
-Let _o_ be the source of _h e_ which will in the same way be tinged
-by its hue and so also the colour of _v h_ will be affected by _p_
-which causes it; and the shadow of the triangle _z k y_ will be
-affected by the colour of _q_, because it is produced by it. [7] In
-proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_, will _n r s_ be darker than
-_m_; and the rest of the space will be shadowless [11]. _f g_ is
-the highest light, because here the whole light of the window _a d_
-falls; and thus on the opaque body _m e_ is in equally high light;
-_z k y_ is a triangle which includes the deepest shadow, because the
-light _a d_ cannot reach any part of it. _x h_ is the 2nd grade of
-shadow, because it receives only 1/3 of the light from the window,
-that is _c d_. The third grade of shadow is _h e_, where two thirds
-of the light from the window is visible. The last grade of shadow is
-_b d e f_, because the highest grade of light from the window falls
-at _f_.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram Pl. III, No. 1 belongs to this chapter as
-well as the text given in No. 148. Lines 7-11 (compare lines 8-12 of
-No. 148) which are written within the diagram, evidently apply to
-both sections and have therefore been inserted in both.]
-
-276.
-
-OF THE COLOURS OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS.
-
-The colour of derived shadows is always affected by that of the body
-towards which they are cast. To prove this: let an opaque body be
-placed between the plane _s c t d_ and the blue light _d e_ and the
-red light _a b_, then I say that _d e_, the blue light, will fall on
-the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at _o p_ which is covered by
-the shadow of the body _q r_, as is shown by the straight lines _d q
-o e r p_. And the same occurs with the light _a b_ which falls on
-the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at the spot obscured by the
-shadow _q r_; as is shown by the lines _d q o_, and _e r p_. Hence
-we may conclude that the shadow _n m_ is exposed to the blue light
-_d e_; but, as the red light _a b_ cannot fall there, _n m_ will
-appear as a blue shadow on a red background tinted with blue,
-because on the surface _s c t d_ both lights can fall. But in the
-shadows only one single light falls; for this reason these shadows
-are of medium depth, since, if no light whatever mingled with the
-shadow, it would be of the first degree of darkness &c. But in the
-shadow at _o p_ the blue light does not fall, because the body _q r_
-interposes and intercepts it there. Only the red light _a b_ falls
-there and tinges the shadow of a red hue and so a ruddy shadow
-appears on the background of mingled red and blue.
-
-The shadow of _q r_ at _o p_ is red, being caused by the blue light
-_d e_; and the shadow of _q r_ at _o' p'_ is blue being caused by
-the red light _a b_. Hence we say that the blue light in this
-instance causes a red derived shadow from the opaque body _q' r'_,
-while the red light causes the same body to cast a blue derived
-shadow; but the primary shadow [on the dark side of the body itself]
-is not of either of those hues, but a mixture of red and blue.
-
-The derived shadows will be equal in depth if they are produced by
-lights of equal strength and at an equal distance; this is proved.
-[Footnote 53: The text is unfinished in the original.]
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagram Leonardo has written within the
-circle _q r corpo obroso_ (body in shadow); at the spot marked _A,
-luminoso azzurro_ (blue luminous body); at _B, luminoso rosso_ (red
-luminous body). At _E_ we read _ombra azzurra_ (blue tinted shadow)
-and at _D ombra rossa_ (red tinted shadow).]
-
-On the nature of colours (277. 278).
-
-277.
-
-No white or black is transparent.
-
-278.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-[Footnote 2: See Footnote 3] Since white is not a colour but the
-neutral recipient of every colour [Footnote 3: _il bianco non e
-colore ma e inpotentia ricettiva d'ogni colore_ (white is not a
-colour, but the neutral recipient of every colour). LEON BATT.
-ALBERTI "_Della pittura_" libro I, asserts on the contrary: "_Il
-bianco e'l nero non sono veri colori, ma sono alteratione delli
-altri colori_" (ed. JANITSCHEK, p. 67; Vienna 1877).], when it is
-seen in the open air and high up, all its shadows are bluish; and
-this is caused, according to the 4th [prop.], which says: the
-surface of every opaque body assumes the hue of the surrounding
-objects. Now this white [body] being deprived of the light of the
-sun by the interposition of some body between the sun and itself,
-all that portion of it which is exposed to the sun and atmosphere
-assumes the colour of the sun and atmosphere; the side on which the
-sun does not fall remains in shadow and assumes the hue of the
-atmosphere. And if this white object did not reflect the green of
-the fields all the way to the horizon nor get the brightness of the
-horizon itself, it would certainly appear simply of the same hue as
-the atmosphere.
-
-On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).
-
-279.
-
-Since black, when painted next to white, looks no blacker than when
-next to black; and white when next to black looks no whiter than
-white, as is seen by the images transmitted through a small hole or
-by the edges of any opaque screen ...
-
-280.
-
-OF COLOURS.
-
-Of several colours, all equally white, that will look whitest which
-is against the darkest background. And black will look intensest
-against the whitest background.
-
-And red will look most vivid against the yellowest background; and
-the same is the case with all colours when surrounded by their
-strongest contrasts.
-
-On the reflection of colours (281-283).
-
-281.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Every object devoid of colour in itself is more or less tinged by
-the colour [of the object] placed opposite. This may be seen by
-experience, inasmuch as any object which mirrors another assumes the
-colour of the object mirrored in it. And if the surface thus
-partially coloured is white the portion which has a red reflection
-will appear red, or any other colour, whether bright or dark.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Every opaque and colourless body assumes the hue of the colour
-reflected on it; as happens with a white wall.
-
-282.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-That side of an object in light and shade which is towards the light
-transmits the images of its details more distinctly and immediately
-to the eye than the side which is in shadow.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-The solar rays reflected on a square mirror will be thrown back to
-distant objects in a circular form.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Any white and opaque surface will be partially coloured by
-reflections from surrounding objects.
-
-[Footnote 281. 282: The title line of these chapters is in the
-original simply _"pro"_, which may be an abbreviation for either
-_Propositione_ or _Prospettiva_--taking Prospettiva of course in its
-widest sense, as we often find it used in Leonardo's writings. The
-title _"pro"_ has here been understood to mean _Prospettiva_, in
-accordance with the suggestion afforded by page 10b of this same
-MS., where the first section is headed _Prospettiva_ in full (see
-No. 94), while the four following sections are headed merely _"pro"_
-(see No. 85).]
-
-283.
-
-WHAT PORTION OF A COLOURED SURFACE OUGHT IN REASON TO BE THE MOST
-INTENSE.
-
-If _a_ is the light, and _b_ illuminated by it in a direct line,
-_c_, on which the light cannot fall, is lighted only by reflection
-from _b_ which, let us say, is red. Hence the light reflected from
-it, will be affected by the hue of the surface causing it and will
-tinge the surface _c_ with red. And if _c_ is also red you will see
-it much more intense than _b_; and if it were yellow you would see
-there a colour between yellow and red.
-
-On the use of dark and light colours in painting (284--286).
-
-284.
-
-WHY BEAUTIFUL COLOURS MUST BE IN THE [HIGHEST] LIGHT.
-
-Since we see that the quality of colour is known [only] by means of
-light, it is to be supposed that where there is most light the true
-character of a colour in light will be best seen; and where there is
-most shadow the colour will be affected by the tone of that. Hence,
-O Painter! remember to show the true quality of colours in bright
-lights.
-
-285.
-
-An object represented in white and black will display stronger
-relief than in any other way; hence I would remind you O Painter! to
-dress your figures in the lightest colours you can, since, if you
-put them in dark colours, they will be in too slight relief and
-inconspicuous from a distance. And the reason is that the shadows of
-all objects are dark. And if you make a dress dark there is little
-variety in the lights and shadows, while in light colours there are
-many grades.
-
-286.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Colours seen in shadow will display more or less of their natural
-brilliancy in proportion as they are in fainter or deeper shadow.
-
-But if these same colours are situated in a well-lighted place, they
-will appear brighter in proportion as the light is more brilliant.
-
-THE ADVERSARY.
-
-The variety of colours in shadow must be as great as that of the
-colours in the objects in that shadow.
-
-THE ANSWER.
-
-Colours seen in shadow will display less variety in proportion as
-the shadows in which they lie are deeper. And evidence of this is to
-be had by looking from an open space into the doorways of dark and
-shadowy churches, where the pictures which are painted in various
-colours all look of uniform darkness.
-
-Hence at a considerable distance all the shadows of different
-colours will appear of the same darkness.
-
-It is the light side of an object in light and shade which shows the
-true colour.
-
-On the colours of the rainbow (287. 288).
-
-287.
-
-Treat of the rainbow in the last book on Painting, but first write
-the book on colours produced by the mixture of other colours, so as
-to be able to prove by those painters' colours how the colours of
-the rainbow are produced.
-
-288.
-
-WHETHER THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW ARE PRODUCED BY THE SUN.
-
-The colours of the rainbow are not produced by the sun, for they
-occur in many ways without the sunshine; as may be seen by holding a
-glass of water up to the eye; when, in the glass--where there are
-those minute bubbles always seen in coarse glass--each bubble, even
-though the sun does not fall on it, will produce on one side all the
-colours of the rainbow; as you may see by placing the glass between
-the day light and your eye in such a way as that it is close to the
-eye, while on one side the glass admits the [diffused] light of the
-atmosphere, and on the other side the shadow of the wall on one side
-of the window; either left or right, it matters not which. Then, by
-turning the glass round you will see these colours all round the
-bubbles in the glass &c. And the rest shall be said in its place.
-
-THAT THE EYE HAS NO PART IN PRODUCING THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW.
-
-In the experiment just described, the eye would seem to have some
-share in the colours of the rainbow, since these bubbles in the
-glass do not display the colours except through the medium of the
-eye. But, if you place the glass full of water on the window sill,
-in such a position as that the outer side is exposed to the sun's
-rays, you will see the same colours produced in the spot of light
-thrown through the glass and upon the floor, in a dark place, below
-the window; and as the eye is not here concerned in it, we may
-evidently, and with certainty pronounce that the eye has no share in
-producing them.
-
-OF THE COLOURS IN THE FEATHERS OF CERTAIN BIRDS.
-
-There are many birds in various regions of the world on whose
-feathers we see the most splendid colours produced as they move, as
-we see in our own country in the feathers of peacocks or on the
-necks of ducks or pigeons, &c.
-
-Again, on the surface of antique glass found underground and on the
-roots of turnips kept for some time at the bottom of wells or other
-stagnant waters [we see] that each root displays colours similar to
-those of the real rainbow. They may also be seen when oil has been
-placed on the top of water and in the solar rays reflected from the
-surface of a diamond or beryl; again, through the angular facet of a
-beryl every dark object against a background of the atmosphere or
-any thing else equally pale-coloured is surrounded by these rainbow
-colours between the atmosphere and the dark body; and in many other
-circumstances which I will not mention, as these suffice for my
-purpose.
-
-_VI._
-
-_'Prospettiva de' colri' (Perspective of Colour)_
-
-_and_
-
-_'Prospettiva aerea' (Aerial Perspective)._
-
-_Leonardo distinctly separates these branches of his subject, as may
-be seen in the beginning of No._ 295. _Attempts have been made to
-cast doubts on the results which Leonardo arrived at by experiment
-on the perspective of colour, but not with justice, as may be seen
-from the original text of section_ 294.
-
-_The question as to the composition of the atmosphere, which is
-inseparable from a discussion on Aerial Perspective, forms a
-separate theory which is treated at considerable length. Indeed the
-author enters into it so fully that we cannot escape the conviction
-that he must have dwelt with particular pleasure on this part of his
-subject, and that he attached great importance to giving it a
-character of general applicability._
-
-General rules (289--291).
-
-289.
-
-The variety of colour in objects cannot be discerned at a great
-distance, excepting in those parts which are directly lighted up by
-the solar rays.
-
-290.
-
-As to the colours of objects: at long distances no difference is
-perceptible in the parts in shadow.
-
-291.
-
-OF THE VISIBILITY OF COLOURS.
-
-Which colour strikes most? An object at a distance is most
-conspicuous, when it is lightest, and the darkest is least visible.
-
-An exceptional case.
-
-292.
-
-Of the edges [outlines] of shadows. Some have misty and ill defined
-edges, others distinct ones.
-
-No opaque body can be devoid of light and shade, except it is in a
-mist, on ground covered with snow, or when snow is falling on the
-open country which has no light on it and is surrounded with
-darkness.
-
-And this occurs [only] in spherical bodies, because in other bodies
-which have limbs and parts, those sides of limbs which face each
-other reflect on each other the accidental [hue and tone] of their
-surface.
-
-An experiment.
-
-293.
-
-ALL COLOURS ARE AT A DISTANCE UNDISTINGUISHABLE AND UNDISCERNIBLE.
-
-All colours at a distance are undistinguishable in shadow, because
-an object which is not in the highest light is incapable of
-transmitting its image to the eye through an atmosphere more
-luminous than itself; since the lesser brightness must be absorbed
-by the greater. For instance: We, in a house, can see that all the
-colours on the surface of the walls are clearly and instantly
-visible when the windows of the house are open; but if we were to go
-out of the house and look in at the windows from a little distance
-to see the paintings on those walls, instead of the paintings we
-should see an uniform deep and colourless shadow.
-
-The practice of the prospettiva de colori.
-
-294.
-
-HOW A PAINTER SHOULD CARRY OUT THE PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR IN
-PRACTICE.
-
-In order to put into practice this perspective of the variation and
-loss or diminution of the essential character of colours, observe at
-every hundred braccia some objects standing in the landscape, such
-as trees, houses, men and particular places. Then in front of the
-first tree have a very steady plate of glass and keep your eye very
-steady, and then, on this plate of glass, draw a tree, tracing it
-over the form of that tree. Then move it on one side so far as that
-the real tree is close by the side of the tree you have drawn; then
-colour your drawing in such a way as that in colour and form the two
-may be alike, and that both, if you close one eye, seem to be
-painted on the glass and at the same distance. Then, by the same
-method, represent a second tree, and a third, with a distance of a
-hundred braccia between each. And these will serve as a standard and
-guide whenever you work on your own pictures, wherever they may
-apply, and will enable you to give due distance in those works. [14]
-But I have found that as a rule the second is 4/5 of the first when
-it is 20 braccia beyond it.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter is one of those copied in the Manuscript of
-the Vatican library Urbinas 1270, and the original text is rendered
-here with no other alterations, but in the orthography. H. LUDWIG,
-in his edition of this copy translates lines 14 and 15 thus: "_Ich
-finde aber als Regel, dass der zweite um vier Funftel des ersten
-abnimmt, wenn er namlich zwanzig Ellen vom ersten entfernt ist
-(?)"_. He adds in his commentary: "_Das Ende der Nummer ist wohl
-jedenfalls verstummelt_". However the translation given above shows
-that it admits of a different rendering.]
-
-The rules of aerial perspective (295--297).
-
-295.
-
-OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-There is another kind of perspective which I call Aerial
-Perspective, because by the atmosphere we are able to distinguish
-the variations in distance of different buildings, which appear
-placed on a single line; as, for instance, when we see several
-buildings beyond a wall, all of which, as they appear above the top
-of the wall, look of the same size, while you wish to represent them
-in a picture as more remote one than another and to give the effect
-of a somewhat dense atmosphere. You know that in an atmosphere of
-equal density the remotest objects seen through it, as mountains, in
-consequence of the great quantity of atmosphere between your eye and
-them--appear blue and almost of the same hue as the atmosphere
-itself [Footnote 10: _quado il sole e per leuante_ (when the sun is
-in the East). Apparently the author refers here to morning light in
-general. H. LUDWIG however translates this passage from the Vatican
-copy "_wenn namlich die Sonne (dahinter) im Osten steht_".] when the
-sun is in the East [Footnote 11: See Footnote 10]. Hence you must
-make the nearest building above the wall of its real colour, but the
-more distant ones make less defined and bluer. Those you wish should
-look farthest away you must make proportionately bluer; thus, if one
-is to be five times as distant, make it five times bluer. And by
-this rule the buildings which above a [given] line appear of the
-same size, will plainly be distinguished as to which are the more
-remote and which larger than the others.
-
-296.
-
-The medium lying between the eye and the object seen, tinges that
-object with its colour, as the blueness of the atmosphere makes the
-distant mountains appear blue and red glass makes objects seen
-beyond it, look red. The light shed round them by the stars is
-obscured by the darkness of the night which lies between the eye and
-the radiant light of the stars.
-
-297.
-
-Take care that the perspective of colour does not disagree with the
-size of your objects, hat is to say: that the colours diminish from
-their natural [vividness] in proportion as the objects at various
-distances dimmish from their natural size.
-
-On the relative density of the atmosphere (298--290).
-
-298.
-
-WHY THE ATMOSPHERE MUST BE REPRESENTED AS PALER TOWARDS THE LOWER
-PORTION.
-
-Because the atmosphere is dense near the earth, and the higher it is
-the rarer it becomes. When the sun is in the East if you look
-towards the West and a little way to the South and North, you will
-see that this dense atmosphere receives more light from the sun than
-the rarer; because the rays meet with greater resistance. And if the
-sky, as you see it, ends on a low plain, that lowest portion of the
-sky will be seen through a denser and whiter atmosphere, which will
-weaken its true colour as seen through that medium, and there the
-sky will look whiter than it is above you, where the line of sight
-travels through a smaller space of air charged with heavy vapour.
-And if you turn to the East, the atmosphere will appear darker as
-you look lower down because the luminous rays pass less freely
-through the lower atmosphere.
-
-299.
-
-OF THE MODE OF TREATING REMOTE OBJECTS IN PAINTING.
-
-It is easy to perceive that the atmosphere which lies closest to the
-level ground is denser than the rest, and that where it is higher
-up, it is rarer and more transparent. The lower portions of large
-and lofty objects which are at a distance are not much seen, because
-you see them along a line which passes through a denser and thicker
-section of the atmosphere. The summits of such heights are seen
-along a line which, though it starts from your eye in a dense
-atmosphere, still, as it ends at the top of those lofty objects,
-ceases in a much rarer atmosphere than exists at their base; for
-this reason the farther this line extends from your eye, from point
-to point the atmosphere becomes more and more rare. Hence, O
-Painter! when you represent mountains, see that from hill to hill
-the bases are paler than the summits, and in proportion as they
-recede beyond each other make the bases paler than the summits;
-while, the higher they are the more you must show of their true form
-and colour.
-
-On the colour of the atmosphere (300-307).
-
-300.
-
-OF THE COLOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-I say that the blueness we see in the atmosphere is not intrinsic
-colour, but is caused by warm vapour evaporated in minute and
-insensible atoms on which the solar rays fall, rendering them
-luminous against the infinite darkness of the fiery sphere which
-lies beyond and includes it. And this may be seen, as I saw it by
-any one going up [Footnote 5: With regard to the place spoken of as
-_M'oboso_ (compare No. 301 line 20) its identity will be discussed
-under Leonardo's Topographical notes in Vol. II.] Monboso, a peak of
-the Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain
-gives birth to the four rivers which flow in four different
-directions through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base
-at so great a height as this, which lifts itself almost above the
-clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
-when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
-that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
-clouds, which does not happen twice in an age, an enormous mass of
-ice would be piled up there by the hail, and in the middle of July I
-found it very considerable. There I saw above me the dark sky, and
-the sun as it fell on the mountain was far brighter here than in the
-plains below, because a smaller extent of atmosphere lay between the
-summit of the mountain and the sun. Again as an illustration of the
-colour of the atmosphere I will mention the smoke of old and dry
-wood, which, as it comes out of a chimney, appears to turn very
-blue, when seen between the eye and the dark distance. But as it
-rises, and comes between the eye and the bright atmosphere, it at
-once shows of an ashy grey colour; and this happens because it no
-longer has darkness beyond it, but this bright and luminous space.
-If the smoke is from young, green wood, it will not appear blue,
-because, not being transparent and being full of superabundant
-moisture, it has the effect of condensed clouds which take distinct
-lights and shadows like a solid body. The same occurs with the
-atmosphere, which, when overcharged with moisture appears white, and
-the small amount of heated moisture makes it dark, of a dark blue
-colour; and this will suffice us so far as concerns the colour of
-the atmosphere; though it might be added that, if this transparent
-blue were the natural colour of the atmosphere, it would follow that
-wherever a larger mass air intervened between the eye and the
-element of fire, the azure colour would be more intense; as we see
-in blue glass and in sapphires, which are darker in proportion as
-they are larger. But the atmosphere in such circumstances behaves in
-an opposite manner, inasmuch as where a greater quantity of it lies
-between the eye and the sphere of fire, it is seen much whiter. This
-occurs towards the horizon. And the less the extent of atmosphere
-between the eye and the sphere of fire, the deeper is the blue
-colour, as may be seen even on low plains. Hence it follows, as I
-say, that the atmosphere assumes this azure hue by reason of the
-particles of moisture which catch the rays of the sun. Again, we may
-note the difference in particles of dust, or particles of smoke, in
-the sun beams admitted through holes into a dark chamber, when the
-former will look ash grey and the thin smoke will appear of a most
-beautiful blue; and it may be seen again in in the dark shadows of
-distant mountains when the air between the eye and those shadows
-will look very blue, though the brightest parts of those mountains
-will not differ much from their true colour. But if any one wishes
-for a final proof let him paint a board with various colours, among
-them an intense black; and over all let him lay a very thin and
-transparent [coating of] white. He will then see that this
-transparent white will nowhere show a more beautiful blue than over
-the black--but it must be very thin and finely ground.
-
-[Footnote 7: _reta_ here has the sense of _malanno_.]
-
-301.
-
-Experience shows us that the air must have darkness beyond it and
-yet it appears blue. If you produce a small quantity of smoke from
-dry wood and the rays of the sun fall on this smoke, and if you then
-place behind the smoke a piece of black velvet on which the sun does
-not shine, you will see that all the smoke which is between the eye
-and the black stuff will appear of a beautiful blue colour. And if
-instead of the velvet you place a white cloth smoke, that is too
-thick smoke, hinders, and too thin smoke does not produce, the
-perfection of this blue colour. Hence a moderate amount of smoke
-produces the finest blue. Water violently ejected in a fine spray
-and in a dark chamber where the sun beams are admitted produces
-these blue rays and the more vividly if it is distilled water, and
-thin smoke looks blue. This I mention in order to show that the
-blueness of the atmosphere is caused by the darkness beyond it, and
-these instances are given for those who cannot confirm my experience
-on Monboso.
-
-302.
-
-When the smoke from dry wood is seen between the eye of the
-spectator and some dark space [or object], it will look blue. Thus
-the sky looks blue by reason of the darkness beyond it. And if you
-look towards the horizon of the sky, you will see the atmosphere is
-not blue, and this is caused by its density. And thus at each
-degree, as you raise your eyes above the horizon up to the sky over
-your head, you will see the atmosphere look darker [blue] and this
-is because a smaller density of air lies between your eye and the
-[outer] darkness. And if you go to the top of a high mountain the
-sky will look proportionately darker above you as the atmosphere
-becomes rarer between you and the [outer] darkness; and this will be
-more visible at each degree of increasing height till at last we
-should find darkness.
-
-That smoke will look bluest which rises from the driest wood and
-which is nearest to the fire and is seen against the darkest
-background, and with the sunlight upon it.
-
-303.
-
-A dark object will appear bluest in proportion as it has a greater
-mass of luminous atmosphere between it and the eye. As may be seen
-in the colour of the sky.
-
-304.
-
-The atmosphere is blue by reason of the darkness above it because
-black and white make blue.
-
-305.
-
-In the morning the mist is denser above than below, because the sun
-draws it upwards; hence tall buildings, even if the summit is at the
-same distance as the base have the summit invisible. Therefore,
-also, the sky looks darkest [in colour] overhead, and towards the
-horizon it is not blue but rather between smoke and dust colour.
-
-The atmosphere, when full of mist, is quite devoid of blueness, and
-only appears of the colour of clouds, which shine white when the
-weather is fine. And the more you turn to the west the darker it
-will be, and the brighter as you look to the east. And the verdure
-of the fields is bluish in a thin mist, but grows grey in a dense
-one.
-
-The buildings in the west will only show their illuminated side,
-where the sun shines, and the mist hides the rest. When the sun
-rises and chases away the haze, the hills on the side where it lifts
-begin to grow clearer, and look blue, and seem to smoke with the
-vanishing mists; and the buildings reveal their lights and shadows;
-through the thinner vapour they show only their lights and through
-the thicker air nothing at all. This is when the movement of the
-mist makes it part horizontally, and then the edges of the mist will
-be indistinct against the blue of the sky, and towards the earth it
-will look almost like dust blown up. In proportion as the atmosphere
-is dense the buildings of a city and the trees in a landscape will
-look fewer, because only the tallest and largest will be seen.
-
-Darkness affects every thing with its hue, and the more an object
-differs from darkness, the more we see its real and natural colour.
-The mountains will look few, because only those will be seen which
-are farthest apart; since, at such a distance, the density increases
-to such a degree that it causes a brightness by which the darkness
-of the hills becomes divided and vanishes indeed towards the top.
-There is less [mist] between lower and nearer hills and yet little
-is to be distinguished, and least towards the bottom.
-
-306.
-
-The surface of an object partakes of the colour of the light which
-illuminates it; and of the colour of the atmosphere which lies
-between the eye and that object, that is of the colour of the
-transparent medium lying between the object and the eye; and among
-colours of a similar character the second will be of the same tone
-as the first, and this is caused by the increased thickness of the
-colour of the medium lying between the object and the eye.
-
-307. OF PAINTING.
-
-Of various colours which are none of them blue that which at a great
-distance will look bluest is the nearest to black; and so,
-conversely, the colour which is least like black will at a great
-distance best preserve its own colour.
-
-Hence the green of fields will assume a bluer hue than yellow or
-white will, and conversely yellow or white will change less than
-green, and red still less.
-
-_VII._
-
-_On the Proportions and on the Movements of the Human Figure._
-
-_Leonardo's researches on the proportions and movements of the human
-figure must have been for the most part completed and written before
-the year_ 1498; _for LUCA PACIOLO writes, in the dedication to
-Ludovico il Moro, of his book_ Divina Proportione, _which was
-published in that year:_ "Leonardo da venci ... hauedo gia co tutta
-diligetia al degno libro de pictura e movimenti humani posto fine".
-
-_The selection of Leonardo's axioms contained in the Vatican copy
-attributes these words to the author:_ "e il resto si dira nella
-universale misura del huomo". (_MANZI, p. 147; LUDWIG, No. 264_).
-_LOMAZZO, again, in his_ Idea del Tempio della Pittura Milano 1590,
-cap. IV, _says:_ "Lionardo Vinci ... dimostro anco in figura tutte
-le proporzioni dei membri del corpo umano".
-
-_The Vatican copy includes but very few sections of the_ "Universale
-misura del huomo" _and until now nothing has been made known of the
-original MSS. on the subject which have supplied the very extensive
-materials for this portion of the work. The collection at Windsor,
-belonging to her Majesty the Queen, includes by far the most
-important part of Leonardo's investigations on this subject,
-constituting about half of the whole of the materials here
-published; and the large number of original drawings adds greatly to
-the interest which the subject itself must command. Luca Paciolo
-would seem to have had these MSS. (which I have distinguished by the
-initials W. P.) in his mind when he wrote the passage quoted above.
-Still, certain notes of a later date--such as Nos. 360, 362 and 363,
-from MS. E, written in 1513--14, sufficiently prove that Leonardo did
-not consider his earlier studies on the Proportions and Movements of
-the Human Figure final and complete, as we might suppose from Luca
-Paciolo's statement. Or else he took the subject up again at a
-subsequent period, since his former researches had been carried on
-at Milan between 1490 and 1500. Indeed it is highly probable that
-the anatomical studies which he was pursuing zvith so much zeal
-between 1510--16 should have led him to reconsider the subject of
-Proportion.
-
-Preliminary observations (308. 309).
-
-308.
-
-Every man, at three years old is half the full height he will grow
-to at last.
-
-309.
-
-If a man 2 braccia high is too small, one of four is too tall, the
-medium being what is admirable. Between 2 and 4 comes 3; therefore
-take a man of 3 braccia in height and measure him by the rule I will
-give you. If you tell me that I may be mistaken, and judge a man to
-be well proportioned who does not conform to this division, I answer
-that you must look at many men of 3 braccia, and out of the larger
-number who are alike in their limbs choose one of those who are most
-graceful and take your measurements. The length of the hand is 1/3
-of a braccio [8 inches] and this is found 9 times in man. And the
-face [Footnote 7: The account here given of the _braccio_ is of
-importance in understanding some of the succeeding chapters. _Testa_
-must here be understood to mean the face. The statements in this
-section are illustrated in part on Pl. XI.] is the same, and from
-the pit of the throat to the shoulder, and from the shoulder to the
-nipple, and from one nipple to the other, and from each nipple to
-the pit of the throat.
-
-Proportions of the head and face (310-318).
-
-310.
-
-The space between the parting of the lips [the mouth] and the base
-of the nose is one-seventh of the face.
-
-The space from the mouth to the bottom of the chin _c d_ is the
-fourth part of the face and equal to the width of the mouth.
-
-The space from the chin to the base of the nose _e f_ is the third
-part of the face and equal to the length of the nose and to the
-forehead.
-
-The distance from the middle of the nose to the bottom of the chin
-_g h_, is half the length of the face.
-
-The distance from the top of the nose, where the eyebrows begin, to
-the bottom of the chin, _i k_, is two thirds of the face.
-
-The space from the parting of the lips to the top of the chin _l m_,
-that is where the chin ends and passes into the lower lip of the
-mouth, is the third of the distance from the parting of the lips to
-the bottom of the chin and is the twelfth part of the face. From the
-top to the bottom of the chin _m n_ is the sixth part of the face
-and is the fifty fourth part of a man's height.
-
-From the farthest projection of the chin to the throat _o p_ is
-equal to the space between the mouth and the bottom of the chin, and
-a fourth of the face.
-
-The distance from the top of the throat to the pit of the throat
-below _q r_ is half the length of the face and the eighteenth part
-of a man's height.
-
-From the chin to the back of the neck _s t_, is the same distance as
-between the mouth and the roots of the hair, that is three quarters
-of the head.
-
-From the chin to the jaw bone _v x_ is half the head and equal to
-the thickness of the neck in profile.
-
-The thickness of the head from the brow to the nape is once and 3/4
-that of the neck.
-
-[Footnote: The drawings to this text, lines 1-10 are on Pl. VII, No.
-I. The two upper sketches of heads, Pl. VII, No. 2, belong to lines
-11-14, and in the original are placed immediately below the sketches
-reproduced on Pl. VII, No. 1.]
-
-311.
-
-The distance from the attachment of one ear to the other is equal to
-that from the meeting of the eyebrows to the chin, and in a fine
-face the width of the mouth is equal to the length from the parting
-of the lips to the bottom of the chin.
-
-312.
-
-The cut or depression below the lower lip of the mouth is half way
-between the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin.
-
-The face forms a square in itself; that is its width is from the
-outer corner of one eye to the other, and its height is from the
-very top of the nose to the bottom of the lower lip of the mouth;
-then what remains above and below this square amounts to the height
-of such another square, _a_ _b_ is equal to the space between _c_
-_d_; _d_ _n_ in the same way to _n_ _c_, and likewise _s_ _r_, _q_
-_p_, _h_ _k_ are equal to each other.
-
-It is as far between _m_ and _s_ as from the bottom of the nose to
-the chin. The ear is exactly as long as the nose. It is as far from
-_x_ to _j_ as from the nose to the chin. The parting of the mouth
-seen in profile slopes to the angle of the jaw. The ear should be as
-high as from the bottom of the nose to the top of the eye-lid. The
-space between the eyes is equal to the width of an eye. The ear is
-over the middle of the neck, when seen in profile. The distance from
-4 to 5 is equal to that from s_ to _r_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. I, where the text of lines 3-13 is also
-given in facsimile.]
-
-313.
-
-(_a_ _b_) is equal to (_c_ _d_).
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VII, No. 3. Reference may also be made here to
-two pen and ink drawings of heads in profile with figured
-measurements, of which there is no description in the MS. These are
-given on Pl. XVII, No. 2.--A head, to the left, with part of the
-torso [W. P. 5a], No. 1 on the same plate is from MS. A 2b and in
-the original occurs on a page with wholly irrelevant text on matters
-of natural history. M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A
-has reproduced this head and discussed it fully [note on page 12];
-he has however somewhat altered the original measurements. The
-complicated calculations which M. RAVAISSON has given appear to me
-in no way justified. The sketch, as we see it, can hardly have been
-intended for any thing more than an experimental attempt to
-ascertain relative proportions. We do not find that Leonardo made
-use of circular lines in any other study of the proportions of the
-human head. At the same time we see that the proportions of this
-sketch are not in accordance with the rules which he usually
-observed (see for instance No. 310).]
-
-The head _a_ _f_ 1/6 larger than _n_ _f_.
-
-315.
-
-From the eyebrow to the junction of the lip with the chin, and the
-angle of the jaw and the upper angle where the ear joins the temple
-will be a perfect square. And each side by itself is half the head.
-
-The hollow of the cheek bone occurs half way between the tip of the
-nose and the top of the jaw bone, which is the lower angle of the
-setting on of the ear, in the frame here represented.
-
-From the angle of the eye-socket to the ear is as far as the length
-of the ear, or the third of the face.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. IX. The text, in the original is written behind
-the head. The handwriting would seem to indicate a date earlier than
-1480. On the same leaf there is a drawing in red chalk of two
-horsemen of which only a portion of the upper figure is here
-visible. The whole leaf measures 22 1/2 centimetres wide by 29 long,
-and is numbered 127 in the top right-hand corner.]
-
-316.
-
-From _a_ to _b_--that is to say from the roots of the hair in front
-to the top of the head--ought to be equal to _c_ _d_;--that is from
-the bottom of the nose to the meeting of the lips in the middle of
-the mouth. From the inner corner of the eye _m_ to the top of the
-head _a_ is as far as from _m_ down to the chin _s_. _s_ _c_ _f_ _b_
-are all at equal distances from each other.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing in silver-point on bluish tinted paper--Pl.
-X--which belongs to this chapter has been partly drawn over in ink
-by Leonardo himself.]
-
-317.
-
-From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is 1/9, and from
-the roots of the hair to the chin is 1/9 of the distance from the
-roots of the hair to the ground. The greatest width of the face is
-equal to the space between the mouth and the roots of the hair and
-is 1/12 of the whole height. From the top of the ear to the top of
-the head is equal to the distance from the bottom of the chin to the
-lachrymatory duct of the eye; and also equal to the distance from
-the angle of the chin to that of the jaw; that is the 1/16 of the
-whole. The small cartilage which projects over the opening of the
-ear towards the nose is half-way between the nape and the eyebrow;
-the thickness of the neck in profile is equal to the space between
-the chin and the eyes, and to the space between the chin and the
-jaw, and it is 1/18 of the height of the man.
-
-318.
-
-_a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_, _i k_ are equal to each other in size
-excepting that _d f_ is accidental.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XI.]
-
-Proportions of the head seen in front (319-321).
-
-319.
-
-_a n o f_ are equal to the mouth.
-
-_a c_ and _a f_ are equal to the space between one eye and the
-other.
-
-_n m o f q r_ are equal to half the width of the eye lids, that is
-from the inner [lachrymatory] corner of the eye to its outer corner;
-and in like manner the division between the chin and the mouth; and
-in the same way the narrowest part of the nose between the eyes. And
-these spaces, each in itself, is the 19th part of the head, _n o_ is
-equal to the length of the eye or of the space between the eyes.
-
-_m c_ is 1/3 of _n m_ measuring from the outer corner of the eyelids
-to the letter _c_. _b s_ will be equal to the width of the nostril.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XII.]
-
-320.
-
-The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes is 1/3 of
-the face. The space between the outer corners of the eyes, that is
-where the eye ends in the eye socket which contains it, thus the
-outer corners, is half the face.
-
-The greatest width of the face at the line of the eyes is equal to
-the distance from the roots of the hair in front to the parting of
-the lips.
-
-[Footnote: There are, with this section, two sketches of eyes, not
-reproduced here.]
-
-321.
-
-The nose will make a double square; that is the width of the nose at
-the nostrils goes twice into the length from the tip of the nose to
-the eyebrows. And, in the same way, in profile the distance from the
-extreme side of the nostril where it joins the cheek to the tip of
-the nose is equal to the width of the nose in front from one nostril
-to the other. If you divide the whole length of the nose--that is
-from the tip to the insertion of the eyebrows, into 4 equal parts,
-you will find that one of these parts extends from the tip of the
-nostrils to the base of the nose, and the upper division lies
-between the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the
-eyebrows; and the two middle parts [together] are equal to the
-length of the eye from the inner to the outer corner.
-
-[Footnote: The two bottom sketches on Pl. VII, No. 4 face the six
-lines of this section,--With regard to the proportions of the head
-in profile see No. 312.]
-
-322.
-
-The great toe is the sixth part of the foot, taking the measure in
-profile, on the inside of the foot, from where this toe springs from
-the ball of the sole of the foot to its tip _a b_; and it is equal
-to the distance from the mouth to the bottom of the chin. If you
-draw the foot in profile from the outside, make the little toe begin
-at three quarters of the length of the foot, and you will find the
-same distance from the insertion of this toe as to the farthest
-prominence of the great toe.
-
-323.
-
-For each man respectively the distance between _a b_ is equal to _c
-d_.
-
-324.
-
-Relative proportion of the hand and foot.
-
-The foot is as much longer than the hand as the thickness of the arm
-at the wrist where it is thinnest seen facing.
-
-Again, you will find that the foot is as much longer than the hand
-as the space between the inner angle of the little toe to the last
-projection of the big toe, if you measure along the length of the
-foot.
-
-The palm of the hand without the fingers goes twice into the length
-of the foot without the toes.
-
-If you hold your hand with the fingers straight out and close
-together you will find it to be of the same width as the widest part
-of the foot, that is where it is joined onto the toes.
-
-And if you measure from the prominence of the inner ancle to the end
-of the great toe you will find this measure to be as long as the
-whole hand.
-
-From the top angle of the foot to the insertion of the toes is equal
-to the hand from wrist joint to the tip of the thumb.
-
-The smallest width of the hand is equal to the smallest width of the
-foot between its joint into the leg and the insertion of the toes.
-
-The width of the heel at the lower part is equal to that of the arm
-where it joins the hand; and also to the leg where it is thinnest
-when viewed in front.
-
-The length of the longest toe, from its first division from the
-great toe to its tip is the fourth of the foot from the centre of
-the ancle bone to the tip, and it is equal to the width of the
-mouth. The distance between the mouth and the chin is equal to that
-of the knuckles and of the three middle fingers and to the length of
-their first joints if the hand is spread, and equal to the distance
-from the joint of the thumb to the outset of the nails, that is the
-fourth part of the hand and of the face.
-
-The space between the extreme poles inside and outside the foot
-called the ancle or ancle bone _a b_ is equal to the space between
-the mouth and the inner corner of the eye.
-
-325.
-
-The foot, from where it is attached to the leg, to the tip of the
-great toe is as long as the space between the upper part of the chin
-and the roots of the hair _a b_; and equal to five sixths of the
-face.
-
-326.
-
-_a d_ is a head's length, _c b_ is a head's length. The four smaller
-toes are all equally thick from the nail at the top to the bottom,
-and are 1/13 of the foot.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIV, No. 1, a drawing of a foot with the text in
-three lines below it.]
-
-327.
-
-The whole length of the foot will lie between the elbow and the
-wrist and between the elbow and the inner angle of the arm towards
-the breast when the arm is folded. The foot is as long as the whole
-head of a man, that is from under the chin to the topmost part of
-the head[Footnote 2: _nel modo che qui i figurato_. See Pl. VII, No.
-4, the upper figure. The text breaks off at the end of line 2 and
-the text given under No. 321 follows below. It may be here remarked
-that the second sketch on W. P. 311 has in the original no
-explanatory text.] in the way here figured.
-
-Proportions of the leg (328-331).
-
-328.
-
-The greatest thickness of the calf of the leg is at a third of its
-height _a b_, and is a twentieth part thicker than the greatest
-thickness of the foot.
-
-_a c_ is half of the head, and equal to _d b_ and to the insertion
-of the five toes _e f_. _d k_ diminishes one sixth in the leg _g h_.
-_g h_ is 1/3 of the head; _m n_ increases one sixth from _a e_ and
-is 7/12 of the head, _o p_ is 1/10 less than _d k_ and is 6/17 of
-the head. _a_ is at half the distance between _b q_, and is 1/4 of
-the man. _r_ is half way between _s_ and _b_[Footnote 11: _b_ is
-here and later on measured on the right side of the foot as seen by
-the spectator.]. The concavity of the knee outside _r_ is higher
-than that inside _a_. The half of the whole height of the leg from
-the foot _r_, is half way between the prominence _s_ and the ground
-_b_. _v_ is half way between _t_ and _b_. The thickness of the thigh
-seen in front is equal to the greatest width of the face, that is
-2/3 of the length from the chin to the top of the head; _z r_ is 5/6
-of 7 to _v_; _m n_ is equal to 7 _v_ and is 1/4 of _r b_, _x y_ goes
-3 times into _r b_, and into _r s_.
-
-[Footnote 22-35: The sketch illustrating these lines is on Pl. XIII,
-No. 2.]
-
-[Footnote 22: a b _entra in_ c f 6 _e_ 6 _in_ c n. Accurate
-measurement however obliges us to read 7 for 6.] _a b_ goes six
-times into _c f_ and six times into _c n_ and is equal to _g h_; _i
-k l m_ goes 4 times into _d f_, and 4 times into _d n_ and is 3/7 of
-the foot; _p q r s_ goes 3 times into _d f, and 3 times into _b n_;
-[Footnote: 25. _y_ is not to be found on the diagram and _x_ occurs
-twice; this makes the passage very obscure.] _x y_ is 1/8 of _x f_
-and is equal to _n q_. 3 7 is 1/9 of _n f_; 4 5 is 1/10 of _n f_
-[Footnote: 22-27. Compare with this lines 18-24 of No. 331, and the
-sketch of a leg in profile Pl. XV.].
-
-I want to know how much a man increases in height by standing on
-tip-toe and how much _p g_ diminishes by stooping; and how much it
-increases at _n q_ likewise in bending the foot.
-
-[Footnote 34: _e f_ 4 _dal cazo_. By reading _i_ for _e_ the sense
-of this passage is made clear.] _e f_ is four times in the distance
-between the genitals and the sole of the foot; [Footnote 35: 2 is
-not to be found in the sketch which renders the passage obscure. The
-two last lines are plainly legible in the facsimile.] 3 7 is six
-times from 3 to 2 and is equal to _g h_ and _i k_.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing of a leg seen in front Pl. XIII, No. 1
-belongs to the text from lines 3-21. The measurements in this
-section should be compared with the text No. 331, lines 1-13, and
-the sketch of a leg seen in front on Pl. XV.]
-
-329.
-
-The length of the foot from the end of the toes to the heel goes
-twice into that from the heel to the knee, that is where the leg
-bone [fibula] joins the thigh bone [femur].
-
-330.
-
-_a n b_ are equal; _c n d_ are equal; _n c_ makes two feet; _n d_
-makes 2 feet.
-
-[Footnote: See the lower sketch, Pl. XIV, No. 1.]
-
-331.
-
-_m n o_ are equal. The narrowest width of the leg seen in front goes
-8 times from the sole of the foot to the joint of the knee, and is
-the same width as the arm, seen in front at the wrist, and as the
-longest measure of the ear, and as the three chief divisions into
-which we divide the face; and this measurement goes 4 times from the
-wrist joint of the hand to the point of the elbow. [14] The foot is
-as long as the space from the knee between _a_ and _b_; and the
-patella of the knee is as long as the leg between _r_ and _s_.
-
-[18] The least thickness of the leg in profile goes 6 times from the
-sole of the foot to the knee joint and is the same width as the
-space between the outer corner of the eye and the opening of the
-ear, and as the thickest part of the arm seen in profile and between
-the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the hair.
-
-_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice
-from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same
-from the knee to the hip.
-
-[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say
-measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the
-front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the
-middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the
-left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above,
-to the left and apply to the sketch below them.
-
-Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in
-No. 336, lines 6, 7.]
-
-On the central point of the whole body.
-
-332.
-
-In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height.
-
-When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel
-will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows.
-
-Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top
-of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and
-below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to
-the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height]
-by the length of the scrotum.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure.
-
-333.
-
-The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the
-greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to
-the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of
-the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would
-seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this
-point to the genitals is a face's length.
-
-[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the
-same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
-
-The relative proportions of the head and of the torso.
-
-334.
-
-From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the
-sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal.
-
-From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same
-distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure
-goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the
-nose.
-
-The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in
-front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of
-the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the
-length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside.
-
-[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. 336).
-
-335.
-
-_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of
-the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the
-fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the
-breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height
-of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each
-other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.]
-
-336.
-
---Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end
-of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the
-swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of
-the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.]
-
-The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot.
-
-337.
-
-The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_
-to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest
-part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
-
-The proportions of the whole figure (338-341).
-
-338.
-
-A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height.
-
-339.
-
-The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip
-and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.]
-
-340.
-
-From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure.
-From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest
-finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from
-the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the
-pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin
-to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to
-the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is
-1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4.
-
-341.
-
-The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of
-the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to
-below the shoulder-blade is one foot.
-
-The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one
-8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of
-the chin and the top of the head.
-
-The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4.
-
-The torso from the front and back.
-
-342.
-
-The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips.
-
-A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top
-of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally
-balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top
-of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips
-will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock.
-
-[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of
-line 1.]
-
-Vitruvius' scheme of proportions.
-
-343.
-
-Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the
-measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows:
-that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms
-make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one
-pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his
-buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height
-1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch
-the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of
-the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the
-legs will be an equilateral triangle.
-
-The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height.
-
-From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of
-a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head
-is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top
-of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast
-to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man.
-From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a
-man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the
-fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will
-be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the
-armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be
-the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the
-middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the
-sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the
-man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be
-the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin
-to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in
-each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide
-and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are
-written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage
-quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is
-given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511,
-fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).]
-
-The arm and head.
-
-344.
-
-From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this
-happens when the elbow forms a right angle.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.]
-
-Proportions of the arm (345-349).
-
-345.
-
-From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint
-is four hands or, if you will, four faces.
-
-_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the
-leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering
-refers to the bent arm near the text.]
-
-346.
-
-The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times
-from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint.
-
-347.
-
-_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space
-between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the
-whole man.
-
-_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures
-a cubit.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little
-child) may mean here the navel.]
-
-348.
-
-_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest
-thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times
-into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm
-between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is
-equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow
-_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space
-_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the
-wrist joint.
-
-[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is
-from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times
-into the hand and 9 into the arm.
-
-The arm when bent is 4 heads.
-
-The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in
-length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and
-this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when
-seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and
-the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle
-fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the
-roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote:
-_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to
-rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the
-accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances
-are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the
-above-mentioned increase in the arm.
-
-The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or
-extended.
-
-The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended.
-
-When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is
-bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The
-outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it
-increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by
-bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the
-side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the
-half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to
-the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand.
-
-The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the
-elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on
-the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the
-elbow never alters in any position of the arm.
-
-If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_
-and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the
-half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is
-however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the
-shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb,
-inside, to the elbow _a b c_.
-
-[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is
-identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may
-therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore
-_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_
-goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the
-elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the
-whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is
-equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first
-is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow
-and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two
-columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we
-find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the
-text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl.
-XXXV, No. 1.]
-
-349.
-
-From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as
-from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of
-the hand, and each is 2 faces.
-
-[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal
-to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_
-to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into
-_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is
-extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point
-between _a_ and _s_.
-
-_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when
-the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending
-loses 1/6 and so does _o r_.
-
-_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those
-2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part
-between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r
-c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.]
-
-The movement of the arm (350-354).
-
-350.
-
-In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are
-converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost
-bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the
-utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who
-have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do
-not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations
-occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the
-back than at the sides.
-
-351.
-
-When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some
-angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within
-the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of
-greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will
-shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.]
-
-352.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle
-of the back.
-
-353.
-
-The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards,
-backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down,
-to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them
-together.
-
-354.
-
-OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS.
-
-The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and
-bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is,
-sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they
-bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend
-in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2
-first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be
-bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if
-the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides
-all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2
-are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these
-is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite
-number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon
-ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are
-made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons
-inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not.
-
-[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to
-follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the
-fingers at the 3 joints.
-
-The movement of the torso (355-361).
-
-355.
-
-Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of
-the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to
-the front, and also in circular movements and any others.
-
-And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the
-breast above the lips &c.
-
-356.
-
-Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_,
-and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward,
-that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed
-raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_
-upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it
-downwards.
-
-The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward;
-and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been
-written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the
-figures have in most places been inked over.]
-
-357.
-
-OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT.
-
-The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower
-than the shoulderblades of the back.
-
-If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the
-shoulderblades.
-
-If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same
-level as the shoulderblades.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.]
-
-358.
-
-_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other
-by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's
-breadth.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with
-Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of
-LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.]
-
-359.
-
-Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this
-position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in
-proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal
-size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal]
-size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and
-this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that
-foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight.
-This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it
-out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central
-line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper
-extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and
-the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are
-lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 3.]
-
-360.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and
-their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and
-shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will
-find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy.
-
-361.
-
-OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE.
-
-The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm
-forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the
-leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and.
-so it varies in every attitude.
-
-362.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become
-prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or
-which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these
-indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in
-any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c.
-
-And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at
-every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c.
-
-And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which
-swell and which grow thinner.
-
-363.
-
-O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the
-bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in
-your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all
-their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in
-what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean
-persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same
-muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them,
-which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any
-amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the
-attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in
-many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the
-increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one
-single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise,
-each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and
-particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c.
-Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the
-above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of
-any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb;
-for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is
-wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which
-these muscles are composed, &c.
-
-[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of
-the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora
-osservera il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno
-abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con cio ha in
-mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_."
-Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the
-immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine
-Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.]
-
-364.
-
-OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN.
-
-There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men
-and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to
-the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one
-shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy
-it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the
-home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital
-elements.
-
-365.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when
-becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame
-where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of
-leanness ever diminishes it?
-
-The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the
-external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists,
-finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of
-which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by
-any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its
-attachments.
-
-Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones
-are near to the surface.
-
-At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never
-makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man
-all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the
-shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for
-the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these
-parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be
-the cause of their destruction.
-
-Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand
-and foot [respectively].
-
-And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the
-limbs.
-
-366.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if
-a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his
-parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with
-short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on
-with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to
-all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in
-due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging.
-
-367.
-
-OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS.
-
-And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs,
-that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and
-likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very
-muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round,
-and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular,
-while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the
-sinews very prominent.
-
-HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN,
-AS TO SIZE.
-
-Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between
-them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers
-the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew,
-connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid
-on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the
-bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between
-them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity
-which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings
-more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since
-there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy
-skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus,
-and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat
-between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers,
-arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on
-the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are
-thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences.
-
-The movement of the human figure (368-375).
-
-368.
-
-Of the manner of representing the 18 actions of man. Repose,
-movement, running, standing, supported, sitting, leaning, kneeling,
-lying down, suspended. Carrying or being carried, thrusting,
-pulling, striking, being struck, pressing down and lifting up.
-
-[As to how a figure should stand with a weight in its hand [Footnote
-8: The original text ends here.] Remember].
-
-369.
-
-A sitting man cannot raise himself if that part of his body which is
-front of his axis [centre of gravity] does not weigh more than that
-which is behind that axis [or centre] without using his arms.
-
-A man who is mounting any slope finds that he must involuntarily
-throw the most weight forward, on the higher foot, rather than
-behind--that is in front of the axis and not behind it. Hence a man
-will always, involuntarily, throw the greater weight towards the
-point whither he desires to move than in any other direction.
-
-The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the point
-he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis than behind.
-A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto his heels, and one who
-runs up hill throws it into the points of his feet; and a man
-running on level ground throws it first on his heels and then on the
-points of his feet.
-
-This man cannot carry his own weight unless, by drawing his body
-back he balances the weight in front, in such a way as that the foot
-on which he stands is the centre of gravity.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 4.]
-
-370.
-
-How a man proceeds to raise himself to his feet, when he is sitting
-on level ground.
-
-371.
-
-A man when walking has his head in advance of his feet.
-
-A man when walking across a long level plain first leans [rather]
-backwards and then as much forwards.
-
-[Footnote 3-6: He strides forward with the air of a man going down
-hill; when weary, on the contrary he walks like a man going up
-hill.]
-
-372.
-
-A man when running throws less weight on his legs than when standing
-still. And in the same way a horse which is running feels less the
-weight of the man he carries. Hence many persons think it wonderful
-that, in running, the horse can rest on one single foot. From this
-it may be stated that when a weight is in progressive motion the
-more rapid it is the less is the perpendicular weight towards the
-centre.
-
-373.
-
-If a man, in taking a jump from firm ground, can leap 3 braccia, and
-when he was taking his leap it were to recede 1/3 of a braccio, that
-would be taken off his former leap; and so if it were thrust forward
-1/3 of a braccio, by how much would his leap be increased?
-
-374.
-
-OF DRAWING.
-
-When a man who is running wants to neutralise the impetus that
-carries him on he prepares a contrary impetus which is generated by
-his hanging backwards. This can be proved, since, if the impetus
-carries a moving body with a momentum equal to 4 and the moving body
-wants to turn and fall back with a momentum of 4, then one momentum
-neutralises the other contrary one, and the impetus is neutralised.
-
-Of walking up and down (375-379)
-
-375.
-
-When a man wants to stop running and check the impetus he is forced
-to hang back and take short quick steps. [Footnote: Lines 5-31 refer
-to the two upper figures, and the lower figure to the right is
-explained by the last part of the chapter.] The centre of gravity of
-a man who lifts one of his feet from the ground always rests on the
-centre of the sole of the foot [he stands on].
-
-A man, in going up stairs involuntarily throws so much weight
-forward and on the side of the upper foot as to be a counterpoise to
-the lower leg, so that the labour of this lower leg is limited to
-moving itself.
-
-The first thing a man does in mounting steps is to relieve the leg
-he is about to lift of the weight of the body which was resting on
-that leg; and besides this, he gives to the opposite leg all the
-rest of the bulk of the whole man, including [the weight of] the
-other leg; he then raises the other leg and sets the foot upon the
-step to which he wishes to raise himself. Having done this he
-restores to the upper foot all the weight of the body and of the leg
-itself, and places his hand on his thigh and throws his head forward
-and repeats the movement towards the point of the upper foot,
-quickly lifting the heel of the lower one; and with this impetus he
-lifts himself up and at the same time extends the arm which rested
-on his knee; and this extension of the arm carries up the body and
-the head, and so straightens the spine which was curved.
-
-[32] The higher the step is which a man has to mount, the farther
-forward will he place his head in advance of his upper foot, so as
-to weigh more on _a_ than on _b_; this man will not be on the step
-_m_. As is shown by the line _g f_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 1. The lower sketch to the left
-belongs to the four first lines.]
-
-376.
-
-I ask the weight [pressure] of this man at every degree of motion on
-these steps, what weight he gives to _b_ and to _c_.
-
-[Footnote 8: These lines are, in the original, written in ink]
-Observe the perpendicular line below the centre of gravity of the
-man.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 2.]
-
-377.
-
-In going up stairs if you place your hands on your knees all the
-labour taken by the arms is removed from the sinews at the back of
-the knees.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 3.]
-
-378.
-
-The sinew which guides the leg, and which is connected with the
-patella of the knee, feels it a greater labour to carry the man
-upwards, in proportion as the leg is more bent; and the muscle which
-acts upon the angle made by the thigh where it joins the body has
-less difficulty and has a less weight to lift, because it has not
-the [additional] weight of the thigh itself. And besides this it has
-stronger muscles, being those which form the buttock.
-
-379.
-
-A man coming down hill takes little steps, because the weight rests
-upon the hinder foot, while a man mounting takes wide steps, because
-his weight rests on the foremost foot.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 4.]
-
-On the human body in action (380-388).
-
-380.
-
-OF THE HUMAN BODY IN ACTION.
-
-When you want to represent a man as moving some weight consider what
-the movements are that are to be represented by different lines;
-that is to say either from below upwards, with a simple movement, as
-a man does who stoops forward to take up a weight which he will lift
-as he straightens himself. Or as a man does who wants to squash
-something backwards, or to force it forwards or to pull it downwards
-with ropes passed through pullies [Footnote 10: Compare the sketch
-on page 198 and on 201 (S. K. M. II.1 86b).]. And here remember that
-the weight of a man pulls in proportion as his centre of gravity is
-distant from his fulcrum, and to this is added the force given by
-his legs and bent back as he raises himself.
-
-381.
-
-Again, a man has even a greater store of strength in his legs than
-he needs for his own weight; and to see if this is true, make a man
-stand on the shore-sand and then put another man on his back, and
-you will see how much he will sink in. Then take the man from off
-his back and make him jump straight up as high as he can, and you
-will find that the print of his feet will be made deeper by the jump
-than from having the man on his back. Hence, here, by 2 methods it
-is proved that a man has double the strength he requires to support
-his own body.
-
-382.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-If you have to draw a man who is in motion, or lifting or pulling,
-or carrying a weight equal to his own, in what way must you set on
-his legs below his body?
-
-[Footnote: In the MS. this question remains unanswered.]
-
-383.
-
-OF THE STRENGTH OF MAN.
-
-A man pulling a [dead] weight balanced against himself cannot pull
-more than his own weight. And if he has to raise it he will [be able
-to] raise as much more than his weight as his strength may be more
-than that of other men. [Footnote 7: The stroke at the end of this
-line finishes in the original in a sort of loop or flourish, and a
-similar flourish occurs at the end of the previous passage written
-on the same page. M. RAVAISSON regards these as numbers (compare the
-photograph of page 30b in his edition of MS. A). He remarks: "_Ce
-chiffre_ 8 _et, a la fin de l'alinea precedent, le chiffre_ 7 _sont,
-dans le manuscrit, des renvois_."] The greatest force a man can
-apply, with equal velocity and impetus, will be when he sets his
-feet on one end of the balance [or lever] and then presses his
-shoulders against some stable body. This will raise a weight at the
-other end of the balance [lever], equal to his own weight and [added
-to that] as much weight as he can carry on his shoulders.
-
-384.
-
-No animal can simply move [by its dead weight] a greater weight than
-the sum of its own weight outside the centre of his fulcrum.
-
-385.
-
-A man who wants to send an arrow very far from the bow must be
-standing entirely on one foot and raising the other so far from the
-foot he stands on as to afford the requisite counterpoise to his
-body which is thrown on the front foot. And he must not hold his arm
-fully extended, and in order that he may be more able to bear the
-strain he must hold a piece of wood which there is in all crossbows,
-extending from the hand to the breast, and when he wishes to shoot
-he suddenly leaps forward at the same instant and extends his arm
-with the bow and releases the string. And if he dexterously does
-every thing at once it will go a very long way.
-
-386.
-
-When two men are at the opposite ends of a plank that is balanced,
-and if they are of equal weight, and if one of them wants to make a
-leap into the air, then his leap will be made down from his end of
-the plank and the man will never go up again but must remain in his
-place till the man at the other end dashes up the board.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXIV, No. 3.]
-
-387.
-
-Of delivering a blow to the right or left.
-
-[Footnote: Four sketches on Pl. XXIV, No. 1 belong to this passage.
-The rest of the sketches and notes on that page are of a
-miscellaneous nature.]
-
-388.
-
-Why an impetus is not spent at once [but diminishes] gradually in
-some one direction? [Footnote 1: The paper has been damaged at the
-end of line 1.] The impetus acquired in the line _a b c d_ is spent
-in the line _d e_ but not so completely but that some of its force
-remains in it and to this force is added the momentum in the line _d
-e_ with the force of the motive power, and it must follow than the
-impetus multiplied by the blow is greater that the simple impetus
-produced by the momentum _d e_.
-
-[Footnote 8: The sketch No. 2 on Pl. XXIV stands, in the original,
-between lines 7 and 8. Compare also the sketches on Pl. LIV.] A man
-who has to deal a great blow with his weapon prepares himself with
-all his force on the opposite side to that where the spot is which
-he is to hit; and this is because a body as it gains in velocity
-gains in force against the object which impedes its motion.
-
-On hair falling down in curls.
-
-389.
-
-Observe the motion of the surface of the water which resembles that
-of hair, and has two motions, of which one goes on with the flow of
-the surface, the other forms the lines of the eddies; thus the water
-forms eddying whirlpools one part of which are due to the impetus of
-the principal current and the other to the incidental motion and
-return flow.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXV. Where also the text of this passage is given
-in facsimile.]
-
-On draperies (390--392).
-
-390.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE FOLDS IN DRAPERY.
-
-That part of a fold which is farthest from the ends where it is
-confined will fall most nearly in its natural form.
-
-Every thing by nature tends to remain at rest. Drapery, being of
-equal density and thickness on its wrong side and on its right, has
-a tendency to lie flat; therefore when you give it a fold or plait
-forcing it out of its flatness note well the result of the
-constraint in the part where it is most confined; and the part which
-is farthest from this constraint you will see relapses most into the
-natural state; that is to say lies free and flowing.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-[Footnote 13: _a c sia_. In the original text _b_ is written instead
-of _c_--an evident slip of the pen.] Let _a b c_ be the fold of the
-drapery spoken of above, _a c_ will be the places where this folded
-drapery is held fast. I maintain that the part of the drapery which
-is farthest from the plaited ends will revert most to its natural
-form.
-
-Therefore, _b_ being farthest from _a_ and _c_ in the fold _a b c_
-it will be wider there than anywhere else.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 6, and compare the drawing from
-Windsor Pl. XXX for farther illustration of what is here stated.]
-
-391.
-
-OF SMALL FOLDS IN DRAPERIES.
-
-How figures dressed in a cloak should not show the shape so much as
-that the cloak looks as if it were next the flesh; since you surely
-cannot wish the cloak to be next the flesh, for you must suppose
-that between the flesh and the cloak there are other garments which
-prevent the forms of the limbs appearing distinctly through the
-cloak. And those limbs which you allow to be seen you must make
-thicker so that the other garments may appear to be under the cloak.
-But only give something of the true thickness of the limbs to a
-nymph [Footnote 9: _Una nifa_. Compare the beautiful drawing of a
-Nymph, in black chalk from the Windsor collection, Pl. XXVI.] or an
-angel, which are represented in thin draperies, pressed and clinging
-to the limbs of the figures by the action of the wind.
-
-392.
-
-You ought not to give to drapery a great confusion of many folds,
-but rather only introduce them where they are held by the hands or
-the arms; the rest you may let fall simply where it is its nature to
-flow; and do not let the nude forms be broken by too many details
-and interrupted folds. How draperies should be drawn from nature:
-that is to say if youwant to represent woollen cloth draw the folds
-from that; and if it is to be silk, or fine cloth or coarse, or of
-linen or of crape, vary the folds in each and do not represent
-dresses, as many do, from models covered with paper or thin leather
-which will deceive you greatly.
-
-[Footnote: The little pen and ink drawing from Windsor (W. 102),
-given on Pl. XXVIII, No. 7, clearly illustrates the statement made
-at the beginning of this passage; the writing of the cipher 19 on
-the same page is in Leonardo's hand; the cipher 21 is certainly
-not.]
-
-_VIII._
-
-_Botany for Painters and Elements of Landscape Painting._
-
-_The chapters composing this portion of the work consist of
-observations on Form, Light and Shade in Plants, and particularly in
-Trees summed up in certain general rules by which the author intends
-to guide the artist in the pictorial representation of landscape._
-
-_With these the first principles of a_ Theory of Landscape painting
-_are laid down--a theory as profoundly thought out in its main
-lines as it is lucidly worked out in its details. In reading these
-chapters the conviction is irresistible that such a_ Botany for
-painters _is or ought to be of similar importance in the practice of
-painting as the principles of the Proportions and Movements of the
-human figure_ i. e. Anatomy for painters.
-
-_There can be no doubt that Leonardo, in laying down these rules,
-did not intend to write on Botany in the proper scientific
-sense--his own researches on that subject have no place here; it
-need only be observed that they are easily distinguished by their
-character and contents from those which are here collected and
-arranged under the title 'Botany for painters'. In some cases where
-this division might appear doubtful,--as for instance in No._
-402--_the Painter is directly addressed and enjoined to take the
-rule to heart as of special importance in his art._
-
-_The original materials are principally derived from MS._ G, _in
-which we often find this subject treated on several pages in
-succession without any of that intermixture of other matters, which
-is so frequent in Leonardo's writings. This MS., too, is one of the
-latest; when it was written, the great painter was already more than
-sixty years of age, so we can scarcely doubt that he regarded all he
-wrote as his final views on the subject. And the same remark applies
-to the chapters from MSS._ E _and_ M _which were also written
-between_ 1513--15.
-
-_For the sake of clearness, however, it has been desirable to
-sacrifice--with few exceptions--the original order of the passages
-as written, though it was with much reluctance and only after long
-hesitation that I resigned myself to this necessity. Nor do I mean
-to impugn the logical connection of the author's ideas in his MS.;
-but it will be easily understood that the sequence of disconnected
-notes, as they occurred to Leonardo and were written down from time
-to time, might be hardly satisfactory as a systematic arrangement of
-his principles. The reader will find in the Appendix an exact
-account of the order of the chapters in the original MS. and from
-the data there given can restore them at will. As the materials are
-here arranged, the structure of the tree as regards the growth of
-the branches comes first_ (394-411) _and then the insertion of the
-leaves on the stems_ (412-419). _Then follow the laws of Light and
-Shade as applied, first, to the leaves (420-434), and, secondly, to
-the whole tree and to groups of trees_ (435-457). _After the remarks
-on the Light and Shade in landscapes generally_ (458-464), _we find
-special observations on that of views of towns and buildings_
-(465-469). _To the theory of Landscape Painting belong also the
-passages on the effect of Wind on Trees_ (470-473) _and on the Light
-and Shade of Clouds_ (474-477), _since we find in these certain
-comparisons with the effect of Light and Shade on Trees_ (e. g.: _in
-No._ 476, 4. 5; _and No._ 477, 9. 12). _The chapters given in the
-Appendix Nos._ 478 _and_ 481 _have hardly any connection with the
-subjects previously treated._
-
-Classification of trees.
-
-393.
-
-TREES.
-
-Small, lofty, straggling, thick, that is as to foliage, dark, light,
-russet, branched at the top; some directed towards the eye, some
-downwards; with white stems; this transparent in the air, that not;
-some standing close together, some scattered.
-
-The relative thickness of the branches to the trunk (393--396).
-
-394.
-
-All the branches of a tree at every stage of its height when put
-together are equal in thickness to the trunk [below them].
-
-All the branches of a water [course] at every stage of its course,
-if they are of equal rapidity, are equal to the body of the main
-stream.
-
-395.
-
-Every year when the boughs of a plant [or tree] have made an end of
-maturing their growth, they will have made, when put together, a
-thickness equal to that of the main stem; and at every stage of its
-ramification you will find the thickness of the said main stem; as:
-_i k_, _g h_, _e f_, _c d_, _a b_, will always be equal to each
-other; unless the tree is pollard--if so the rule does not hold
-good.
-
-All the branches have a direction which tends to the centre of the
-tree _m_.
-
-[Footnote: The two sketches of leafless trees one above another on
-the left hand side of Pl. XXVII, No. 1, belong to this passage.]
-
-396.
-
-If the plant n grows to the thickness shown at m, its branches will
-correspond [in thickness] to the junction a b in consequence of the
-growth inside as well as outside.
-
-The branches of trees or plants have a twist wherever a minor branch
-is given off; and this giving off the branch forms a fork; this said
-fork occurs between two angles of which the largest will be that
-which is on the side of the larger branch, and in proportion, unless
-accident has spoilt it.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches illustrating this are on the right hand side
-of PI. XXVII, No. I, and the text is also given there in facsimile.]
-
-397.
-
-There is no boss on branches which has not been produced by some
-branch which has failed.
-
-The lower shoots on the branches of trees grow more than the upper
-ones and this occurs only because the sap that nourishes them, being
-heavy, tends downwards more than upwards; and again, because those
-[branches] which grow downwards turn away from the shade which
-exists towards the centre of the plant. The older the branches are,
-the greater is the difference between their upper and their lower
-shoots and in those dating from the same year or epoch.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch accompanying this in the MS. is so effaced
-that an exact reproduction was impossible.]
-
-398.
-
-OF THE SCARS ON TREES.
-
-The scars on trees grow to a greater thickness than is required by
-the sap of the limb which nourishes them.
-
-399.
-
-The plant which gives out the smallest ramifications will preserve
-the straightest line in the course of its growth.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is illustrated by two partly effaced
-sketches. One of these closely resembles the lower one given under
-No. 408, the other also represents short closely set boughs on an
-upright trunk.]
-
-400.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATION.
-
-The beginning of the ramification [the shoot] always has the central
-line [axis] of its thickness directed to the central line [axis] of
-the plant itself.
-
-401.
-
-In starting from the main stem the branches always form a base with
-a prominence as is shown at _a b c d_.
-
-402.
-
-WHY, VERY FREQUENTLY, TIMBER HAS VEINS THAT ARE NOT STRAIGHT.
-
-When the branches which grow the second year above the branch of the
-preceding year, are not of equal thickness above the antecedent
-branches, but are on one side, then the vigour of the lower branch
-is diverted to nourish the one above it, although it may be somewhat
-on one side.
-
-But if the ramifications are equal in their growth, the veins of the
-main stem will be straight [parallel] and equidistant at every
-degree of the height of the plant.
-
-Wherefore, O Painter! you, who do not know these laws! in order to
-escape the blame of those who understand them, it will be well that
-you should represent every thing from nature, and not despise such
-study as those do who work [only] for money.
-
-The direction of growth (403-407).
-
-403.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF PLANTS.
-
-The plants which spread very much have the angles of the spaces
-which divide their branches more obtuse in proportion as their point
-of origin is lower down; that is nearer to the thickest and oldest
-portion of the tree. Therefore in the youngest portions of the tree
-the angles of ramification are more acute. [Footnote: Compare the
-sketches on the lower portion of Pl. XXVII, No. 2.]
-
-404.
-
-The tips of the boughs of plants [and trees], unless they are borne
-down by the weight of their fruits, turn towards the sky as much as
-possible.
-
-The upper side of their leaves is turned towards the sky that it may
-receive the nourishment of the dew which falls at night.
-
-The sun gives spirit and life to plants and the earth nourishes them
-with moisture. [9] With regard to this I made the experiment of
-leaving only one small root on a gourd and this I kept nourished
-with water, and the gourd brought to perfection all the fruits it
-could produce, which were about 60 gourds of the long kind, andi set
-my mind diligently [to consider] this vitality and perceived that
-the dews of night were what supplied it abundantly with moisture
-through the insertion of its large leaves and gave nourishment to
-the plant and its offspring--or the seeds which its offspring had
-to produce--[21].
-
-The rule of the leaves produced on the last shoot of the year will
-be that they will grow in a contrary direction on the twin branches;
-that is, that the insertion of the leaves turns round each branch in
-such a way, as that the sixth leaf above is produced over the sixth
-leaf below, and the way they turn is that if one turns towards its
-companion to the right, the other turns to the left, the leaf
-serving as the nourishing breast for the shoot or fruit which grows
-the following year.
-
-[Footnote: A French translation of lines 9-12 was given by M.
-RAVAISSON in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Oct. 1877; his paper also
-contains some valuable information as to botanical science in the
-ancient classical writers and at the time of the Renaissance.]
-
-405.
-
-The lowest branches of those trees which have large leaves and heavy
-fruits, such as nut-trees, fig-trees and the like, always droop
-towards the ground.
-
-The branches always originate above [in the axis of] the leaves.
-
-406.
-
-The upper shoots of the lateral branches of plants lie closer to the
-parent branch than the lower ones.
-
-407.
-
-The lowest branches, after they have formed the angle of their
-separation from the parent stem, always bend downwards so as not to
-crowd against the other branches which follow them on the same stem
-and to be better able to take the air which nourishes them. As is
-shown by the angle _b a c_; the branch _a c_ after it has made the
-corner of the angle _a c_ bends downwards to _c d_ and the lesser
-shoot _c_ dries up, being too thin.
-
-The main branch always goes below, as is shown by the branch _f n
-m_, which does not go to _f n o_.
-
-The forms of trees (408--411).
-
-408.
-
-The elm always gives a greater length to the last branches of the
-year's growth than to the lower ones; and Nature does this because
-the highest branches are those which have to add to the size of the
-tree; and those at the bottom must get dry because they grow in the
-shade and their growth would be an impediment to the entrance of the
-solar rays and the air among the main branches of the tree.
-
-The main branches of the lower part bend down more than those above,
-so as to be more oblique than those upper ones, and also because
-they are larger and older.
-
-409.
-
-In general almost all the upright portions of trees curve somewhat
-turning the convexity towards the South; and their branches are
-longer and thicker and more abundant towards the South than towards
-the North. And this occurs because the sun draws the sap towards
-that surface of the tree which is nearest to it.
-
-And this may be observed if the sun is not screened off by other
-plants.
-
-410.
-
-The cherry-tree is of the character of the fir tree as regards its
-ramification placed in stages round its main stem; and its branches
-spring, 4 or five or 6 [together] opposite each other; and the tips
-of the topmost shoots form a pyramid from the middle upwards; and
-the walnut and oak form a hemisphere from the middle upwards.
-
-411.
-
-The bough of the walnut which is only hit and beaten when it has
-brought to perfection...
-
-[Footnote: The end of the text and the sketch in red chalk belonging
-to it, are entirely effaced.]
-
-The insertion of the leaves (412--419).
-
-412.
-
-OF THE INSERTION OF THE BRANCHES ON PLANTS.
-
-Such as the growth of the ramification of plants is on their
-principal branches, so is that of the leaves on the shoots of the
-same plant. These leaves have [Footnote 6: _Quattro modi_ (four
-modes). Only three are described in the text, the fourth is only
-suggested by a sketch.
-
-This passage occurs in MANZI'S edition of the Trattato, p. 399, but
-without the sketches and the text is mutilated in an important part.
-The whole passage has been commented on, from MANZI'S version, in
-Part I of the _Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano_, by Prof. G.
-UZIELLI (Florence 1869, Vol. I). He remarks as to the 'four modes':
-"_Leonardo, come si vede nelle linie sententi da solo tre esempli.
-Questa ed altre inessattezze fanno desiderare, sia esaminato di
-nuovo il manoscritto Vaticano_". This has since been done by D.
-KNAPP of Tubingen, and his accurate copy has been published by H.
-LUDWIG, the painter. The passage in question occurs in his edition
-as No. 833; and there also the drawings are wanting. The space for
-them has been left vacant, but in the Vatican copy '_niente_' has
-been written on the margin; and in it, as well as in LUDWIG'S and
-MANZI'S edition, the text is mutilated.] four modes of growing one
-above another. The first, which is the most general, is that the
-sixth always originates over the sixth below [Footnote 8: _la sesta
-di sotto. "Disposizione 2/5 o 1/5. Leonardo osservo probabilmente
-soltanto la prima"_ (UZIELLl).]; the second is that two third ones
-above are over the two third ones below [Footnote 10: _terze di
-sotto: "Intende qui senza dubbio parlare di foglie decussate, in cui
-il terzo verticello e nel piano del primo"_ (UZIELLI).]; and the
-third way is that the third above is over the third below [Footnote
-11: 3a _di sotto: "Disposizione 1/2"_ (UZIELLI).].
-
-[Footnote: See the four sketches on the upper portion of the page
-reproduced as fig. 2 on P1. XXVII.]
-
-413.
-
-A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELM.
-
-The ramification of the elm has the largest branch at the top. The
-first and the last but one are smaller, when the main trunk is
-straight.
-
-The space between the insertion of one leaf to the rest is half the
-extreme length of the leaf or somewhat less, for the leaves are at
-an interval which is about the 3rd of the width of the leaf.
-
-The elm has more leaves near the top of the boughs than at the base;
-and the broad [surface] of the leaves varies little as to [angle
-and] aspect.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 3. Above the sketch and close under
-the number of the page is the word '_olmo_' (elm).]
-
-414.
-
-In the walnut tree the leaves which are distributed on the shoots of
-this year are further apart from each other and more numerous in
-proportion as the branch from which this shoot springs is a young
-one. And they are inserted more closely and less in number when the
-shoot that bears them springs from an old branch. Its fruits are
-borne at the ends of the shoots. And its largest boughs are the
-lowest on the boughs they spring from. And this arises from the
-weight of its sap which is more apt to descend than to rise, and
-consequently the branches which spring from them and rise towards
-the sky are small and slender [20]; and when the shoot turns towards
-the sky its leaves spread out from it [at an angle] with an equal
-distribution of their tips; and if the shoot turns to the horizon
-the leaves lie flat; and this arises from the fact that leaves
-without exception, turn their underside to the earth [29].
-
-The shoots are smaller in proportion as they spring nearer to the
-base of the bough they spring from.
-
-[Footnote: See the two sketches on Pl XXVII, No. 4. The second
-refers to the passage lines 20-30.]
-
-415.
-
-OF THE INSERTION OF THE LEAVES ON THE BRANCHES.
-
-The thickness of a branch never diminishes within the space between
-one leaf and the next excepting by so much as the thickness of the
-bud which is above the leaf and this thickness is taken off from the
-branch above [the node] as far as the next leaf.
-
-Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many plants
-that the sixth leaf is always above the first, and so on in
-succession, if the rule is not [accidentally] interfered with; and
-this occurs for two useful ends in the plant: First that as the
-shoot and the fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye
-which lies above and in close contact with the insertion of the leaf
-[in the axil], the water which falls upon the shoot can run down to
-nourish the bud, by the drop being caught in the hollow [axil] at
-the insertion of the leaf. And the second advantage is, that as
-these shoots develop in the following year one will not cover the
-next below, since the 5 come forth on five different sides; and the
-sixth which is above the first is at some distance.
-
-416.
-
-OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF TREES AND THEIR FOLIAGE.
-
-The ramifications of any tree, such as the elm, are wide and slender
-after the manner of a hand with spread fingers, foreshortened. And
-these are seen in the distribution [thus]: the lower portions are
-seen from above; and those that are above are seen from below; and
-those in the middle, some from below and some from above. The upper
-part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle
-portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are
-turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle
-of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of
-the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the
-common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers.
-
-Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put
-forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed
-above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and
-others.
-
-417.
-
-You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth
-leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above
-another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this
-order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part
-of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards
-the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves
-on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper
-branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to
-turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night,
-it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no
-longer form a cross.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.]
-
-418.
-
-A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may
-the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently
-from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the
-plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but
-shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy
-which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that
-is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate
-between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the
-first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the
-sixth.
-
-419.
-
-Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the
-axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from
-the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above,
-and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of
-the sun.
-
-LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422).
-
-420.
-
-That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the
-luminous ray coming between right angles.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.]
-
-421.
-
-Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark
-than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in
-May than in September.
-
-422.
-
-OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES.
-
-The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is:
-shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency.
-
-OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS.
-
-These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at
-a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or
-shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous.
-
-The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426).
-
-423.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF.
-
-Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade,
-lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus,
-if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at
-_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_
-transparent.
-
-424.
-
-A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and
-up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half
-transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the
-eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall
-upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under
-side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is
-transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the
-upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red
-chalk.]
-
-425.
-
-Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great
-extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it
-may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will
-have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to
-have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye
-is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without
-exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the
-lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the
-shadows.
-
-The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the
-same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour
-that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is
-placed between
-
-426.
-
-the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side.
-
-And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the
-opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at
-hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see
-its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the
-upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more
-foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right
-side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two
-colours.
-
-Of the transparency of leaves (427-429).
-
-427.
-
-The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the
-same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will
-show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre
-[reflected light] can never show through.
-
-428.
-
-When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the
-leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in
-those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere.
-
-And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between
-it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the
-reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong.
-
-It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and
-dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some
-distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which
-is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous
-atmosphere.
-
-429.
-
-Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are
-confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will
-be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow
-has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is
-[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and
-consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation
-of it should be avoided.
-
-The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an
-acute angle.
-
-The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434).
-
-430.
-
-The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere
-penetrates there can never be utter darkness.
-
-431.
-
-If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see
-the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_
---that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under
-side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on
-yellow.
-
-If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes
-that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful
-light green, being transparent.
-
-In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without
-shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent
-and the right side lustrous [reflecting light].
-
-432.
-
-The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped
-every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their
-shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards
-the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves
-and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards
-the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the
-branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring
-from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to
-their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations
-of light against a background of shadow.
-
-That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches
-and few leaves.
-
-433.
-
-OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES.
-
-When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then
-that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most
-distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere;
-and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the
-tree, that is towards the light.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
-
-434.
-
-OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES.
-
-The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to
-the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the
-cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles
-with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is
-produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the
-smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this
-light usually produces when it falls on dark objects.
-
-OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN.
-
-But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the
-atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as
-every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that
-mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the
-yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed
-together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of
-light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow.
-
-A classification of trees according to their colours.
-
-435.
-
-The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as
-some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels,
-box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears,
-vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts,
-holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate,
-vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds
-and the like. Trees are of various forms ...
-
-The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440).
-
-436.
-
-OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES.
-
-That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow
-which is farthest from the earth.
-
-To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated
-hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth
-_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the
-hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces
-the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this
-reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it
-is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the
-laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because,
-although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of
-the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected
-onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these
-trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree.
-
-437.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE.
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-
-The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every
-shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion
-as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are
-nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always
-present themselves to the eye edgewise.
-
-OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most
-nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon
-it.
-
-438.
-
-OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere
-and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated
-by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend
-to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the
-atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated
-by the sun will reflect light.
-
-439.
-
-OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE.
-
-The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender
-branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants
-which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow.
-
-440.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree
-illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be
-seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let
-the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated
-by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in
-the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other.
-Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much
-the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one
-tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than
-the other; &c.
-
-You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow,
-while the same eye _c_ sees the tree _b_ half in light and half in
-shade.
-
-When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed
-within the circle made by its boughs[23].
-
-Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one
-particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density
-of their branches.
-
-[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3,
-refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced
-by Leonardo himself.]
-
-The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position
-of the spectator (441-443).
-
-441.
-
-The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves
-in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the
-left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved
-by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and
-the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The
-eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the
-opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and
-the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be
-seen half in shadow and half in light.
-
-[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No.
-3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram
-and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No.
-461.]
-
-442.
-
-OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD.
-
-Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among
-them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the
-stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which
-the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that
-is on the background beyond the shadow.
-
-OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT.
-
-Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in
-front will be light; but this light will be broken by the
-ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under
-side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the
-background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from
-the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed
-above the eye.
-
-443.
-
-FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE
-
-Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in
-light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun
-is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the
-general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And
-then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts
-are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth.
-
-The effects of morning light (444-448).
-
-444.
-
-OF TREES TO THE SOUTH.
-
-When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North
-have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in
-proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in
-proportion as they lie to the East.
-
-OF MEADOWS.
-
-If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other
-small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to
-the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in
-those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant
-green.
-
-445.
-
-OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES].
-
-When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it
-are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves
-lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the
-Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the
-verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the
-colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East,
-which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is
-moister.
-
-The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them
-and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker.
-
-446.
-
-OF TREES IN THE EAST.
-
-When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will
-have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows,
-excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been
-pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and
-North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in
-shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East
-or to the West.
-
-The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and
-lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with
-the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of
-shadow.
-
-The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species.
-
-447.
-
-OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES.
-
-The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or
-left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible
-gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and
-those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This
-possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this
-note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.],
-see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow
-exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the
-images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and
-mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their
-minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees,
-and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by
-the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests
-are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen.
-
-448.
-
-OF TREES TO THE EAST.
-
-When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle
-while their edges are light.
-
-The effects of midday light.
-
-449.
-
-OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW
-THEY STAND OUT WELL.
-
-To represent a landscape choose that the sun shall be at noon and
-look towards the West or East and then draw. And if you turn towards
-the North, every object placed on that side will have no shadow,
-particularly those which are nearest to the [direction of the]
-shadow of your head. And if you turn towards the South every object
-on that side will be wholly in shadow. All the trees which are
-towards the sun and have the atmosphere for their background are
-dark, and the other trees which lie against that darkness will be
-black [very dark] in the middle and lighter towards the edges.
-
-The appearance of trees in the distance (450. 451).
-
-450.
-
-OF THE SPACES [SHOWING THE SKY] IN TREES THEMSELVES.
-
-The spaces between the parts in the mass of trees, and the spaces
-between the trees in the air, are, at great distances, invisible to
-the eye; for, where it is an effort [even] to see the whole it is
-most difficult to discern the parts.--But a confused mixture is the
-result, partaking chiefly of the [hue] which predominates. The
-spaces between the leaves consist of particles of illuminated air
-which are very much smaller than the tree and are lost sight of
-sooner than the tree; but it does not therefore follow that they are
-not there. Hence, necessarily, a compounded [effect] is produced of
-the sky and of the shadows of the tree in shade, which both together
-strike the eye which sees them.
-
-OF TREES WHICH CONCEAL THESE SPACES IN ONE ANOTHER.
-
-That part of a tree will show the fewest spaces, behind which a
-large number of trees are standing between the tree and the air
-[sky]; thus in the tree _a_ the spaces are not concealed nor in _b_,
-as there is no tree behind. But in _c_ only half shows the spaces
-filled up by the tree _d_, and part of the tree _d_ is filled up by
-the tree _e_ and a little farther on all the spaces in the mass of
-the trees are lost, and only that at the side remains.
-
-451.
-
-OF TREES.
-
-What outlines are seen in trees at a distance against the sky which
-serves as their background?
-
-The outlines of the ramification of trees, where they lie against
-the illuminated sky, display a form which more nearly approaches the
-spherical on proportion as they are remote, and the nearer they are
-the less they appear in this spherical form; as in the first tree
-_a_ which, being near to the eye, displays the true form of its
-ramification; but this shows less in _b_ and is altogether lost in
-_c_, where not merely the branches of the tree cannot be seen but
-the whole tree is distinguished with difficulty. Every object in
-shadow, of whatever form it may be, at a great distance appears to
-be spherical. And this occurs because, if it is a square body, at a
-very short distance it loses its angles, and a little farther off it
-loses still more of its smaller sides which remain. And thus before
-the whole is lost [to sight] the parts are lost, being smaller than
-the whole; as a man, who in such a distant position loses his legs,
-arms and head before [the mass of] his body, then the outlines of
-length are lost before those of breadth, and where they have become
-equal it would be a square if the angles remained; but as they are
-lost it is round.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch No. 4, Pl. XXVIII, belongs to this passage.]
-
-The cast shadow of trees (452. 453).
-
-452.
-
-The image of the shadow of any object of uniform breadth can never
-be [exactly] the same as that of the body which casts it.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 5.]
-
-Light and shade on groups of trees (453-457).
-
-453.
-
-All trees seen against the sun are dark towards the middle and this
-shadow will be of the shape of the tree when apart from others.
-
-The shadows cast by trees on which the sun shines are as dark as
-those of the middle of the tree.
-
-The shadow cast by a tree is never less than the mass of the tree
-but becomes taller in proportion as the spot on which it falls,
-slopes towards the centre of the world.
-
-The shadow will be densest in the middle of the tree when the tree
-has the fewest branches.
-
-[Footnote: The three diagrams which accompany this text are placed,
-in the original, before lines 7-11. At the spots marked _B_ Leonardo
-wrote _Albero_ (tree). At _A_ is the word _Sole_ (sun), at _C Monte_
-(mountain) at _D piano_ (plain) and at _E cima_ (summit).]
-
-Every branch participates of the central shadow of every other
-branch and consequently [of that] of the whole tree.
-
-The form of any shadow from a branch or tree is circumscribed by the
-light which falls from the side whence the light comes; and this
-illumination gives the shape of the shadow, and this may be of the
-distance of a mile from the side where the sun is.
-
-If it happens that a cloud should anywhere overshadow some part of a
-hill the [shadow of the] trees there will change less than in the
-plains; for these trees on the hills have their branches thicker,
-because they grow less high each year than in the plains. Therefore
-as these branches are dark by nature and being so full of shade, the
-shadow of the clouds cannot darken them any more; but the open
-spaces between the trees, which have no strong shadow change very
-much in tone and particularly those which vary from green; that is
-ploughed lands or fallen mountains or barren lands or rocks. Where
-the trees are against the atmosphere they appear all the same
-colour--if indeed they are not very close together or very thickly
-covered with leaves like the fir and similar trees. When you see the
-trees from the side from which the sun lights them, you will see
-them almost all of the same tone, and the shadows in them will be
-hidden by the leaves in the light, which come between your eye and
-those shadows.
-
-TREES AT A SHORT DISTANCE.
-
-[Footnote 29: The heading _alberi vicini_ (trees at a short
-distance) is in the original manuscript written in the margin.] When
-the trees are situated between the sun and the eye, beyond the
-shadow which spreads from their centre, the green of their leaves
-will be seen transparent; but this transparency will be broken in
-many places by the leaves and boughs in shadow which will come
-between you and them, or, in their upper portions, they will be
-accompanied by many lights reflected from the leaves.
-
-454.
-
-The trees of the landscape stand out but little from each other;
-because their illuminated portions come against the illuminated
-portions of those beyond and differ little from them in light and
-shade.
-
-455.
-
-Of trees seen from below and against the light, one beyond the other
-and near together. The topmost part of the first will be in great
-part transparent and light, and will stand out against the dark
-portion of the second tree. And thus it will be with all in
-succession that are placed under the same conditions.
-
-Let _s_ be the light, and _r_ the eye, _c d n_ the first tree, _a b
-c_ the second. Then I say that _r_, the eye, will see the portion _c
-f_ in great part transparent and lighted by the light _s_ which
-falls upon it from the opposite side, and it will see it, on a dark
-ground _b c_ because that is the dark part and shadow of the tree _a
-b c_.
-
-But if the eye is placed at _t_ it will see _o p_ dark on the light
-background _n g_.
-
-Of the transparent and shadowy parts of trees, that which is nearest
-to you is the darkest.
-
-456.
-
-That part of a tree which has shadow for background, is all of one
-tone, and wherever the trees or branches are thickest they will be
-darkest, because there are no little intervals of air. But where the
-boughs lie against a background of other boughs, the brighter parts
-are seen lightest and the leaves lustrous from the sunlight falling
-on them.
-
-457.
-
-In the composition of leafy trees be careful not to repeat too often
-the same colour of one tree against the same colour of another
-[behind it]; but vary it with a lighter, or a darker, or a stronger
-green.
-
-On the treatment of light for landscapes (458-464).
-
-458.
-
-The landscape has a finer azure [tone] when, in fine weather the sun
-is at noon than at any other time of the day, because the air is
-purified of moisture; and looking at it under that aspect you will
-see the trees of a beautiful green at the outside and the shadows
-dark towards the middle; and in the remoter distance the atmosphere
-which comes between you and them looks more beautiful when there is
-something dark beyond. And still the azure is most beautiful. The
-objects seen from the side on which the sun shines will not show you
-their shadows. But, if you are lower than the sun, you can see what
-is not seen by the sun and that will be all in shade. The leaves of
-the trees, which come between you and the sun are of two principal
-colours which are a splendid lustre of green, and the reflection of
-the atmosphere which lights up the objects which cannot be seen by
-the sun, and the shaded portions which only face the earth, and the
-darkest which are surrounded by something that is not dark. The
-trees in the landscape which are between you and the sun are far
-more beautiful than those you see when you are between the sun and
-them; and this is so because those which face the sun show their
-leaves as transparent towards the ends of their branches, and those
-that are not transparent--that is at the ends--reflect the light;
-and the shadows are dark because they are not concealed by any
-thing.
-
-The trees, when you place yourself between them and the sun, will
-only display to you their light and natural colour, which, in
-itself, is not very strong, and besides this some reflected lights
-which, being against a background which does not differ very much
-from themselves in tone, are not conspicuous; and if you are lower
-down than they are situated, they may also show those portions on
-which the light of the sun does not fall and these will be dark.
-
-In the Wind.
-
-But, if you are on the side whence the wind blows, you will see the
-trees look very much lighter than on the other sides, and this
-happens because the wind turns up the under side of the leaves,
-which, in all trees, is much whiter than the upper sides; and, more
-especially, will they be very light indeed if the wind blows from
-the quarter where the sun is, and if you have your back turned to
-it.
-
-[Footnote: At _S_, in the original is the word _Sole_ (sun) and at
-_N parte di nuvolo_ (the side of the clouds).]
-
-459.
-
-When the sun is covered by clouds, objects are less conspicuous,
-because there is little difference between the light and shade of
-the trees and of the buildings being illuminated by the brightness
-of the atmosphere which surrounds the objects in such a way that the
-shadows are few, and these few fade away so that their outline is
-lost in haze.
-
-460.
-
-OF TREES AND LIGHTS ON THEM.
-
-The best method of practice in representing country scenes, or I
-should say landscapes with their trees, is to choose them so that
-the sun is covered with clouds so that the landscape receives an
-universal light and not the direct light of the sun, which makes the
-shadows sharp and too strongly different from the lights.
-
-461.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-In landscapes which represent [a scene in] winter. The mountains
-should not be shown blue, as we see in the mountains in the summer.
-And this is proved [Footnote 5. 6.: _Per la_ 4_a di questo_. It is
-impossible to ascertain what this quotation refers to. _Questo_
-certainly does not mean the MS. in hand, nor any other now known to
-us. The same remark applies to the phrase in line 15: _per la_ 2_a
-di questo_.] in the 4th of this which says: Among mountains seen
-from a great distance those will look of the bluest colour which are
-in themselves the darkest; hence, when the trees are stripped of
-their leaves, they will show a bluer tinge which will be in itself
-darker; therefore, when the trees have lost their leaves they will
-look of a gray colour, while, with their leaves, they are green, and
-in proportion as the green is darker than the grey hue the green
-will be of a bluer tinge than the gray. Also by the 2nd of this: The
-shadows of trees covered with leaves are darker than the shadows of
-those trees which have lost their leaves in proportion as the trees
-covered with leaves are denser than those without leaves--and thus
-my meaning is proved.
-
-The definition of the blue colour of the atmosphere explains why the
-landscape is bluer in the summer than in the winter.
-
-462.
-
-OF PAINTING IN A LANDSCAPE.
-
-If the slope of a hill comes between the eye and the horizon,
-sloping towards the eye, while the eye is opposite the middle of the
-height of this slope, then that hill will increase in darkness
-throughout its length. This is proved by the 7th of this which says
-that a tree looks darkest when it is seen from below; the
-proposition is verified, since this hill will, on its upper half
-show all its trees as much from the side which is lighted by the
-light of the sky, as from that which is in shade from the darkness
-of the earth; whence it must result that these trees are of a medium
-darkness. And from this [middle] spot towards the base of the hill,
-these trees will be lighter by degrees by the converse of the 7th
-and by the said 7th: For trees so placed, the nearer they are to the
-summit of the hill the darker they necessarily become. But this
-darkness is not in proportion to the distance, by the 8th of this
-which says: That object shows darkest which is [seen] in the
-clearest atmosphere; and by the 10th: That shows darkest which
-stands out against a lighter background.
-
-[Footnote: The quotation in this passage again cannot be verified.]
-
-463.
-
-OF LANDSCAPES.
-
-The colours of the shadows in mountains at a great distance take a
-most lovely blue, much purer than their illuminated portions. And
-from this it follows that when the rock of a mountain is reddish the
-illuminated portions are violet (?) and the more they are lighted
-the more they display their proper colour.
-
-464.
-
-A place is most luminous when it is most remote from mountains.
-
-On the treatment of light for views of towns (465-469).
-
-465.
-
-OF LIGHT AND SHADOW IN A TOWN.
-
-When the sun is in the East and the eye is above the centre of a
-town, the eye will see the Southern part of the town with its roofs
-half in shade and half in light, and the same towards the North; the
-Eastern side will be all in shadow and the Western will be all in
-light.
-
-466.
-
-Of the houses of a town, in which the divisions between the houses
-may be distinguished by the light which fall on the mist at the
-bottom. If the eye is above the houses the light seen in the space
-that is between one house and the next sinks by degrees into thicker
-mist; and yet, being less transparent, it appears whiter; and if the
-houses are some higher than the others, since the true [colour] is
-always more discernible through the thinner atmosphere, the houses
-will look darker in proportion as they are higher up. Let _n o p q_
-represent the various density of the atmosphere thick with moisture,
-_a_ being the eye, the house _b c_ will look lightest at the bottom,
-because it is in a thicker atmosphere; the lines _c d f_ will appear
-equally light, for although _f_ is more distant than _c_, it is
-raised into a thinner atmosphere, if the houses _b e_ are of the
-same height, because they cross a brightness which is varied by
-mist, but this is only because the line of the eye which starts from
-above ends by piercing a lower and denser atmosphere at _d_ than at
-_b_. Thus the line a _f_ is lower at _f_ than at _c_; and the house
-_f_ will be seen darker at _e_ from the line _e k_ as far as _m_,
-than the tops of the houses standing in front of it.
-
-467.
-
-OF TOWNS OR OTHER BUILDINGS SEEN IN THE EVENING OR THE MORNING
-THROUGH THE MIST.
-
-Of buildings seen at a great distance in the evening or the morning,
-as in mist or dense atmosphere, only those portions are seen in
-brightness which are lighted up by the sun which is near the
-horizon; and those portions which are not lighted up by the sun
-remain almost of the same colour and medium tone as the mist.
-
-WHY OBJECTS WHICH ARE HIGH UP AND AT A DISTANCE ARE DARKER THAN THE
-LOWER ONES, EVEN IF THE MIST IS UNIFORMLY DENSE.
-
-Of objects standing in a mist or other dense atmosphere, whether
-from vapour or smoke or distance, those will be most visible which
-are the highest. And among objects of equal height that will be the
-darkest [strongest] which has for background the deepest mist. Thus
-the eye _h_ looking at _a b c_, towers of equal height, one with
-another, sees _c_ the top of the first tower at _r_, at two degrees
-of depth in the mist; and sees the height of the middle tower _b_
-through one single degree of mist. Therefore the top of the tower
-_c_ appears stronger than the top of the tower _b_, &c.
-
-468.
-
-OF THE SMOKE OF A TOWN.
-
-Smoke is seen better and more distinctly on the Eastern side than on
-the Western when the sun is in the East; and this arises from two
-causes; the first is that the sun, with its rays, shines through the
-particles of the smoke and lights them up and makes them visible.
-The second is that the roofs of the houses seen in the East at this
-time are in shadow, because their obliquity does not allow of their
-being illuminated by the sun. And the same thing occurs with dust;
-and both one and the other look the lighter in proportion as they
-are denser, and they are densest towards the middle.
-
-469.
-
-OF SMOKE AND DUST.
-
-If the sun is in the East the smoke of cities will not be visible in
-the West, because on that side it is not seen penetrated by the
-solar rays, nor on a dark background; since the roofs of the houses
-turn the same side to the eye as they turn towards the sun, and on
-this light background the smoke is not very visible.
-
-But dust, under the same aspect, will look darker than smoke being
-of denser material than smoke which is moist.
-
-The effect of wind on trees (470-473).
-
-470.
-
-OF REPRESENTING WIND.
-
-In representing wind, besides the bending of the boughs and the
-reversing of their leaves towards the quarter whence the wind comes,
-you should also represent them amid clouds of fine dust mingled with
-the troubled air.
-
-471.
-
-Describe landscapes with the wind, and the water, and the setting
-and rising of the sun.
-
-THE WIND.
-
-All the leaves which hung towards the earth by the bending of the
-shoots with their branches, are turned up side down by the gusts of
-wind, and here their perspective is reversed; for, if the tree is
-between you and the quarter of the wind, the leaves which are
-towards you remain in their natural aspect, while those on the
-opposite side which ought to have their points in a contrary
-direction have, by being turned over, their points turned towards
-you.
-
-472.
-
-Trees struck by the force of the wind bend to the side towards which
-the wind is blowing; and the wind being past they bend in the
-contrary direction, that is in reverse motion.
-
-473.
-
-That portion of a tree which is farthest from the force which
-strikes it is the most injured by the blow because it bears most
-strain; thus nature has foreseen this case by thickening them in
-that part where they can be most hurt; and most in such trees as
-grow to great heights, as pines and the like. [Footnote: Compare the
-sketch drawn with a pen and washed with Indian ink on Pl. XL, No. 1.
-In the Vatican copy we find, under a section entitled '_del fumo_',
-the following remark: _Era sotto di questo capitulo un rompimento di
-montagna, per dentro delle quali roture scherzaua fiame di fuoco,
-disegnate di penna et ombrate d'acquarella, da uedere cosa mirabile
-et uiua (Ed. MANZI, p. 235. Ed. LUDWIG, Vol. I, 460). This appears
-to refer to the left hand portion of the drawing here given from the
-Windsor collection, and from this it must be inferred, that the leaf
-as it now exists in the library of the Queen of England, was already
-separated from the original MS. at the time when the Vatican copy
-was made.]
-
-Light and shade on clouds (474-477).
-
-474.
-
-Describe how the clouds are formed and how they dissolve, and what
-cause raises vapour.
-
-475.
-
-The shadows in clouds are lighter in proportion as they are nearer
-to the horizon.
-
-[Footnote: The drawing belonging to this was in black chalk and is
-totally effaced.]
-
-476.
-
-When clouds come between the sun and the eye all the upper edges of
-their round forms are light, and towards the middle they are dark,
-and this happens because towards the top these edges have the sun
-above them while you are below them; and the same thing happens with
-the position of the branches of trees; and again the clouds, like
-the trees, being somewhat transparent, are lighted up in part, and
-at the edges they show thinner.
-
-But, when the eye is between the cloud and the sun, the cloud has
-the contrary effect to the former, for the edges of its mass are
-dark and it is light towards the middle; and this happens because
-you see the same side as faces the sun, and because the edges have
-some transparency and reveal to the eye that portion which is hidden
-beyond them, and which, as it does not catch the sunlight like that
-portion turned towards it, is necessarily somewhat darker. Again, it
-may be that you see the details of these rounded masses from the
-lower side, while the sun shines on the upper side and as they are
-not so situated as to reflect the light of the sun, as in the first
-instance they remain dark.
-
-The black clouds which are often seen higher up than those which are
-illuminated by the sun are shaded by other clouds, lying between
-them and the sun.
-
-Again, the rounded forms of the clouds that face the sun, show their
-edges dark because they lie against the light background; and to see
-that this is true, you may look at the top of any cloud that is
-wholly light because it lies against the blue of the atmosphere,
-which is darker than the cloud.
-
-[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk from the Windsor collection (see
-Pl. XXIX), representing a landscape with storm-clouds, may serve to
-illustrate this section as well as the following one.]
-
-477.
-
-OF CLOUDS, SMOKE AND DUST AND THE FLAMES OF A FURNACE OR OF A
-BURNING KILN.
-
-The clouds do not show their rounded forms excepting on the sides
-which face the sun; on the others the roundness is imperceptible
-because they are in the shade. [Footnote: The text of this chapter
-is given in facsimile on Pls. XXXVI and XXXVII. The two halves of
-the leaf form but one in the original. On the margin close to lines
-4 and 5 is the note: _rossore d'aria inverso l'orizonte_--(of the
-redness of the atmosphere near the horizon). The sketches on the
-lower portion of the page will be spoken of in No. 668.]
-
-If the sun is in the East and the clouds in the West, the eye placed
-between the sun and the clouds sees the edges of the rounded forms
-composing these clouds as dark, and the portions which are
-surrounded by this dark [edge] are light. And this occurs because
-the edges of the rounded forms of these clouds are turned towards
-the upper or lateral sky, which is reflected in them.
-
-Both the cloud and the tree display no roundness at all on their
-shaded side.
-
-On images reflected in water.
-
-478.
-
-Painters often deceive themselves, by representing water in which
-they make the water reflect the objects seen by the man. But the
-water reflects the object from one side and the man sees it from the
-other; and it often happens that the painter sees an object from
-below, and thus one and the same object is seen from hind part
-before and upside down, because the water shows the image of the
-object in one way, and the eye sees it in another.
-
-Of rainbows and rain (479. 480).
-
-479.
-
-The colours in the middle of the rainbow mingle together.
-
-The bow in itself is not in the rain nor in the eye that sees it;
-though it is generated by the rain, the sun, and the eye. The
-rainbow is always seen by the eye that is between the rain and the
-body of the sun; hence if the sun is in the East and the rain is in
-the West it will appear on the rain in the West.
-
-480.
-
-When the air is condensed into rain it would produce a vacuum if the
-rest of the air did not prevent this by filling its place, as it
-does with a violent rush; and this is the wind which rises in the
-summer time, accompanied by heavy rain.
-
-Of flower seeds.
-
-481.
-
-All the flowers which turn towards the sun perfect their seeds; but
-not the others; that is to say those which get only the reflection
-of the sun.
-
-IX.
-
-_The Practice of Painting._
-
-_It is hardly necessary to offer any excuses for the division
-carried out in the arrangement of the text into practical
-suggestions and theoretical enquiries. It was evidently intended by
-Leonardo himself as we conclude from incidental remarks in the MSS.
-(for instance No_ 110_). The fact that this arrangement was never
-carried out either in the old MS. copies or in any edition since, is
-easily accounted for by the general disorder which results from the
-provisional distribution of the various chapters in the old copies.
-We have every reason to believe that the earliest copyists, in
-distributing the materials collected by them, did not in the least
-consider the order in which the original MS.lay before them._
-
-_It is evident that almost all the chapters which refer to the
-calling and life of the painter--and which are here brought together
-in the first section (Nos._ 482-508_)--may be referred to two
-distinct periods in Leonardo's life; most of them can be dated as
-belonging to the year_ 1492 _or to_ 1515. _At about this later time
-Leonardo may have formed the project of completing his Libro della
-Pittura, after an interval of some years, as it would seem, during
-which his interest in the subject had fallen somewhat into the
-background._
-
-_In the second section, which treats first of the artist's studio,
-the construction of a suitable window forms the object of careful
-investigations; the special importance attached to this by Leonardo
-is sufficiently obvious. His theory of the incidence of light which
-was fully discussed in a former part of this work, was to him by no
-means of mere abstract value, but, being deduced, as he says, from
-experience (or experiment) was required to prove its utility in
-practice. Connected with this we find suggestions for the choice of
-a light with practical hints as to sketching a picture and some
-other precepts of a practical character which must come under
-consideration in the course of completing the painting. In all this
-I have followed the same principle of arrangement in the text as was
-carried out in the Theory of Painting, thus the suggestions for the
-Perspective of a picture, (Nos._ 536-569_), are followed by the
-theory of light and shade for the practical method of optics (Nos._
-548--566_) and this by the practical precepts or the treatment of
-aerial perspective (_567--570_)._
-
-_In the passage on Portrait and Figure Painting the principles of
-painting as applied to a bust and head are separated and placed
-first, since the advice to figure painters must have some connection
-with the principles of the treatment of composition by which they
-are followed._
-
-_But this arrangement of the text made it seem advisable not to pick
-out the practical precepts as to the representation of trees and
-landscape from the close connection in which they were originally
-placed--unlike the rest of the practical precepts--with the theory
-of this branch of the subject. They must therefore be sought under
-the section entitled Botany for Painters._
-
-_As a supplement to the_ Libro di Pittura _I have here added those
-texts which treat of the Painter's materials,--as chalk, drawing
-paper, colours and their preparation, of the management of oils and
-varnishes; in the appendix are some notes on chemical substances.
-Possibly some of these, if not all, may have stood in connection
-with the preparation of colours. It is in the very nature of things
-that Leonardo's incidental indications as to colours and the like
-should be now-a-days extremely obscure and could only be explained
-by professional experts--by them even in but few instances. It might
-therefore have seemed advisable to reproduce exactly the original
-text without offering any translation. The rendering here given is
-merely an attempt to suggest what Leonardo's meaning may have been._
-
-_LOMAZZO tells us in his_ Trattato dell'arte della Pittura, Scultura
-ed Architettura (Milano 1584, libro II, Cap. XIV): "Va discorrendo
-ed argomentando Leonardo Vinci in un suo libro letto da me (?)
-questi anni passati, ch'egli scrisse di mano stanca ai prieghi di
-LUDOVICO SFORZA duca di Milano, in determinazione di questa
-questione, se e piu nobile la pittura o la scultura; dicendo che
-quanto piu un'arte porta seco fatica di corpo, e sudore, tanto piu e
-vile, e men pregiata". _But the existence of any book specially
-written for Lodovico il Moro on the superiority of Painting over
-sculpture is perhaps mythical. The various passages in praise of
-Painting as compared not merely with Sculpture but with Poetry, are
-scattered among MSS. of very different dates._
-
-_Besides, the way, in which the subject is discussed appears not to
-support the supposition, that these texts were prepared at a special
-request of the Duke._
-
-I.
-
-MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.
-
-How to ascertain the dispositions for an artistic career.
-
-482.
-
-A WARNING CONCERNING YOUTHS WISHING TO BE PAINTERS.
-
-Many are they who have a taste and love for drawing, but no talent;
-and this will be discernible in boys who are not diligent and never
-finish their drawings with shading.
-
-The course of instruction for an artist (483-485).
-
-483.
-
-The youth should first learn perspective, then the proportions of
-objects. Then he may copy from some good master, to accustom himself
-to fine forms. Then from nature, to confirm by practice the rules he
-has learnt. Then see for a time the works of various masters. Then
-get the habit of putting his art into practice and work.
-
-[Footnote: The Vatican copy and numerous abridgements all place this
-chapter at the beginning of the _Trattato_, and in consequence
-DUFRESNE and all subsequent editors have done the same. In the
-Vatican copy however all the general considerations on the relation
-of painting to the other arts are placed first, as introductory.]
-
-484.
-
-OF THE ORDER OF LEARNING TO DRAW.
-
-First draw from drawings by good masters done from works of art and
-from nature, and not from memory; then from plastic work, with the
-guidance of the drawing done from it; and then from good natural
-models and this you must put into practice.
-
-485.
-
-PRECEPTS FOR DRAWING.
-
-The artist ought first to exercise his hand by copying drawings from
-the hand of a good master. And having acquired that practice, under
-the criticism of his master, he should next practise drawing objects
-in relief of a good style, following the rules which will presently
-be given.
-
-The study of the antique (486. 487).
-
-486.
-
-OF DRAWING.
-
-Which is best, to draw from nature or from the antique? and which is
-more difficult to do outlines or light and shade?
-
-487.
-
-It is better to imitate [copy] the antique than modern work.
-
-[Footnote 486, 487: These are the only two passages in which
-Leonardo alludes to the importance of antique art in the training of
-an artist. The question asked in No. 486 remains unanswered by him
-and it seems to me very doubtful whether the opinion stated in No.
-487 is to be regarded as a reply to it. This opinion stands in the
-MS. in a connection--as will be explained later on--which seems to
-require us to limit its application to a single special case. At any
-rate we may suspect that when Leonardo put the question, he felt
-some hesitation as to the answer. Among his very numerous drawings I
-have not been able to find a single study from the antique, though a
-drawing in black chalk, at Windsor, of a man on horseback (PI.
-LXXIII) may perhaps be a reminiscence of the statue of Marcus
-Aurelius at Rome. It seems to me that the drapery in a pen and ink
-drawing of a bust, also at Windsor, has been borrowed from an
-antique model (Pl. XXX). G. G. Rossi has, I believe, correctly
-interpreted Leonardo's feeling towards the antique in the following
-note on this passage in manzi's edition, p. 501: "Sappiamo dalla
-storia, che i valorosi artisti Toscani dell'eta dell'oro dell'arte
-studiarono sugli antichi marmi raccolti dal Magnifico LORENZO DE'
-MEDICI. Pare che il Vinci a tali monumenti non si accostasse. Quest'
-uomo sempre riconosce per maestra la natura, e questo principio lo
-stringeva alla sola imitazione di essa"--Compare No. 10, 26--28
-footnote.]
-
-The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).
-
-488.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-It is indispensable to a Painter who would be thoroughly familiar
-with the limbs in all the positions and actions of which they are
-capable, in the nude, to know the anatomy of the sinews, bones,
-muscles and tendons so that, in their various movements and
-exertions, he may know which nerve or muscle is the cause of each
-movement and show those only as prominent and thickened, and not the
-others all over [the limb], as many do who, to seem great
-draughtsmen, draw their nude figures looking like wood, devoid of
-grace; so that you would think you were looking at a sack of walnuts
-rather than the human form, or a bundle of radishes rather than the
-muscles of figures.
-
-489.
-
-HOW IT IS NECESSARY TO A PAINTER THAT HE SHOULD KNOW THE INTRINSIC
-FORMS [STRUCTURE] OF MAN.
-
-The painter who is familiar with the nature of the sinews, muscles,
-and tendons, will know very well, in giving movement to a limb, how
-many and which sinews cause it; and which muscle, by swelling,
-causes the contraction of that sinew; and which sinews, expanded
-into the thinnest cartilage, surround and support the said muscle.
-Thus he will variously and constantly demonstrate the different
-muscles by means of the various attitudes of his figures, and will
-not do, as many who, in a variety of movements, still display the
-very same things [modelling] in the arms, back, breast and legs. And
-these things are not to be regarded as minor faults.
-
-How to acquire practice.
-
-490.
-
-OF STUDY AND THE ORDER OF STUDY.
-
-I say that first you ought to learn the limbs and their mechanism,
-and having this knowledge, their actions should come next, according
-to the circumstances in which they occur in man. And thirdly to
-compose subjects, the studies for which should be taken from natural
-actions and made from time to time, as circumstances allow; and pay
-attention to them in the streets and _piazze_ and fields, and note
-them down with a brief indication of the forms; [Footnote 5: Lines
-5-7 explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.]
-thus for a head make an o, and for an arm a straight or a bent line,
-and the same for the legs and the body, [Footnote 7: Lines 5-7
-explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] and
-when you return home work out these notes in a complete form. The
-Adversary says that to acquire practice and do a great deal of work
-it is better that the first period of study should be employed in
-drawing various compositions done on paper or on walls by divers
-masters, and that in this way practice is rapidly gained, and good
-methods; to which I reply that the method will be good, if it is
-based on works of good composition and by skilled masters. But since
-such masters are so rare that there are but few of them to be found,
-it is a surer way to go to natural objects, than to those which are
-imitated from nature with great deterioration, and so form bad
-methods; for he who can go to the fountain does not go to the
-water-jar.
-
-[Footnote: This passage has been published by Dr. M. JORDAN, _Das
-Malerbuck des L. da Vinci_, p. 89; his reading however varies
-slightly from mine.]
-
-Industry and thoroughness the first conditions (491-493.)
-
-491.
-
-WHAT RULES SHOULD BE GIVEN TO BOYS LEARNING TO PAINT.
-
-We know for certain that sight is one of the most rapid actions we
-can perform. In an instant we see an infinite number of forms, still
-we only take in thoroughly one object at a time. Supposing that you,
-Reader, were to glance rapidly at the whole of this written page,
-you would instantly perceive that it was covered with various
-letters; but you could not, in the time, recognise what the letters
-were, nor what they were meant to tell. Hence you would need to see
-them word by word, line by line to be able to understand the
-letters. Again, if you wish to go to the top of a building you must
-go up step by step; otherwise it will be impossible that you should
-reach the top. Thus I say to you, whom nature prompts to pursue this
-art, if you wish to have a sound knowledge of the forms of objects
-begin with the details of them, and do not go on to the second
-[step] till you have the first well fixed in memory and in practice.
-And if you do otherwise you will throw away your time, or certainly
-greatly prolong your studies. And remember to acquire diligence
-rather than rapidity.
-
-492.
-
-HOW THAT DILIGENCE [ACCURACY] SHOULD FIRST BE LEARNT RATHER THAN
-RAPID EXECUTION.
-
-If you, who draw, desire to study well and to good purpose, always
-go slowly to work in your drawing; and discriminate in. the lights,
-which have the highest degree of brightness, and to what extent and
-likewise in the shadows, which are those that are darker than the
-others and in what way they intermingle; then their masses and the
-relative proportions of one to the other. And note in their
-outlines, which way they tend; and which part of the lines is curved
-to one side or the other, and where they are more or less
-conspicuous and consequently broad or fine; and finally, that your
-light and shade blend without strokes and borders [but] looking like
-smoke. And when you have thus schooled your hand and your judgment
-by such diligence, you will acquire rapidity before you are aware.
-
-The artist's private life and choice of company (493-494).
-
-493.
-
-OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN THE COUNTRY.
-
-A painter needs such mathematics as belong to painting. And the
-absence of all companions who are alienated from his studies; his
-brain must be easily impressed by the variety of objects, which
-successively come before him, and also free from other cares
-[Footnote 6: Leonardo here seems to be speaking of his own method of
-work as displayed in his MSS. and this passage explains, at least in
-part, the peculiarities in their arrangement.]. And if, when
-considering and defining one subject, a second subject
-intervenes--as happens when an object occupies the mind, then he
-must decide which of these cases is the more difficult to work out,
-and follow that up until it becomes quite clear, and then work out
-the explanation of the other [Footnote 11: Leonardo here seems to be
-speaking of his own method of work as displayed in his MSS. and this
-passage explains, at least in part, the peculiarities in their
-arrangement.]. And above all he must keep his mind as clear as the
-surface of a mirror, which assumes colours as various as those of
-the different objects. And his companions should be like him as to
-their studies, and if such cannot be found he should keep his
-speculations to himself alone, so that at last he will find no more
-useful company [than his own].
-
-[Footnote: In the title line Leonardo had originally written _del
-pictore filosofo_ (the philosophical painter), but he himself struck
-out_filosofo_. Compare in No. 363 _pictora notomista_ (anatomical
-painter). The original text is partly reproduced on Pl. CI.]
-
-494.
-
-OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN HIS STUDIO.
-
-To the end that well-being of the body may not injure that of the
-mind, the painter or draughtsman must remain solitary, and
-particularly when intent on those studies and reflections which will
-constantly rise up before his eye, giving materials to be well
-stored in the memory. While you are alone you are entirely your own
-[master] and if you have one companion you are but half your own,
-and the less so in proportion to the indiscretion of his behaviour.
-And if you have many companions you will fall deeper into the same
-trouble. If you should say: "I will go my own way and withdraw
-apart, the better to study the forms of natural objects", I tell
-you, you will not be able to help often listening to their chatter.
-And so, since one cannot serve two masters, you will badly fill the
-part of a companion, and carry out your studies of art even worse.
-And if you say: "I will withdraw so far that their words cannot
-reach me and they cannot disturb me", I can tell you that you will
-be thought mad. But, you see, you will at any rate be alone. And if
-you must have companions ship find it in your studio. This may
-assist you to have the advantages which arise from various
-speculations. All other company may be highly mischievous.
-
-The distribution of time for studying (495-497).
-
-495.
-
-OF WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO DRAW WITH COMPANIONS OR NOT.
-
-I say and insist that drawing in company is much better than alone,
-for many reasons. The first is that you would be ashamed to be seen
-behindhand among the students, and such shame will lead you to
-careful study. Secondly, a wholesome emulation will stimulate you to
-be among those who are more praised than yourself, and this praise
-of others will spur you on. Another is that you can learn from the
-drawings of others who do better than yourself; and if you are
-better than they, you can profit by your contempt for their defects,
-while the praise of others will incite you to farther merits.
-
-[Footnote: The contradiction by this passage of the foregoing
-chapter is only apparent. It is quite clear, from the nature of the
-reasoning which is here used to prove that it is more improving to
-work with others than to work alone, that the studies of pupils only
-are under consideration here.]
-
-496.
-
-OF STUDYING, IN THE DARK, WHEN YOU WAKE, OR IN BED BEFORE YOU GO TO
-SLEEP.
-
-I myself have proved it to be of no small use, when in bed in the
-dark, to recall in fancy the external details of forms previously
-studied, or other noteworthy things conceived by subtle speculation;
-and this is certainly an admirable exercise, and useful for
-impressing things on the memory.
-
-497.
-
-OF THE TIME FOR STUDYING SELECTION OF SUBJECTS.
-
-Winter evenings ought to be employed by young students in looking
-over the things prepared during the summer; that is, all the
-drawings from the nude done in the summer should be brought together
-and a choice made of the best [studies of] limbs and bodies among
-them, to apply in practice and commit to memory.
-
-OF POSITIONS.
-
-After this in the following summer you should select some one who is
-well grown and who has not been brought up in doublets, and so may
-not be of stiff carriage, and make him go through a number of agile
-and graceful actions; and if his muscles do not show plainly within
-the outlines of his limbs that does not matter at all. It is enough
-that you can see good attitudes and you can correct [the drawing of]
-the limbs by those you studied in the winter.
-
-[Footnote: An injunction to study in the evening occurs also in No.
-524.]
-
-On the productive power of minor artists (498-501).
-
-498.
-
-He is a poor disciple who does not excel his master.
-
-499.
-
-Nor is the painter praiseworthy who does but one thing well, as the
-nude figure, heads, draperies, animals, landscapes or other such
-details, irrespective of other work; for there can be no mind so
-inept, that after devoting itself to one single thing and doing it
-constantly, it should fail to do it well.
-
-[Footnote: In MANZI'S edition (p. 502) the painter G. G. Bossi
-indignantly remarks on this passage. "_Parla il Vince in questo
-luogo come se tutti gli artisti avessero quella sublimita d'ingegno
-capace di abbracciare tutte le cose, di cui era egli dotato"_ And he
-then mentions the case of CLAUDE LORRAIN. But he overlooks the fact
-that in Leonardo's time landscape painting made no pretensions to
-independence but was reckoned among the details (_particulari_,
-lines 3, 4).]
-
-500.
-
-THAT A PAINTER IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS HE IS UNIVERSAL.
-
-Some may distinctly assert that those persons are under a delusion
-who call that painter a good master who can do nothing well but a
-head or a figure. Certainly this is no great achievement; after
-studying one single thing for a life-time who would not have
-attained some perfection in it? But, since we know that painting
-embraces and includes in itself every object produced by nature or
-resulting from the fortuitous actions of men, in short, all that the
-eye can see, he seems to me but a poor master who can only do a
-figure well. For do you not perceive how many and various actions
-are performed by men only; how many different animals there are, as
-well as trees, plants, flowers, with many mountainous regions and
-plains, springs and rivers, cities with public and private
-buildings, machines, too, fit for the purposes of men, divers
-costumes, decorations and arts? And all these things ought to be
-regarded as of equal importance and value, by the man who can be
-termed a good painter.
-
-501.
-
-OF THE MISERABLE PRETENCES MADE BY THOSE WHO FALSELY AND UNWORTHILY
-ACQUIRE THE NAME OF PAINTERS.
-
-Now there is a certain race of painters who, having studied but
-little, must need take as their standard of beauty mere gold and
-azure, and these, with supreme conceit, declare that they will not
-give good work for miserable payment, and that they could do as well
-as any other if they were well paid. But, ye foolish folks! cannot
-such artists keep some good work, and then say: this is a costly
-work and this more moderate and this is average work and show that
-they can work at all prices?
-
-A caution against one-sided study.
-
-502.
-
-HOW, IN IMPORTANT WORKS, A MAN SHOULD NOT TRUST ENTIRELY TO HIS
-MEMORY WITHOUT CONDESCENDING TO DRAW FROM NATURE.
-
-Any master who should venture to boast that he could remember all
-the forms and effects of nature would certainly appear to me to be
-graced with extreme ignorance, inasmuch as these effects are
-infinite and our memory is not extensive enough to retain them.
-Hence, O! painter, beware lest the lust of gain should supplant in
-you the dignity of art; for the acquisition of glory is a much
-greater thing than the glory of riches. Hence, for these and other
-reasons which might be given, first strive in drawing to represent
-your intention to the eye by expressive forms, and the idea
-originally formed in your imagination; then go on taking out or
-putting in, until you have satisfied yourself. Then have living men,
-draped or nude, as you may have purposed in your work, and take care
-that in dimensions and size, as determined by perspective, nothing
-is left in the work which is not in harmony with reason and the
-effects in nature. And this will be the way to win honour in your
-art.
-
-How to acquire universality (503-506).
-
-503.
-
-OF VARIETY IN THE FIGURES.
-
-The painter should aim at universality, because there is a great
-want of self-respect in doing one thing well and another badly, as
-many do who study only the [rules of] measure and proportion in the
-nude figure and do not seek after variety; for a man may be well
-proportioned, or he may be fat and short, or tall and thin, or
-medium. And a painter who takes no account of these varieties always
-makes his figures on one pattern so that they might all be taken for
-brothers; and this is a defect that demands stern reprehension.
-
-504.
-
-HOW SOMETHING MAY BE LEARNT EVERYWHERE.
-
-Nature has beneficently provided that throughout the world you may
-find something to imitate.
-
-505.
-
-OF THE MEANS OF ACQUIRING UNIVERSALITY.
-
-It is an easy matter to men to acquire universality, for all
-terrestrial animals resemble each other as to their limbs, that is
-in their muscles, sinews and bones; and they do not vary excepting
-in length or in thickness, as will be shown under Anatomy. But then
-there are aquatic animals which are of great variety; I will not try
-to convince the painter that there is any rule for them for they are
-of infinite variety, and so is the insect tribe.
-
-506.
-
-PAINTING.
-
-The mind of the painter must resemble a mirror, which always takes
-the colour of the object it reflects and is completely occupied by
-the images of as many objects as are in front of it. Therefore you
-must know, Oh Painter! that you cannot be a good one if you are not
-the universal master of representing by your art every kind of form
-produced by nature. And this you will not know how to do if you do
-not see them, and retain them in your mind. Hence as you go through
-the fields, turn your attention to various objects, and, in turn
-look now at this thing and now at that, collecting a store of divers
-facts selected and chosen from those of less value. But do not do
-like some painters who, when they are wearied with exercising their
-fancy dismiss their work from their thoughts and take exercise in
-walking for relaxation, but still keep fatigue in their mind which,
-though they see various objects [around them], does not apprehend
-them; but, even when they meet friends or relations and are saluted
-by them, although they see and hear them, take no more cognisance of
-them than if they had met so much empty air.
-
-Useful games and exercises (507. 508).
-
-507.
-
-OF GAMES TO BE PLAYED BY THOSE WHO DRAW.
-
-When, Oh draughtsmen, you desire to find relaxation in games you
-should always practise such things as may be of use in your
-profession, by giving your eye good practice in judging accurately
-of the breadth and length of objects. Thus, to accustom your mind to
-such things, let one of you draw a straight line at random on a
-wall, and each of you, taking a blade of grass or of straw in his
-hand, try to cut it to the length that the line drawn appears to him
-to be, standing at a distance of 10 braccia; then each one may go up
-to the line to measure the length he has judged it to be. And he who
-has come nearest with his measure to the length of the pattern is
-the best man, and the winner, and shall receive the prize you have
-settled beforehand. Again you should take forshortened measures:
-that is take a spear, or any other cane or reed, and fix on a point
-at a certain distance; and let each one estimate how many times he
-judges that its length will go into that distance. Again, who will
-draw best a line one braccio long, which shall be tested by a
-thread. And such games give occasion to good practice for the eye,
-which is of the first importance in painting.
-
-508.
-
-A WAY OF DEVELOPING AND AROUSING THE MIND TO VARIOUS INVENTIONS.
-
-I cannot forbear to mention among these precepts a new device for
-study which, although it may seem but trivial and almost ludicrous,
-is nevertheless extremely useful in arousing the mind to various
-inventions. And this is, when you look at a wall spotted with
-stains, or with a mixture of stones, if you have to devise some
-scene, you may discover a resemblance to various landscapes,
-beautified with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, wide
-valleys and hills in varied arrangement; or again you may see
-battles and figures in action; or strange faces and costumes, and an
-endless variety of objects, which you could reduce to complete and
-well drawn forms. And these appear on such walls confusedly, like
-the sound of bells in whose jangle you may find any name or word you
-choose to imagine.
-
-II.
-
-THE ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF
-PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.
-
-On the size of the studio.
-
-509.
-
-Small rooms or dwellings discipline the mind, large ones weaken it.
-
-On the construction of windows (510-512).
-
-510.
-
-The larger the wall the less the light will be.
-
-511.
-
-The different kinds of light afforded in cellars by various forms of
-windows. The least useful and the coldest is the window at _a_. The
-most useful, the lightest and warmest and most open to the sky is
-the window at _b_. The window at _c_ is of medium utility.
-
-[Footnote: From a reference to the notes on the right light for
-painting it becomes evident that the observations made on
-cellar-windows have a direct bearing on the construction of the
-studio-window. In the diagram _b_ as well as in that under No. 510
-the window-opening is reduced to a minimum, but only, it would seem,
-in order to emphasize the advantage of walls constructed on the plan
-there shown.]
-
-512.
-
-OF THE PAINTER'S WINDOW AND ITS ADVANTAGE.
-
-The painter who works from nature should have a window, which he can
-raise and lower. The reason is that sometimes you will want to
-finish a thing you are drawing, close to the light.
-
-Let _a b c d_ be the chest on which the work may be raised or
-lowered, so that the work moves up and down and not the painter. And
-every evening you can let down the work and shut it up above so that
-in the evening it may be in the fashion of a chest which, when shut
-up, may serve the purpose of a bench.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 2. In this plate the lines have
-unfortunately lost their sharpness, for the accidental loss of the
-negative has necessitated a reproduction from a positive. But having
-formerly published this sketch by another process, in VON LUTZOW'S
-_Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_ (Vol. XVII, pg. 13) I have
-reproduced it here in the text. The sharpness of the outline in the
-original sketch is here preserved but it gives it from the reversed
-side.]
-
-On the best light for painting (513-520).
-
-513.
-
-Which light is best for drawing from nature; whether high or low, or
-large or small, or strong and broad, or strong and small, or broad
-and weak or small and weak?
-
-[Footnote: The question here put is unanswered in the original MS.]
-
-514.
-
-OF THE QUALITY OF THE LIGHT.
-
-A broad light high up and not too strong will render the details of
-objects very agreeable.
-
-515.
-
-THAT THE LIGHT FOR DRAWING FROM NATURE SHOULD BE HIGH UP.
-
-The light for drawing from nature should come from the North in
-order that it may not vary. And if you have it from the South, keep
-the window screened with cloth, so that with the sun shining the
-whole day the light may not vary. The height of the light should be
-so arranged as that every object shall cast a shadow on the ground
-of the same length as itself.
-
-516.
-
-THE KIND OF LIGHT REQUISITE FOR PAINTING LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-An object will display the greatest difference of light and shade
-when it is seen in the strongest light, as by sunlight, or, at
-night, by the light of a fire. But this should not be much used in
-painting because the works remain crude and ungraceful.
-
-An object seen in a moderate light displays little difference in the
-light and shade; and this is the case towards evening or when the
-day is cloudy, and works then painted are tender and every kind of
-face becomes graceful. Thus, in every thing extremes are to be
-avoided: Too much light gives crudeness; too little prevents our
-seeing. The medium is best.
-
-OF SMALL LIGHTS.
-
-Again, lights cast from a small window give strong differences of
-light and shade, all the more if the room lighted by it be large,
-and this is not good for painting.
-
-517.
-
-PAINTING.
-
-The luminous air which enters by passing through orifices in walls
-into dark rooms will render the place less dark in proportion as the
-opening cuts into the walls which surround and cover in the
-pavement.
-
-518.
-
-OF THE QUALITY OF LIGHT.
-
-In proportion to the number of times that _a b_ goes into _c d_ will
-it be more luminous than _c d_. And similarly, in proportion as the
-point _e_ goes into _c d_ will it be more luminous than _c d;_ and
-this light is useful for carvers of delicate work. [Footnote 5: For
-the same reason a window thus constructed would be convenient for an
-illuminator or a miniature painter.]
-
-[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A remarks on
-this passage: _"La figure porte les lettres_ f _et_ g, _auxquelles
-rien ne renvoie dans l'explication; par consequent, cette
-explication est incomplete. La figure semblerait, d'ailleurs, se
-rapporter a l'effet de la reflexion par un miroir concave."_ So far
-as I can see the text is not imperfect, nor is the sense obscure. It
-is hardly necessary to observe that _c d_ here indicate the wall of
-the room opposite to the window _e_ and the semicircle described by
-_f g_ stands for the arch of the sky; this occurs in various
-diagrams, for example under 511. A similar semicircle, Pl III, No. 2
-(and compare No. 149) is expressly called '_orizonte_' in writing.]
-
-519.
-
-That the light should fall upon a picture from one window only. This
-may be seen in the case of objects in this form. If you want to
-represent a round ball at a certain height you must make it oval in
-this shape, and stand so far off as that by foreshortening it
-appears round.
-
-520.
-
-OF SELECTING THE LIGHT WHICH GIVES MOST GRACE TO FACES.
-
-If you should have a court yard that you can at pleasure cover with
-a linen awning that light will be good. Or when you want to take a
-portrait do it in dull weather, or as evening falls, making the
-sitter stand with his back to one of the walls of the court yard.
-Note in the streets, as evening falls, the faces of the men and
-women, and when the weather is dull, what softness and delicacy you
-may perceive in them. Hence, Oh Painter! have a court arranged with
-the walls tinted black and a narrow roof projecting within the
-walls. It should be 10 braccia wide and 20 braccia long and 10
-braccia high and covered with a linen awning; or else paint a work
-towards evening or when it is cloudy or misty, and this is a perfect
-light.
-
-On various helps in preparing a picture (521-530).
-
-521.
-
-To draw a nude figure from nature, or any thing else, hold in your
-hand a plumb-line to enable you to judge of the relative position
-of objects.
-
-522.
-
-OF DRAWING AN OBJECT.
-
-When you draw take care to set up a principal line which you must
-observe all throughout the object you are drawing; every thing
-should bear relation to the direction of this principal line.
-
-523.
-
-OF A MODE OF DRAWING A PLACE ACCURATELY.
-
-Have a piece of glass as large as a half sheet of royal folio paper
-and set thus firmly in front of your eyes that is, between your eye
-and the thing you want to draw; then place yourself at a distance of
-2/3 of a braccia from the glass fixing your head with a machine in
-such a way that you cannot move it at all. Then shut or entirely
-cover one eye and with a brush or red chalk draw upon the glass that
-which you see beyond it; then trace it on paper from the glass,
-afterwards transfer it onto good paper, and paint it if you like,
-carefully attending to the arial perspective.
-
-HOW TO LEARN TO PLACE YOUR FIGURES CORRECTLY.
-
-If you want to acquire a practice of good and correct attitudes for
-your figures, make a square frame or net, and square it out with
-thread; place this between your eye and the nude model you are
-drawing, and draw these same squares on the paper on which you mean
-to draw the figure, but very delicately. Then place a pellet of wax
-on a spot of the net which will serve as a fixed point, which,
-whenever you look at your model, must cover the pit of the throat;
-or, if his back is turned, it may cover one of the vertebrae of the
-neck. Thus these threads will guide you as to each part of the body
-which, in any given attitude will be found below the pit of the
-throat, or the angles of the shoulders, or the nipples, or hips and
-other parts of the body; and the transverse lines of the net will
-show you how much the figure is higher over the leg on which it is
-posed than over the other, and the same with the hips, and the knees
-and the feet. But always fix the net perpendicularly so that all the
-divisions that you see the model divided into by the net work
-correspond with your drawing of the model on the net work you have
-sketched. The squares you draw may be as much smaller than those of
-the net as you wish that your figure should be smaller than nature.
-Afterwards remember when drawing figures, to use the rule of the
-corresponding proportions of the limbs as you have learnt it from
-the frame and net. This should be 3 braccia and a half high and 3
-braccia wide; 7 braccia distant from you and 1 braccio from the
-model.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo is commonly credited with the invention of the
-arrangement of a plate of glass commonly known as the "vertical
-plane." Professor E. VON BRUCKE in his _"Bruchstucke aus der Theorie
-der bildenden Kunste,"_ Leipzig 1877, pg. 3, writes on this
-contrivance. _"Unsere Glastafel ist die sogenannte Glastafel des
-Leonardo da Vinci, die in Gestalt einer Glastafel vorgestellte
-Bildflache."_]
-
-524.
-
-A METHOD OF DRAWING AN OBJECT IN RELIEF AT NIGHT.
-
-Place a sheet of not too transparent paper between the relievo and
-the light and you can draw thus very well.
-
-[Footnote: Bodies thus illuminated will show on the surface of the
-paper how the copyist has to distribute light and shade.]
-
-525.
-
-If you want to represent a figure on a wall, the wall being
-foreshortened, while the figure is to appear in its proper form, and
-as standing free from the wall, you must proceed thus: have a thin
-plate of iron and make a small hole in the centre; this hole must be
-round. Set a light close to it in such a position as that it shines
-through the central hole, then place any object or figure you please
-so close to the wall that it touches it and draw the outline of the
-shadow on the wall; then fill in the shade and add the lights; place
-the person who is to see it so that he looks through that same hole
-where at first the light was; and you will never be able to persuade
-yourself that the image is not detached from the wall.
-
-[Footnote: _uno piccolo spiracelo nel mezzo_. M. RAVAISSON, in his
-edition of MS. A (Paris), p. 52, reads _nel muro_--evidently a
-mistake for _nel mezzo_ which is quite plainly written; and he
-translates it _"fait lui une petite ouverture dans le mur,"_ adding
-in a note: _"les mots 'dans le mur' paraissent etre de trop.
-Leonardo a du les ecrire par distraction"_ But _'nel mezzo'_ is
-clearly legible even on the photograph facsimile given by Ravaisson
-himself, and the objection he raises disappears at once. It is not
-always wise or safe to try to prove our author's absence of mind or
-inadvertence by apparent difficulties in the sense or connection of
-the text.]
-
-526.
-
-TO DRAW A FIGURE ON A WALL 12 BRACCIA HIGH WHICH SHALL LOOK 24
-BRACCIA HIGH.
-
-If you wish to draw a figure or any other object to look 24 braccia
-high you must do it in this way. First, on the surface _m r_ draw
-half the man you wish to represent; then the other half; then put on
-the vault _m n_ [the rest of] the figure spoken of above; first set
-out the vertical plane on the floor of a room of the same shape as
-the wall with the coved part on which you are to paint your figure.
-Then, behind it, draw a figure set out in profile of whatever size
-you please, and draw lines from it to the point _f_ and, as these
-lines cut _m n_ on the vertical plane, so will the figure come on
-the wall, of which the vertical plane gives a likeness, and you will
-have all the [relative] heights and prominences of the figure. And
-the breadth or thickness which are on the upright wall _m n_ are to
-be drawn in their proper form, since, as the wall recedes the figure
-will be foreshortened by itself; but [that part of] the figure which
-goes into the cove you must foreshorten, as if it were standing
-upright; this diminution you must set out on a flat floor and there
-must stand the figure which is to be transferred from the vertical
-plane _r n_[Footnote 17: _che leverai dalla pariete r n_. The
-letters refer to the larger sketch, No. 3 on Pl. XXXI.] in its real
-size and reduce it once more on a vertical plane; and this will be a
-good method [Footnote 18: Leonardo here says nothing as to how the
-image foreshortened by perspective and thus produced on the vertical
-plane is to be transferred to the wall; but from what is said in
-Nos. 525 and 523 we may conclude that he was familiar with the
-process of casting the enlarged shadow of a squaring net on the
-surface of a wall to guide him in drawing the figure.
-
-_Pariete di rilieuo; "sur une parai en relief"_ (RAVAISSON). _"Auf
-einer Schnittlinie zum Aufrichten"_ (LUDWIG). The explanation of
-this puzzling expression must be sought in No. 545, lines 15-17.].
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. 3. The second sketch, which in the plate is
-incomplete, is here reproduced and completed from the original to
-illustrate the text. In the original the larger diagram is placed
-between lines 5 and 6.
-
-1. 2. C. A. 157a; 463a has the similar heading: '_del cressciere
-della figura_', and the text begins: "_Se voli fare 1a figura
-grande_ b c" but here it breaks off. The translation here given
-renders the meaning of the passage as I think it must be understood.
-The MS. is perfectly legible and the construction of the sentence is
-simple and clear; difficulties can only arise from the very fullness
-of the meaning, particularly towards the end of the passage.]
-
-527.
-
-If you would to draw a cube in an angle of a wall, first draw the
-object in its own proper shape and raise it onto a vertical plane
-until it resembles the angle in which the said object is to be
-represented.
-
-528.
-
-Why are paintings seen more correctly in a mirror than out of it?
-
-529.
-
-HOW THE MIRROR IS THE MASTER [AND GUIDE] OF PAINTERS.
-
-When you want to see if your picture corresponds throughout with the
-objects you have drawn from nature, take a mirror and look in that
-at the reflection of the real things, and compare the reflected
-image with your picture, and consider whether the subject of the two
-images duly corresponds in both, particularly studying the mirror.
-You should take the mirror for your guide--that is to say a flat
-mirror--because on its surface the objects appear in many respects
-as in a painting. Thus you see, in a painting done on a flat
-surface, objects which appear in relief, and in the mirror--also a
-flat surface--they look the same. The picture has one plane surface
-and the same with the mirror. The picture is intangible, in so far
-as that which appears round and prominent cannot be grasped in the
-hands; and it is the same with the mirror. And since you can see
-that the mirror, by means of outlines, shadows and lights, makes
-objects appear in relief, you, who have in your colours far stronger
-lights and shades than those in the mirror, can certainly, if you
-compose your picture well, make that also look like a natural scene
-reflected in a large mirror.
-
-[Footnote: I understand the concluding lines of this passage as
-follows: If you draw the upper half a figure on a large sheet of
-paper laid out on the floor of a room (_sala be piana_) to the same
-scale (_con le sue vere grosseze_) as the lower half, already drawn
-upon the wall (lines 10, 11)you must then reduce them on a '_pariete
-di rilievo_,' a curved vertical plane which serves as a model to
-reproduce the form of the vault.]
-
-530.
-
-OF JUDGING YOUR OWN PICTURES.
-
-We know very well that errors are better recognised in the works of
-others than in our own; and that often, while reproving little
-faults in others, you may ignore great ones in yourself. To avoid
-such ignorance, in the first place make yourself a master of
-perspective, then acquire perfect knowledge of the proportions of
-men and other animals, and also, study good architecture, that is so
-far as concerns the forms of buildings and other objects which are
-on the face of the earth; these forms are infinite, and the better
-you know them the more admirable will your work be. And in cases
-where you lack experience do not shrink from drawing them from
-nature. But, to carry out my promise above [in the title]--I say
-that when you paint you should have a flat mirror and often look at
-your work as reflected in it, when you will see it reversed, and it
-will appear to you like some other painter's work, so you will be
-better able to judge of its faults than in any other way. Again, it
-is well that you should often leave off work and take a little
-relaxation, because, when you come back to it you are a better
-judge; for sitting too close at work may greatly deceive you. Again,
-it is good to retire to a distance because the work looks smaller
-and your eye takes in more of it at a glance and sees more easily
-the discords or disproportion in the limbs and colours of the
-objects.
-
-On the management of works (531. 532).
-
-531.
-
-OF A METHOD OF LEARNING WELL BY HEART.
-
-When you want to know a thing you have studied in your memory
-proceed in this way: When you have drawn the same thing so many
-times that you think you know it by heart, test it by drawing it
-without the model; but have the model traced on flat thin glass and
-lay this on the drawing you have made without the model, and note
-carefully where the tracing does not coincide with your drawing, and
-where you find you have gone wrong; and bear in mind not to repeat
-the same mistakes. Then return to the model, and draw the part in
-which you were wrong again and again till you have it well in your
-mind. If you have no flat glass for tracing on, take some very thin
-kidts-kin parchment, well oiled and dried. And when you have used it
-for one drawing you can wash it clean with a sponge and make a
-second.
-
-532.
-
-THAT A PAINTER OUGHT TO BE CURIOUS TO HEAR THE OPINIONS OF EVERY ONE
-ON HIS WORK.
-
-Certainly while a man is painting he ought not to shrink from
-hearing every opinion. For we know very well that a man, though he
-may not be a painter, is familiar with the forms of other men and
-very capable of judging whether they are hump backed, or have one
-shoulder higher or lower than the other, or too big a mouth or nose,
-and other defects; and, as we know that men are competent to judge
-of the works of nature, how much more ought we to admit that they
-can judge of our errors; since you know how much a man may be
-deceived in his own work. And if you are not conscious of this in
-yourself study it in others and profit by their faults. Therefore be
-curious to hear with patience the opinions of others, consider and
-weigh well whether those who find fault have ground or not for
-blame, and, if so amend; but, if not make as though you had not
-heard, or if he should be a man you esteem show him by argument the
-cause of his mistake.
-
-On the limitations of painting (533-535)
-
-533.
-
-HOW IN SMALL OBJECTS ERRORS ARE LESS EVIDENT THAN IN LARGE ONES.
-
-In objects of minute size the extent of error is not so perceptible
-as in large ones; and the reason is that if this small object is a
-representation of a man or of some other animal, from the immense
-diminution the details cannot be worked out by the artist with the
-finish that is requisite. Hence it is not actually complete; and,
-not being complete, its faults cannot be determined. For instance:
-Look at a man at a distance of 300 braccia and judge attentively
-whether he be handsome or ugly, or very remarkable or of ordinary
-appearance. You will find that with the utmost effort you cannot
-persuade yourself to decide. And the reason is that at such a
-distance the man is so much diminished that the character of the
-details cannot be determined. And if you wish to see how much this
-man is diminished [by distance] hold one of your fingers at a span's
-distance from your eye, and raise or lower it till the top joint
-touches the feet of the figure you are looking at, and you will see
-an incredible reduction. For this reason we often doubt as to the
-person of a friend at a distance.
-
-534.
-
-WHY A PAINTING CAN NEVER APPEAR DETACHED AS NATURAL OBJECTS DO.
-
-Painters often fall into despair of imitating nature when they see
-their pictures fail in that relief and vividness which objects have
-that are seen in a mirror; while they allege that they have colours
-which for brightness or depth far exceed the strength of light and
-shade in the reflections in the mirror, thus displaying their own
-ignorance rather than the real cause, because they do not know it.
-It is impossible that painted objects should appear in such relief
-as to resemble those reflected in the mirror, although both are seen
-on a flat surface, unless they are seen with only one eye; and the
-reason is that two eyes see one object behind another as _a_ and _b_
-see _m_ and _n_. _m_ cannot exactly occupy [the space of] _n_
-because the base of the visual lines is so broad that the second
-body is seen beyond the first. But if you close one eye, as at _s_
-the body _f_ will conceal _r_, because the line of sight proceeds
-from a single point and makes its base in the first body, whence the
-second, of the same size, can never be seen.
-
-[Footnote: This passage contains the solution of the problem
-proposed in No. 29, lines 10-14. Leonardo was evidently familiar
-with the law of optics on which the construction of the stereoscope
-depends. Compare E. VON BRUCKE, _Bruchstucke aus der Theorie der
-bildenden Kunste_, pg. 69: "_Schon Leonardo da Vinci wusste, dass
-ein noch so gut gemaltes Bild nie den vollen Eindruck der
-Korperlichkeit geben kann, wie ihn die Natur selbst giebt. Er
-erklart dies auch in Kap. LIII und Kap. CCCXLI_ (ed. DU FRESNE)
-_des_ 'Trattato' _in sachgemasser Weise aus dem Sehen mit beiden
-Augen_."
-
-Chap. 53 of DU FRESNE'S edition corresponds to No. 534 of this
-work.]
-
-535.
-
-WHY OF TWO OBJECTS OF EQUAL SIZE A PAINTED ONE WILL LOOK LARGER THAN
-A SOLID ONE.
-
-The reason of this is not so easy to demonstrate as many others.
-Still I will endeavour to accomplish it, if not wholly, at any rate
-in part. The perspective of diminution demonstrates by reason, that
-objects diminish in proportion as they are farther from the eye, and
-this reasoning is confirmed by experience. Hence, the lines of sight
-that extend between the object and the eye, when they are directed
-to the surface of a painting are all intersected at uniform limits,
-while those lines which are directed towards a piece of sculpture
-are intersected at various limits and are of various lengths. The
-lines which are longest extend to a more remote limb than the others
-and therefore that limb looks smaller. As there are numerous lines
-each longer than the others--since there are numerous parts, each
-more remote than the others and these, being farther off,
-necessarily appear smaller, and by appearing smaller it follows that
-their diminution makes the whole mass of the object look smaller.
-But this does not occur in painting; since the lines of sight all
-end at the same distance there can be no diminution, hence the parts
-not being diminished the whole object is undiminished, and for this
-reason painting does not diminish, as a piece of sculpture does.
-
-On the choice of a position (536-537)
-
-536.
-
-HOW HIGH THE POINT OF SIGHT SHOULD BE PLACED.
-
-The point of sight must be at the level of the eye of an ordinary
-man, and the farthest limit of the plain where it touches the sky
-must be placed at the level of that line where the earth and sky
-meet; excepting mountains, which are independent of it.
-
-537.
-
-OF THE WAY TO DRAW FIGURES FOR HISTORICAL PICTURES.
-
-The painter must always study on the wall on which he is to picture
-a story the height of the position where he wishes to arrange his
-figures; and when drawing his studies for them from nature he must
-place himself with his eye as much below the object he is drawing
-as, in the picture, it will have to be above the eye of the
-spectator. Otherwise the work will look wrong.
-
-The apparent size of figures in a picture (538-539)
-
-538.
-
-OF PLACING A FIGURE IN THE FOREGROUND OF A HISTORICAL PICTURE.
-
-You must make the foremost figure in the picture less than the size
-of nature in proportion to the number of braccia at which you place
-it from the front line, and make the others in proportion by the
-above rule.
-
-539.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-You are asked, O Painter, why the figures you draw on a small scale
-according to the laws of perspective do not appear--notwithstanding
-the demonstration of distance--as large as real ones--their height
-being the same as in those painted on the wall.
-
-And why [painted] objects seen at a small distance appear larger
-than the real ones?
-
-The right position of the artist, when painting, and of the
-spectator (540-547)
-
-540.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-When you draw from nature stand at a distance of 3 times the height
-of the object you wish to draw.
-
-541.
-
-OF DRAWING FROM RELIEF.
-
-In drawing from the round the draughtsman should so place himself
-that the eye of the figure he is drawing is on a level with his own.
-This should be done with any head he may have to represent from
-nature because, without exception, the figures or persons you meet
-in the streets have their eyes on the same level as your own; and if
-you place them higher or lower you will see that your drawing will
-not be true.
-
-542.
-
-WHY GROUPS OF FIGURES ONE ABOVE ANOTHER ARE TO BE AVOIDED.
-
-The universal practice which painters adopt on the walls of chapels
-is greatly and reasonably to be condemned. Inasmuch as they
-represent one historical subject on one level with a landscape and
-buildings, and then go up a step and paint another, varying the
-point [of sight], and then a third and a fourth, in such a way as
-that on one wall there are 4 points of sight, which is supreme folly
-in such painters. We know that the point of sight is opposite the
-eye of the spectator of the scene; and if you would [have me] tell
-you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several
-pictures on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out
-the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of
-the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more
-important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees
-the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you
-can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of
-the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the
-figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or
-clouds or similar objects; otherwise do not trouble yourself with it
-for your whole work will be wrong.
-
-543.
-
-A PICTURE OF OBJECTS IN PERSPECTIVE WILL LOOK MORE LIFELIKE WHEN
-SEEN FROM THE POINT FROM WHICH THE OBJECTS WERE DRAWN.
-
-If you want to represent an object near to you which is to have the
-effect of nature, it is impossible that your perspective should not
-look wrong, with every false relation and disagreement of proportion
-that can be imagined in a wretched work, unless the spectator, when
-he looks at it, has his eye at the very distance and height and
-direction where the eye or the point of sight was placed in doing
-this perspective. Hence it would be necessary to make a window, or
-rather a hole, of the size of your face through which you can look
-at the work; and if you do this, beyond all doubt your work, if it
-is correct as to light and shade, will have the effect of nature;
-nay you will hardly persuade yourself that those objects are
-painted; otherwise do not trouble yourself about it, unless indeed
-you make your view at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
-width or height of the objects represented, and this will satisfy
-any spectator placed anywhere opposite to the picture.
-
-If you want the proof briefly shown, take a piece of wood in the
-form of a little column, eight times as high as it is thick, like a
-column without any plinth or capital; then mark off on a flat wall
-40 equal spaces, equal to its width so that between them they make
-40 columns resembling your little column; you then must fix,
-opposite the centre space, and at 4 braccia from the wall, a thin
-strip of iron with a small round hole in the middle about as large
-as a big pearl. Close to this hole place a light touching it. Then
-place your column against each mark on the wall and draw the outline
-of its shadow; afterwards shade it and look through the hole in the
-iron plate.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there is a wide space between lines 3 and
-4 in which we find two sketches not belonging to the text. It is
-unnecessary to give prominence to the points in which my reading
-differs from that of M. RAVAISSON or to justify myself, since they
-are all of secondary importance and can also be immediately verified
-from the photograph facsimile in his edition.]
-
-544.
-
-A diminished object should be seen from the same distance, height
-and direction as the point of sight of your eye, or else your
-knowledge will produce no good effect.
-
-And if you will not, or cannot, act on this principle--because as
-the plane on which you paint is to be seen by several persons you
-would need several points of sight which would make it look
-discordant and wrong--place yourself at a distance of at least 10
-times the size of the objects.
-
-The lesser fault you can fall into then, will be that of
-representing all the objects in the foreground of their proper size,
-and on whichever side you are standing the objects thus seen will
-diminish themselves while the spaces between them will have no
-definite ratio. For, if you place yourself in the middle of a
-straight row [of objects], and look at several columns arranged in a
-line you will see, beyond a few columns separated by intervals, that
-the columns touch; and beyond where they touch they cover each
-other, till the last column projects but very little beyond the last
-but one. Thus the spaces between the columns are by degrees entirely
-lost. So, if your method of perspective is good, it will produce the
-same effect; this effect results from standing near the line in
-which the columns are placed. This method is not satisfactory unless
-the objects seen are viewed from a small hole, in the middle of
-which is your point of sight; but if you proceed thus your work will
-be perfect and will deceive the beholder, who will see the columns
-as they are here figured.
-
-Here the eye is in the middle, at the point _a_ and near to the
-columns.
-
-[Footnote: The diagram which stands above this chapter in the
-original with the note belonging to it: "a b _e la ripruova_" (_a b_
-is the proof) has obviously no connection with the text. The second
-sketch alone is reproduced and stands in the original between lines
-22 and 23.]
-
-545.
-
-If you cannot arrange that those who look at your work should stand
-at one particular point, when constructing your work, stand back
-until your eye is at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
-height and width of your work. This will make so little difference
-when the eye of the spectator moves, that it will be hardly
-appreciable, and it will look very good.
-
-If the point of sight is at _t_ you would make the figures on the
-circle _d b e_ all of one size, as each of them bears the same
-relation to the point _t_. But consider the diagram given below and
-you will see that this is wrong, and why I shall make _b_ smaller
-than _d e_ [Footnote 8: The second diagram of this chapter stands in
-the original between lines 8 and 9.].
-
-It is easy to understand that if 2 objects equal to each other are
-placed side by side the one at 3 braccia distance looks smaller than
-that placed at 2 braccia. This however is rather theoretical than
-for practice, because you stand close by [Footnote 11: Instead of
-'_se preso_' (=_sie presso_) M. RAVAISSON reads '_sempre se_' which
-gives rise to the unmeaning rendering: '_parceque toujours_ ...'].
-
-All the objects in the foreground, whether large or small, are to be
-drawn of their proper size, and if you see them from a distance they
-will appear just as they ought, and if you see them close they will
-diminish of themselves.
-
-[Footnote 15: Compare No. 526 line 18.] Take care that the vertical
-plan on which you work out the perspective of the objects seen is of
-the same form as the wall on which the work is to be executed.
-
-546.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The size of the figures represented ought to show you the distance
-they are seen from. If you see a figure as large as nature you know
-it appears to be close to the eye.
-
-547.
-
-WHERE A SPECTATOR SHOULD STAND TO LOOK AT A PICTURE.
-
-Supposing _a b_ to be the picture and _d_ to be the light, I say
-that if you place yourself between _c_ and _e_ you will not
-understand the picture well and particularly if it is done in oils,
-or still more if it is varnished, because it will be lustrous and
-somewhat of the nature of a mirror. And for this reason the nearer
-you go towards the point _c_, the less you will see, because the
-rays of light falling from the window on the picture are reflected
-to that point. But if you place yourself between _e_ and _d_ you
-will get a good view of it, and the more so as you approach the
-point _d_, because that spot is least exposed to these reflected
-rays of light.
-
-III.
-
-THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Gradations of light and shade.
-
-548.
-
-OF PAINTING: OF THE DARKNESS OF THE SHADOWS, OR I MAY SAY, THE
-BRIGHTNESS OF THE LIGHTS.
-
-Although practical painters attribute to all shaded objects--trees,
-fields, hair, beards and skin--four degrees of darkness in each
-colour they use: that is to say first a dark foundation, secondly a
-spot of colour somewhat resembling the form of the details, thirdly
-a somewhat brighter and more defined portion, fourthly the lights
-which are more conspicuous than other parts of the figure; still to
-me it appears that these gradations are infinite upon a continuous
-surface which is in itself infinitely divisible, and I prove it
-thus:--[Footnote 7: See Pl. XXXI, No. 1; the two upper sketches.]
-Let _a g_ be a continuous surface and let _d_ be the light which
-illuminates it; I say--by the 4th [proposition] which says that that
-side of an illuminated body is most highly lighted which is nearest
-to the source of light--that therefore _g_ must be darker than _c_
-in proportion as the line _d g_ is longer than the line _d c_, and
-consequently that these gradations of light--or rather of shadow,
-are not 4 only, but may be conceived of as infinite, because _c d_
-is a continuous surface and every continuous surface is infinitely
-divisible; hence the varieties in the length of lines extending
-between the light and the illuminated object are infinite, and the
-proportion of the light will be the same as that of the length of
-the lines between them; extending from the centre of the luminous
-body to the surface of the illuminated object.
-
-On the choice of light for a picture (549-554).
-
-549.
-
-HOW THE PAINTER MUST PLACE HIMSELF WITH REFERENCE TO THE LIGHT, TO
-GIVE THE EFFECT OF RELIEF.
-
-Let _a b_ be the window, _m_ the point of light. I say that on
-whichever side the painter places himself he will be well placed if
-only his eye is between the shaded and the illuminated portions of
-the object he is drawing; and this place you will find by putting
-yourself between the point _m_ and the division between the shadow
-and the light on the object to be drawn.
-
-550.
-
-THAT SHADOWS CAST BY A PARTICULAR LIGHT SHOULD BE AVOIDED, BECAUSE
-THEY ARE EQUALLY STRONG AT THE ENDS AND AT THE BEGINNING.
-
-The shadows cast by the sun or any other particular light have not a
-pleasing effect on the body to which they belong, because the parts
-remain confuse, being divided by distinct outlines of light and
-shade. And the shadows are of equal strength at the end and at the
-beginning.
-
-551.
-
-HOW LIGHT SHOULD BE THROWN UPON FIGURES.
-
-The light must be arranged in accordance with the natural conditions
-under which you wish to represent your figures: that is, if you
-represent them in the sunshine make the shadows dark with large
-spaces of light, and mark their shadows and those of all the
-surrounding objects strongly on the ground. And if you represent
-them as in dull weather give little difference of light and shade,
-without any shadows at their feet. If you represent them as within
-doors, make a strong difference between the lights and shadows, with
-shadows on the ground. If the window is screened and the walls
-white, there will be little difference of light. If it is lighted by
-firelight make the high lights ruddy and strong, and the shadows
-dark, and those cast on the walls and on the floor will be clearly
-defined and the farther they are from the body the broader and
-longer will they be. If the light is partly from the fire and partly
-from the outer day, that of day will be the stronger and that of the
-fire almost as red as fire itself. Above all see that the figures
-you paint are broadly lighted and from above, that is to say all
-living persons that you paint; for you will see that all the people
-you meet out in the street are lighted from above, and you must know
-that if you saw your most intimate friend with a light [on his face]
-from below you would find it difficult to recognise him.
-
-552.
-
-OF HELPING THE APPARENT RELIEF OF A PICTURE BY GIVING IT ARTIFICIAL
-LIGHT AND SHADE.
-
-To increase relief of a picture you may place, between your figure
-and the solid object on which its shadow falls, a line of bright
-light, dividing the figure from the object in shadow. And on the
-same object you shall represent two light parts which will surround
-the shadow cast upon the wall by the figure placed opposite [6]; and
-do this frequently with the limbs which you wish should stand out
-somewhat from the body they belong to; particularly when the arms
-cross the front of the breast show, between the shadow cast by the
-arms on the breast and the shadow on the arms themselves, a little
-light seeming to fall through a space between the breast and the
-arms; and the more you wish the arm to look detached from the breast
-the broader you must make the light; always contrive also to arrange
-the figures against the background in such a way as that the parts
-in shadow are against a light background and the illuminated
-portions against a dark background.
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare the two diagrams under No. 565.]
-
-553.
-
-OF SITUATION.
-
-Remember [to note] the situation of your figures; for the light and
-shade will be one thing if the object is in a dark place with a
-particular light, and another thing if it is in a light place with
-direct sunlight; one thing in a dark place with a diffused evening
-light or a cloudy sky, and another in the diffused light of the
-atmosphere lighted by the sun.
-
-554.
-
-OF THE JUDGMENT TO BE MADE OF A PAINTER'S WORK.
-
-First you must consider whether the figures have the relief required
-by their situation and the light which illuminates them; for the
-shadows should not be the same at the extreme ends of the
-composition as in the middle, because it is one thing when figures
-are surrounded by shadows and another when they have shadows only on
-one side. Those which are in the middle of the picture are
-surrounded by shadows, because they are shaded by the figures which
-stand between them and the light. And those are lighted on one side
-only which stand between the principal group and the light, because
-where they do not look towards the light they face the group and the
-darkness of the group is thrown on them: and where they do not face
-the group they face the brilliant light and it is their own darkness
-shadowing them, which appears there.
-
-In the second place observe the distribution or arrangement of
-figures, and whether they are distributed appropriately to the
-circumstances of the story. Thirdly, whether the figures are
-actively intent on their particular business.
-
-555.
-
-OF THE TREATMENT OF THE LIGHTS.
-
-First give a general shadow to the whole of that extended part which
-is away from the light. Then put in the half shadows and the strong
-shadows, comparing them with each other and, in the same way give
-the extended light in half tint, afterwards adding the half lights
-and the high lights, likewise comparing them together.
-
-The distribution of light and shade (556-559)
-
-556.
-
-OF SHADOWS ON BODIES.
-
-When you represent the dark shadows in bodies in light and shade,
-always show the cause of the shadow, and the same with reflections;
-because the dark shadows are produced by dark objects and the
-reflections by objects only moderately lighted, that is with
-diminished light. And there is the same proportion between the
-highly lighted part of a body and the part lighted by a reflection
-as between the origin of the lights on the body and the origin of
-the reflections.
-
-557.
-
-OF LIGHTS AND SHADOWS.
-
-I must remind you to take care that every portion of a body, and
-every smallest detail which is ever so little in relief, must be
-given its proper importance as to light and shade.
-
-558.
-
-OF THE WAY TO MAKE THE SHADOW ON FIGURES CORRESPOND TO THE LIGHT AND
-TO [THE COLOUR] OF THE BODY.
-
-When you draw a figure and you wish to see whether the shadow is the
-proper complement to the light, and neither redder nor yellower than
-is the nature of the colour you wish to represent in shade, proceed
-thus. Cast a shadow with your finger on the illuminated portion, and
-if the accidental shadow that you have made is like the natural
-shadow cast by your finger on your work, well and good; and by
-putting your finger nearer or farther off, you can make darker or
-lighter shadows, which you must compare with your own.
-
-559.
-
-OF SURROUNDING BODIES BY VARIOUS FORMS OF SHADOW.
-
-Take care that the shadows cast upon the surface of the bodies by
-different objects must undulate according to the various curves of
-the limbs which cast the shadows, and of the objects on which they
-are cast.
-
-The juxtaposition of light and shade (560, 561).
-
-560.
-
-ON PAINTING.
-
-The comparison of the various qualities of shadows and lights not
-infrequently seems ambiguous and confused to the painter who desires
-to imitate and copy the objects he sees. The reason is this: If you
-see a white drapery side by side with a black one, that part of the
-white drapery which lies against the black one will certainly look
-much whiter than the part which lies against something whiter than
-itself. [Footnote: It is evident from this that so early as in 1492
-Leonardo's writing in perspective was so far advanced that he could
-quote his own statements.--As bearing on this subject compare what
-is said in No. 280.] And the reason of this is shown in my [book on]
-perspective.
-
-561.
-
-OF SHADOWS.
-
-Where a shadow ends in the light, note carefully where it is paler
-or deeper and where it is more or less indistinct towards the light;
-and, above all, in [painting] youthful figures I remind you not to
-make the shadow end like a stone, because flesh has a certain
-transparency, as may be seen by looking at a hand held between the
-eye and the sun, which shines through it ruddy and bright. Place the
-most highly coloured part between the light and shadow. And to see
-what shadow tint is needed on the flesh, cast a shadow on it with
-your finger, and according as you wish to see it lighter or darker
-hold your finger nearer to or farther from your picture, and copy
-that [shadow].
-
-On the lighting of the background (562-565).
-
-562.
-
-OF THE BACKGROUNDS FOR PAINTED FIGURES.
-
-The ground which surrounds the forms of any object you paint should
-be darker than the high lights of those figures, and lighter than
-their shadowed part: &c.
-
-563.
-
-OF THE BACKGROUND THAT THE PAINTER SHOULD ADOPT IN HIS WORKS.
-
-Since experience shows us that all bodies are surrounded by light
-and shade it is necessary that you, O Painter, should so arrange
-that the side which is in light shall terminate against a dark body
-and likewise that the shadow side shall terminate against a light
-body. And by [following] this rule you will add greatly to the
-relief of your figures.
-
-564.
-
-A most important part of painting consists in the backgrounds of the
-objects represented; against these backgrounds the outlines of
-those natural objects which are convex are always visible, and also
-the forms of these bodies against the background, even though the
-colours of the bodies should be the same as that of the background.
-This is caused by the convex edges of the objects not being
-illuminated in the same way as, by the same light, the background is
-illuminated, since these edges will often be lighter or darker than
-the background. But if the edge is of the same colour as the
-background, beyond a doubt it will in that part of the picture
-interfere with your perception of the outline, and such a choice in
-a picture ought to be rejected by the judgment of good painters,
-inasmuch as the purpose of the painter is to make his figures appear
-detached from the background; while in the case here described the
-contrary occurs, not only in the picture, but in the objects
-themselves.
-
-565.
-
-That you ought, when representing objects above the eye and on one
-side--if you wish them to look detached from the wall--to show,
-between the shadow on the object and the shadow it casts a middle
-light, so that the body will appear to stand away from the wall.
-
-On the lighting of white objects.
-
-566.
-
-HOW WHITE BODIES SHOULD BE REPRESENTED.
-
-If you are representing a white body let it be surrounded by ample
-space, because as white has no colour of its own, it is tinged and
-altered in some degree by the colour of the objects surrounding it.
-If you see a woman dressed in white in the midst of a landscape,
-that side which is towards the sun is bright in colour, so much so
-that in some portions it will dazzle the eyes like the sun itself;
-and the side which is towards the atmosphere,--luminous through
-being interwoven with the sun's rays and penetrated by them--since
-the atmosphere itself is blue, that side of the woman's figure will
-appear steeped in blue. If the surface of the ground about her be
-meadows and if she be standing between a field lighted up by the sun
-and the sun itself, you will see every portion of those folds which
-are towards the meadow tinged by the reflected rays with the colour
-of that meadow. Thus the white is transmuted into the colours of the
-luminous and of the non-luminous objects near it.
-
-The methods of aerial (567--570).
-
-567.
-
-WHY FACES [SEEN] AT A DISTANCE LOOK DARK.
-
-We see quite plainly that all the images of visible objects that lie
-before us, whether large or small, reach our sense by the minute
-aperture of the eye; and if, through so small a passage the image
-can pass of the vast extent of sky and earth, the face of a
-man--being by comparison with such large images almost nothing by
-reason of the distance which diminishes it,--fills up so little of
-the eye that it is indistinguishable. Having, also, to be
-transmitted from the surface to the sense through a dark medium,
-that is to say the crystalline lens which looks dark, this image,
-not being strong in colour becomes affected by this darkness on its
-passage, and on reaching the sense it appears dark; no other reason
-can in any way be assigned. If the point in the eye is black, it is
-because it is full of a transparent humour as clear as air and acts
-like a perforation in a board; on looking into it it appears dark
-and the objects seen through the bright air and a dark one become
-confused in this darkness.
-
-WHY A MAN SEEN AT A CERTAIN DISTANCE IS NOT RECOGNISABLE.
-
-The perspective of diminution shows us that the farther away an
-object is the smaller it looks. If you look at a man at a distance
-from you of an arrow's flight, and hold the eye of a small needle
-close to your own eye, you can see through it several men whose
-images are transmitted to the eye and will all be comprised within
-the size of the needle's eye; hence, if the man who is at the
-distance of an arrow's flight can send his whole image to your eye,
-occupying only a small space in the needle's eye how can you
-[expect] in so small a figure to distinguish or see the nose or
-mouth or any detail of his person? and, not seeing these you cannot
-recognise the man, since these features, which he does not show, are
-what give men different aspects.
-
-568.
-
-THE REASON WHY SMALL FIGURES SHOULD NOT BE MADE FINISHED.
-
-I say that the reason that objects appear diminished in size is
-because they are remote from the eye; this being the case it is
-evident that there must be a great extent of atmosphere between the
-eye and the objects, and this air interferes with the distinctness
-of the forms of the object. Hence the minute details of these
-objects will be indistinguishable and unrecognisable. Therefore, O
-Painter, make your smaller figures merely indicated and not highly
-finished, otherwise you will produce effects the opposite to nature,
-your supreme guide. The object is small by reason of the great
-distance between it and the eye, this great distance is filled with
-air, that mass of air forms a dense body which intervenes and
-prevents the eye seeing the minute details of objects.
-
-569.
-
-Whenever a figure is placed at a considerable distance you lose
-first the distinctness of the smallest parts; while the larger parts
-are left to the last, losing all distinctness of detail and outline;
-and what remains is an oval or spherical figure with confused edges.
-
-570.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-The density of a body of smoke looks white below the horizon while
-above the horizon it is dark, even if the smoke is in itself of a
-uniform colour, this uniformity will vary according to the variety
-in the ground on which it is seen.
-
-IV.
-
-OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.
-
-Of sketching figures and portraits (571-572).
-
-571.
-
-OF THE WAY TO LEARN TO COMPOSE FIGURES [IN GROUPS] IN HISTORICAL
-PICTURES.
-
-When you have well learnt perspective and have by heart the parts
-and forms of objects, you must go about, and constantly, as you go,
-observe, note and consider the circumstances and behaviour of men in
-talking, quarrelling or laughing or fighting together: the action of
-the men themselves and the actions of the bystanders, who separate
-them or who look on. And take a note of them with slight strokes
-thus, in a little book which you should always carry with you. And
-it should be of tinted paper, that it may not be rubbed out, but
-change the old [when full] for a new one; since these things should
-not be rubbed out but preserved with great care; for the forms, and
-positions of objects are so infinite that the memory is incapable of
-retaining them, wherefore keep these [sketches] as your guides and
-masters.
-
-[Footnote: Among Leonardo's numerous note books of pocket size not
-one has coloured paper, so no sketches answering to this description
-can be pointed out. The fact that most of the notes are written in
-ink, militates against the supposition that they were made in the
-open air.]
-
-572.
-
-OF A METHOD OF KEEPING IN MIND THE FORM OF A FACE.
-
-If you want to acquire facility for bearing in mind the expression
-of a face, first make yourself familiar with a variety of [forms of]
-several heads, eyes, noses, mouths, chins and cheeks and necks and
-shoulders: And to put a case: Noses are of 10 types: straight,
-bulbous, hollow, prominent above or below the middle, aquiline,
-regular, flat, round or pointed. These hold good as to profile. In
-full face they are of 11 types; these are equal thick in the middle,
-thin in the middle, with the tip thick and the root narrow, or
-narrow at the tip and wide at the root; with the nostrils wide or
-narrow, high or low, and the openings wide or hidden by the point;
-and you will find an equal variety in the other details; which
-things you must draw from nature and fix them in your mind. Or else,
-when you have to draw a face by heart, carry with you a little book
-in which you have noted such features; and when you have cast a
-glance at the face of the person you wish to draw, you can look, in
-private, which nose or mouth is most like, or there make a little
-mark to recognise it again at home. Of grotesque faces I need say
-nothing, because they are kept in mind without difficulty.
-
-The position of the head.
-
-573.
-
-HOW YOU SHOULD SET TO WORK TO DRAW A HEAD OF WHICH ALL THE PARTS
-SHALL AGREE WITH THE POSITION GIVEN TO IT.
-
-To draw a head in which the features shall agree with the turn and
-bend of the head, pursue this method. You know that the eyes,
-eyebrows, nostrils, corners of the mouth, and sides of the chin, the
-jaws, cheeks, ears and all the parts of a face are squarely and
-straightly set upon the face.
-
-[Footnote: Compare the drawings and the text belonging to them on
-Pl. IX. (No. 315), Pl. X (No. 316), Pl. XL (No. 318) and Pl. XII.
-(No. 319).]
-
-Therefore when you have sketched the face draw lines passing from
-one corner of the eye to the other; and so for the placing of each
-feature; and after having drawn the ends of the lines beyond the two
-sides of the face, look if the spaces inside the same parallel lines
-on the right and on the left are equal [12]. But be sure to remember
-to make these lines tend to the point of sight.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 4, the slight sketch on the left hand
-side. The text of this passage is written by the side of it. In this
-sketch the lines seem intentionally incorrect and converging to the
-right (compare I. 12) instead of parallel. Compare too with this
-text the drawing in red chalk from Windsor Castle which is
-reproduced on Pl. XL, No. 2.]
-
-Of the light on the face (574-576).
-
-574.
-
-HOW TO KNOW WHICH SIDE OF AN OBJECT IS TO BE MORE OR LESS LUMINOUS
-THAN THE OTHER.
-
-Let _f_ be the light, the head will be the object illuminated by it
-and that side of the head on which the rays fall most directly will
-be the most highly lighted, and those parts on which the rays fall
-most aslant will be less lighted. The light falls as a blow might,
-since a blow which falls perpendicularly falls with the greatest
-force, and when it falls obliquely it is less forcible than the
-former in proportion to the width of the angle. _Exempli gratia_ if
-you throw a ball at a wall of which the extremities are equally far
-from you the blow will fall straight, and if you throw the ball at
-the wall when standing at one end of it the ball will hit it
-obliquely and the blow will not tell.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. No. 4; the sketch on the right hand side.]
-
-575.
-
-THE PROOF AND REASON WHY AMONG THE ILLUMINATED PARTS CERTAIN
-PORTIONS ARE IN HIGHER LIGHT THAN OTHERS.
-
-Since it is proved that every definite light is, or seems to be,
-derived from one single point the side illuminated by it will have
-its highest light on the portion where the line of radiance falls
-perpendicularly; as is shown above in the lines _a g_, and also in
-_a h_ and in _l a_; and that portion of the illuminated side will be
-least luminous, where the line of incidence strikes it between two
-more dissimilar angles, as is seen at _b c d_. And by this means you
-may also know which parts are deprived of light as is seen at _m k_.
-
-Where the angles made by the lines of incidence are most equal there
-will be the highest light, and where they are most unequal it will
-be darkest.
-
-I will make further mention of the reason of reflections.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXII. The text, here given complete, is on the
-right hand side. The small circles above the beginning of lines 5
-and 11 as well as the circle above the text on Pl. XXXI, are in a
-paler ink and evidently added by a later hand in order to
-distinguish the text as belonging to the _Libro di Pittura_ (see
-Prolegomena. No. 12, p. 3). The text on the left hand side of this
-page is given as Nos. 577 and 137.]
-
-576.
-
-Where the shadow should be on the face.
-
-General suggestions for historical pictures (577-581).
-
-577.
-
-When you compose a historical picture take two points, one the point
-of sight, and the other the source of light; and make this as
-distant as possible.
-
-578.
-
-Historical pictures ought not to be crowded and confused with too
-many figures.
-
-579.
-
-PRECEPTS IN PAINTING.
-
-Let you sketches of historical pictures be swift and the working out
-of the limbs not be carried too far, but limited to the position of
-the limbs, which you can afterwards finish as you please and at your
-leisure.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. XXXVIII, No. 2. The pen and ink drawing given
-there as No. 3 may also be compared with this passage. It is in the
-Windsor collection where it is numbered 101.]
-
-580.
-
-The sorest misfortune is when your views are in advance of your
-work.
-
-581.
-
-Of composing historical pictures. Of not considering the limbs in
-the figures in historical pictures; as many do who, in the wish to
-represent the whole of a figure, spoil their compositions. And when
-you place one figure behind another take care to draw the whole of
-it so that the limbs which come in front of the nearer figures may
-stand out in their natural size and place.
-
-How to represent the differences of age and sex (582-583).
-
-582.
-
-How the ages of man should be depicted: that is, Infancy, Childhood,
-Youth, Manhood, Old age, Decrepitude.
-
-[Footnote: No answer is here given to this question, in the original
-MS.]
-
-583.
-
-Old men ought to be represented with slow and heavy movements, their
-legs bent at the knees, when they stand still, and their feet placed
-parallel and apart; bending low with the head leaning forward, and
-their arms but little extended.
-
-Women must be represented in modest attitudes, their legs close
-together, their arms closely folded, their heads inclined and
-somewhat on one side.
-
-Old women should be represented with eager, swift and furious
-gestures, like infernal furies; but the action should be more
-violent in their arms and head than in their legs.
-
-Little children, with lively and contorted movements when sitting,
-and, when standing still, in shy and timid attitudes.
-
-[Footnote: _bracci raccolte_. Compare Pl. XXXIII. This drawing, in
-silver point on yellowish tinted paper, the lights heightened with
-white, represents two female hands laid together in a lap. Above is
-a third finished study of a right hand, apparently holding a veil
-from the head across the bosom. This drawing evidently dates from
-before 1500 and was very probably done at Florence, perhaps as a
-preparatory study for some picture. The type of hand with its
-slender thin forms is more like the style of the _Vierge aux
-Rochers_ in the Louvre than any later works--as the Mona Lisa for
-instance.]
-
-Of representing the emotions.
-
-584.
-
-THAT A FIGURE IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS IT EXPRESSES BY ITS ACTION THE
-PASSION OF ITS SENTIMENT.
-
-That figure is most admirable which by its actions best expresses
-the passion that animates it.
-
-HOW AN ANGRY MAN IS TO BE FIGURED.
-
-You must make an angry person holding someone by the hair, wrenching
-his head against the ground, and with one knee on his ribs; his
-right arm and fist raised on high. His hair must be thrown up, his
-brow downcast and knit, his teeth clenched and the two corners of
-his mouth grimly set; his neck swelled and bent forward as he leans
-over his foe, and full of furrows.
-
-HOW TO REPRESENT A MAN IN DESPAIR.
-
-You must show a man in despair with a knife, having already torn
-open his garments, and with one hand tearing open the wound. And
-make him standing on his feet and his legs somewhat bent and his
-whole person leaning towards the earth; his hair flying in disorder.
-
-Of representing imaginary animals.
-
-585.
-
-HOW YOU SHOULD MAKE AN IMAGINARY ANIMAL LOOK NATURAL.
-
-You know that you cannot invent animals without limbs, each of
-which, in itself, must resemble those of some other animal. Hence if
-you wish to make an animal, imagined by you, appear natural--let us
-say a Dragon, take for its head that of a mastiff or hound, with the
-eyes of a cat, the ears of a porcupine, the nose of a greyhound, the
-brow of a lion, the temples of an old cock, the neck of a water
-tortoise.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch here inserted of two men on horseback fighting
-a dragon is the facsimile of a pen and ink drawing belonging to
-BARON EDMOND DE ROTHSCHILD of Paris.]
-
-The selection of forms.
-
-586.
-
-OF THE DELUSIONS WHICH ARISE IN JUDGING OF THE LIMBS.
-
-A painter who has clumsy hands will paint similar hands in his
-works, and the same will occur with any limb, unless long study has
-taught him to avoid it. Therefore, O Painter, look carefully what
-part is most ill-favoured in your own person and take particular
-pains to correct it in your studies. For if you are coarse, your
-figures will seem the same and devoid of charm; and it is the same
-with any part that may be good or poor in yourself; it will be shown
-in some degree in your figures.
-
-587.
-
-OF THE SELECTION OF BEAUTIFUL FACES.
-
-It seems to me to be no small charm in a painter when he gives his
-figures a pleasing air, and this grace, if he have it not by nature,
-he may acquire by incidental study in this way: Look about you and
-take the best parts of many beautiful faces, of which the beauty is
-confirmed rather by public fame than by your own judgment; for you
-might be mistaken and choose faces which have some resemblance to
-your own. For it would seem that such resemblances often please us;
-and if you should be ugly, you would select faces that were not
-beautiful and you would then make ugly faces, as many painters do.
-For often a master's work resembles himself. So select beauties as I
-tell you, and fix them in your mind.
-
-588.
-
-Of the limbs, which ought to be carefully selected, and of all the
-other parts with regard to painting.
-
-589.
-
-When selecting figures you should choose slender ones rather than
-lean and wooden ones.
-
-590.
-
-OF THE MUSCLES OF ANIMALS.
-
-The hollow spaces interposed between the muscles must not be of such
-a character as that the skin should seem to cover two sticks laid
-side by side like _c_, nor should they seem like two sticks somewhat
-remote from such contact so that the skin hangs in an empty loose
-curve as at _f_; but it should be like _i_, laid over the spongy fat
-that lies in the angles as the angle _n m o_; which angle is formed
-by the contact of the ends of the muscles and as the skin cannot
-fold down into such an angle, nature has filled up such angles with
-a small quantity of spongy and, as I may say, vesicular fat, with
-minute bladders [in it] full of air, which is condensed or rarefied
-in them according to the increase or the diminution of the substance
-of the muscles; in which latter case the concavity _i_ always has a
-larger curve than the muscle.
-
-591.
-
-OF UNDULATING MOVEMENTS AND EQUIPOISE IN FIGURES AND OTHER ANIMALS.
-
-When representing a human figure or some graceful animal, be careful
-to avoid a wooden stiffness; that is to say make them move with
-equipoise and balance so as not to look like a piece of wood; but
-those you want to represent as strong you must not make so,
-excepting in the turn of the head.
-
-How to pose figures.
-
-592.
-
-OF GRACE IN THE LIMBS.
-
-The limbs should be adapted to the body with grace and with
-reference to the effect that you wish the figure to produce. And if
-you wish to produce a figure that shall of itself look light and
-graceful you must make the limbs elegant and extended, and without
-too much display of the muscles; and those few that are needed for
-your purpose you must indicate softly, that is, not very prominent
-and without strong shadows; the limbs, and particularly the arms
-easy; that is, none of the limbs should be in a straight line with
-the adjoining parts. And if the hips, which are the pole of a man,
-are by reason of his position, placed so, that the right is higher
-than the left, make the point of the higher shoulder in a
-perpendicular line above the highest prominence of the hip, and let
-this right shoulder be lower than the left. Let the pit of the
-throat always be over the centre of the joint of the foot on which
-the man is leaning. The leg which is free should have the knee lower
-than the other, and near the other leg. The positions of the head
-and arms are endless and I shall therefore not enlarge on any rules
-for them. Still, let them be easy and pleasing, with various turns
-and twists, and the joints gracefully bent, that they may not look
-like pieces of wood.
-
-Of appropriate gestures (593-600).
-
-593.
-
-A picture or representation of human figures, ought to be done in
-such a way as that the spectator may easily recognise, by means of
-their attitudes, the purpose in their minds. Thus, if you have to
-represent a man of noble character in the act of speaking, let his
-gestures be such as naturally accompany good words; and, in the same
-way, if you wish to depict a man of a brutal nature, give him fierce
-movements; as with his arms flung out towards the listener, and his
-head and breast thrust forward beyond his feet, as if following the
-speaker's hands. Thus it is with a deaf and dumb person who, when he
-sees two men in conversation--although he is deprived of
-hearing--can nevertheless understand, from the attitudes and
-gestures of the speakers, the nature of their discussion. I once saw
-in Florence a man who had become deaf who, when you spoke very loud
-did not understand you, but if you spoke gently and without making
-any sound, understood merely from the movement of the lips. Now
-perhaps you will say that the lips of a man who speaks loudly do not
-move like those of one speaking softly, and that if they were to
-move them alike they would be alike understood. As to this argument,
-I leave the decision to experiment; make a man speak to you gently
-and note [the motion of] his lips.
-
-[Footnote: The first ten lines of this text have already been
-published, but with a slightly different reading by Dr. M. JORDAN:
-_Das Malerbuch Leonardo da Vinci's_ p. 86.]
-
-594.
-
-OF REPRESENTING A MAN SPEAKING TO A MULTITUDE.
-
-When you wish to represent a man speaking to a number of people,
-consider the matter of which he has to treat and adapt his action to
-the subject. Thus, if he speaks persuasively, let his action be
-appropriate to it. If the matter in hand be to set forth an
-argument, let the speaker, with the fingers of the right hand hold
-one finger of the left hand, having the two smaller ones closed; and
-his face alert, and turned towards the people with mouth a little
-open, to look as though he spoke; and if he is sitting let him
-appear as though about to rise, with his head forward. If you
-represent him standing make him leaning slightly forward with body
-and head towards the people. These you must represent as silent and
-attentive, all looking at the orator's face with gestures of
-admiration; and make some old men in astonishment at the things they
-hear, with the corners of their mouths pulled down and drawn in,
-their cheeks full of furrows, and their eyebrows raised, and
-wrinkling the forehead where they meet. Again, some sitting with
-their fingers clasped holding their weary knees. Again, some bent
-old man, with one knee crossed over the other; on which let him hold
-his hand with his other elbow resting in it and the hand supporting
-his bearded chin.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches introduced here are a facsimile of a pen and
-ink drawing in the Louvre which Herr CARL BRUN considers as studies
-for the Last Supper in the church of _Santa Maria delle Grazie_ (see
-Leonardo da Vinci, LXI, pp. 21, 27 and 28 in DOHME'S _Kunst und
-Kunstler_, Leipzig, Seemann). I shall not here enter into any
-discussion of this suggestion; but as a justification for
-introducing the drawing in this place, I may point out that some of
-the figures illustrate this passage as perfectly as though they had
-been drawn for that express purpose. I have discussed the
-probability of a connection between this sketch and the picture of
-the Last Supper on p. 335. The original drawing is 27 3/4
-centimetres wide by 21 high.--The drawing in silver point on reddish
-paper given on Pl. LII. No. 1--the original at Windsor Castle--may
-also serve to illustrate the subject of appropriate gestures,
-treated in Nos. 593 and 594.]
-
-595.
-
-OF THE DISPOSITION OF LIMBS.
-
-As regards the disposition of limbs in movement you will have to
-consider that when you wish to represent a man who, by some chance,
-has to turn backwards or to one side, you must not make him move his
-feet and all his limbs towards the side to which he turns his head.
-Rather must you make the action proceed by degrees and through the
-different joints; that is, those of the foot, the knee and the hip
-and the neck. And if you set him on the right leg, you must make the
-left knee bend inwards, and let his foot be slightly raised on the
-outside, and the left shoulder be somewhat lower than the right,
-while the nape of the neck is in a line directly over the outer
-ancle of the left foot. And the left shoulder will be in a
-perpendicular line above the toes of the right foot. And always set
-your figures so that the side to which the head turns is not the
-side to which the breast faces, since nature for our convenience has
-made us with a neck which bends with ease in many directions, the
-eye wishing to turn to various points, the different joints. And if
-at any time you make a man sitting with his arms at work on
-something which is sideways to him, make the upper part of his body
-turn upon the hips.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Pl. VII, No. 5. The original drawing at Windsor
-Castle is numbered 104.]
-
-596.
-
-When you draw the nude always sketch the whole figure and then
-finish those limbs which seem to you the best, but make them act
-with the other limbs; otherwise you will get a habit of never
-putting the limbs well together on the body.
-
-Never make the head turn the same way as the torso, nor the arm and
-leg move together on the same side. And if the face is turned to the
-right shoulder, make all the parts lower on the left side than on
-the right; and when you turn the body with the breast outwards, if
-the head turns to the left side make the parts on the right side
-higher than those on the left.
-
-[Footnote: In the original MS. a much defaced sketch is to be seen
-by the side of the second part of this chapter; its faded condition
-has rendered reproduction impossible. In M. RAVAISSON'S facsimile
-the outlines of the head have probably been touched up. This passage
-however is fitly illustrated by the drawings on Pl. XXI.]
-
-597.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Of the nature of movements in man. Do not repeat the same gestures
-in the limbs of men unless you are compelled by the necessity of
-their action, as is shown in _a b_.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. V, where part of the text is also reproduced. The
-effaced figure to the extreme left has evidently been cancelled by
-Leonardo himself as unsatisfactory.]
-
-598.
-
-The motions of men must be such as suggest their dignity or their
-baseness.
-
-599.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Make your work carry out your purpose and meaning. That is when you
-draw a figure consider well who it is and what you wish it to be
-doing.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-With regard to any action which you give in a picture to an old man
-or to a young one, you must make it more energetic in the young man
-in proportion as he is stronger than the old one; and in the same
-way with a young man and an infant.
-
-600.
-
-OF SETTING ON THE LIMBS.
-
-The limbs which are used for labour must be muscular and those which
-are not much used you must make without muscles and softly rounded.
-
-OF THE ACTION OF THE FIGURES.
-
-Represent your figures in such action as may be fitted to express
-what purpose is in the mind of each; otherwise your art will not be
-admirable.
-
-V.
-
-SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.
-
-Of painting battle pieces (601-603).
-
-601.
-
-OF THE WAY OF REPRESENTING A BATTLE.
-
-First you must represent the smoke of artillery mingling in the air
-with the dust and tossed up by the movement of horses and the
-combatants. And this mixture you must express thus: The dust, being
-a thing of earth, has weight; and although from its fineness it is
-easily tossed up and mingles with the air, it nevertheless readily
-falls again. It is the finest part that rises highest; hence that
-part will be least seen and will look almost of the same colour as
-the air. The higher the smoke mixed with the dust-laden air rises
-towards a certain level, the more it will look like a dark cloud;
-and it will be seen that at the top, where the smoke is more
-separate from the dust, the smoke will assume a bluish tinge and the
-dust will tend to its colour. This mixture of air, smoke and dust
-will look much lighter on the side whence the light comes than on
-the opposite side. The more the combatants are in this turmoil the
-less will they be seen, and the less contrast will there be in their
-lights and shadows. Their faces and figures and their appearance,
-and the musketeers as well as those near them you must make of a
-glowing red. And this glow will diminish in proportion as it is
-remote from its cause.
-
-The figures which are between you and the light, if they be at a
-distance, will appear dark on a light background, and the lower part
-of their legs near the ground will be least visible, because there
-the dust is coarsest and densest [19]. And if you introduce horses
-galloping outside the crowd, make the little clouds of dust distant
-from each other in proportion to the strides made by the horses; and
-the clouds which are furthest removed from the horses, should be
-least visible; make them high and spreading and thin, and the nearer
-ones will be more conspicuous and smaller and denser [23]. The air
-must be full of arrows in every direction, some shooting upwards,
-some falling, some flying level. The balls from the guns must have a
-train of smoke following their flight. The figures in the foreground
-you must make with dust on the hair and eyebrows and on other flat
-places likely to retain it. The conquerors you will make rushing
-onwards with their hair and other light things flying on the wind,
-with their brows bent down,
-
-[Footnote: 19--23. Compare 608. 57--75.]
-
-602.
-
-and with the opposite limbs thrust forward; that is where a man puts
-forward the right foot the left arm must be advanced. And if you
-make any one fallen, you must show the place where he has slipped
-and been dragged along the dust into blood stained mire; and in the
-half-liquid earth arround show the print of the tramping of men and
-horses who have passed that way. Make also a horse dragging the dead
-body of his master, and leaving behind him, in the dust and mud, the
-track where the body was dragged along. You must make the conquered
-and beaten pale, their brows raised and knit, and the skin above
-their brows furrowed with pain, the sides of the nose with wrinkles
-going in an arch from the nostrils to the eyes, and make the
-nostrils drawn up--which is the cause of the lines of which I
-speak--, and the lips arched upwards and discovering the upper
-teeth; and the teeth apart as with crying out and lamentation. And
-make some one shielding his terrified eyes with one hand, the palm
-towards the enemy, while the other rests on the ground to support
-his half raised body. Others represent shouting with their mouths
-open, and running away. You must scatter arms of all sorts among the
-feet of the combatants, as broken shields, lances, broken swords and
-other such objects. And you must make the dead partly or entirely
-covered with dust, which is changed into crimson mire where it has
-mingled with the flowing blood whose colour shows it issuing in a
-sinuous stream from the corpse. Others must be represented in the
-agonies of death grinding their teeth, rolling their eyes, with
-their fists clenched against their bodies and their legs contorted.
-Some might be shown disarmed and beaten down by the enemy, turning
-upon the foe, with teeth and nails, to take an inhuman and bitter
-revenge. You might see some riderless horse rushing among the enemy,
-with his mane flying in the wind, and doing no little mischief with
-his heels. Some maimed warrior may be seen fallen to the earth,
-covering himself with his shield, while the enemy, bending over him,
-tries to deal him a deathstroke. There again might be seen a number
-of men fallen in a heap over a dead horse. You would see some of the
-victors leaving the fight and issuing from the crowd, rubbing their
-eyes and cheeks with both hands to clean them of the dirt made by
-their watering eyes smarting from the dust and smoke. The reserves
-may be seen standing, hopeful but cautious; with watchful eyes,
-shading them with their hands and gazing through the dense and murky
-confusion, attentive to the commands of their captain. The captain
-himself, his staff raised, hurries towards these auxiliaries,
-pointing to the spot where they are most needed. And there may be a
-river into which horses are galloping, churning up the water all
-round them into turbulent waves of foam and water, tossed into the
-air and among the legs and bodies of the horses. And there must not
-be a level spot that is not trampled with gore.
-
-603.
-
-OF LIGHTING THE LOWER PARTS OF BODIES CLOSE TOGETHER, AS OF MEN IN
-BATTLE.
-
-As to men and horses represented in battle, their different parts
-will be dark in proportion as they are nearer to the ground on which
-they stand. And this is proved by the sides of wells which grow
-darker in proportion to their depth, the reason of which is that the
-deepest part of the well sees and receives a smaller amount of the
-luminous atmosphere than any other part.
-
-And the pavement, if it be of the same colour as the legs of these
-said men and horses, will always be more lighted and at a more
-direct angle than the said legs &c.
-
-604.
-
-OF THE WAY TO REPRESENT A NIGHT [SCENE].
-
-That which is entirely bereft of light is all darkness; given a
-night under these conditions and that you want to represent a night
-scene,--arrange that there shall be a great fire, then the objects
-which are nearest to this fire will be most tinged with its colour;
-for those objects which are nearest to a coloured light participate
-most in its nature; as therefore you give the fire a red colour, you
-must make all the objects illuminated by it ruddy; while those which
-are farther from the fire are more tinted by the black hue of night.
-The figures which are seen against the fire look dark in the glare
-of the firelight because that side of the objects which you see is
-tinged by the darkness of the night and not by the fire; and those
-who stand at the side are half dark and half red; while those who
-are visible beyond the edges of the flame will be fully lighted by
-the ruddy glow against a black background. As to their gestures,
-make those which are near it screen themselves with their hands and
-cloaks as a defence against the intense heat, and with their faces
-turned away as if about to retire. Of those farther off represent
-several as raising their hands to screen their eyes, hurt by the
-intolerable glare.
-
-Of depicting a tempest (605. 606).
-
-605.
-
-Describe a wind on land and at sea. Describe a storm of rain.
-
-606.
-
-HOW TO REPRESENT A TEMPEST.
-
-If you wish to represent a tempest consider and arrange well its
-effects as seen, when the wind, blowing over the face of the sea and
-earth, removes and carries with it such things as are not fixed to
-the general mass. And to represent the storm accurately you must
-first show the clouds scattered and torn, and flying with the wind,
-accompanied by clouds of sand blown up from the sea shore, and
-boughs and leaves swept along by the strength and fury of the blast
-and scattered with other light objects through the air. Trees and
-plants must be bent to the ground, almost as if they would follow
-the course of the gale, with their branches twisted out of their
-natural growth and their leaves tossed and turned about [Footnote
-11: See Pl. XL, No. 2.]. Of the men who are there some must have
-fallen to the ground and be entangled in their garments, and hardly
-to be recognized for the dust, while those who remain standing may
-be behind some tree, with their arms round it that the wind may not
-tear them away; others with their hands over their eyes for the
-dust, bending to the ground with their clothes and hair streaming in
-the wind. [Footnote 15: See Pl. XXXIV, the right hand lower sketch.]
-Let the sea be rough and tempestuous and full of foam whirled among
-the lofty waves, while the wind flings the lighter spray through the
-stormy air, till it resembles a dense and swathing mist. Of the
-ships that are therein some should be shown with rent sails and the
-tatters fluttering through the air, with ropes broken and masts
-split and fallen. And the ship itself lying in the trough of the sea
-and wrecked by the fury of the waves with the men shrieking and
-clinging to the fragments of the vessel. Make the clouds driven by
-the impetuosity of the wind and flung against the lofty mountain
-tops, and wreathed and torn like waves beating upon rocks; the air
-itself terrible from the deep darkness caused by the dust and fog
-and heavy clouds.
-
-Of representing the deluge (607-609).
-
-607.
-
-TO REPRESENT THE DELUGE.
-
-The air was darkened by the heavy rain whose oblique descent driven
-aslant by the rush of the winds, flew in drifts through the air not
-otherwise than as we see dust, varied only by the straight lines of
-the heavy drops of falling water. But it was tinged with the colour
-of the fire kindled by the thunder-bolts by which the clouds were
-rent and shattered; and whose flashes revealed the broad waters of
-the inundated valleys, above which was seen the verdure of the
-bending tree tops. Neptune will be seen in the midst of the water
-with his trident, and [15] let AEolus with his winds be shown
-entangling the trees floating uprooted, and whirling in the huge
-waves. The horizon and the whole hemisphere were obscure, but lurid
-from the flashes of the incessant lightning. Men and birds might be
-seen crowded on the tall trees which remained uncovered by the
-swelling waters, originators of the mountains which surround the
-great abysses [Footnote 23: Compare Vol. II. No. 979.].
-
-608.
-
-OF THE DELUGE AND HOW TO REPRESENT IT IN A PICTURE.
-
-Let the dark and gloomy air be seen buffeted by the rush of contrary
-winds and dense from the continued rain mingled with hail and
-bearing hither and thither an infinite number of branches torn from
-the trees and mixed with numberless leaves. All round may be seen
-venerable trees, uprooted and stripped by the fury of the winds; and
-fragments of mountains, already scoured bare by the torrents,
-falling into those torrents and choking their valleys till the
-swollen rivers overflow and submerge the wide lowlands and their
-inhabitants. Again, you might have seen on many of the hill-tops
-terrified animals of different kinds, collected together and subdued
-to tameness, in company with men and women who had fled there with
-their children. The waters which covered the fields, with their
-waves were in great part strewn with tables, bedsteads, boats and
-various other contrivances made from necessity and the fear of
-death, on which were men and women with their children amid sounds
-of lamentation and weeping, terrified by the fury of the winds which
-with their tempestuous violence rolled the waters under and over and
-about the bodies of the drowned. Nor was there any object lighter
-than the water which was not covered with a variety of animals
-which, having come to a truce, stood together in a frightened
-crowd--among them wolves, foxes, snakes and others--fleing from
-death. And all the waters dashing on their shores seemed to be
-battling them with the blows of drowned bodies, blows which killed
-those in whom any life remained [19]. You might have seen
-assemblages of men who, with weapons in their hands, defended the
-small spots that remained to them against lions, wolves and beasts
-of prey who sought safety there. Ah! what dreadful noises were heard
-in the air rent by the fury of the thunder and the lightnings it
-flashed forth, which darted from the clouds dealing ruin and
-striking all that opposed its course. Ah! how many you might have
-seen closing their ears with their hands to shut out the tremendous
-sounds made in the darkened air by the raging of the winds mingling
-with the rain, the thunders of heaven and the fury of the
-thunder-bolts. Others were not content with shutting their eyes, but
-laid their hands one over the other to cover them the closer that
-they might not see the cruel slaughter of the human race by the
-wrath of God. Ah! how many laments! and how many in their terror
-flung themselves from the rocks! Huge branches of great oaks loaded
-with men were seen borne through the air by the impetuous fury of
-the winds. How many were the boats upset, some entire, and some
-broken in pieces, on the top of people labouring to escape with
-gestures and actions of grief foretelling a fearful death. Others,
-with desperate act, took their own lives, hopeless of being able to
-endure such suffering; and of these, some flung themselves from
-lofty rocks, others strangled themselves with their own hands, other
-seized their own children and violently slew them at a blow; some
-wounded and killed themselves with their own weapons; others,
-falling on their knees recommended themselves to God. Ah! how many
-mothers wept over their drowned sons, holding them upon their knees,
-with arms raised spread out towards heaven and with words and
-various threatening gestures, upbraiding the wrath of the gods.
-Others with clasped hands and fingers clenched gnawed them and
-devoured them till they bled, crouching with their breast down on
-their knees in their intense and unbearable anguish. Herds of
-animals were to be seen, such as horses, oxen, goats and swine
-already environed by the waters and left isolated on the high peaks
-of the mountains, huddled together, those in the middle climbing to
-the top and treading on the others, and fighting fiercely
-themselves; and many would die for lack of food. Already had the
-birds begun to settle on men and on other animals, finding no land
-uncovered which was not occupied by living beings, and already had
-famine, the minister of death, taken the lives of the greater number
-of the animals, when the dead bodies, now fermented, where leaving
-the depth of the waters and were rising to the top. Among the
-buffeting waves, where they were beating one against the other, and,
-like as balls full of air, rebounded from the point of concussion,
-these found a resting place on the bodies of the dead. And above
-these judgements, the air was seen covered with dark clouds, riven
-by the forked flashes of the raging bolts of heaven, lighting up on
-all sides the depth of the gloom.
-
-The motion of the air is seen by the motion of the dust thrown up by
-the horse's running and this motion is as swift in again filling up
-the vacuum left in the air which enclosed the horse, as he is rapid
-in passing away from the air.
-
-Perhaps it will seem to you that you may reproach me with having
-represented the currents made through the air by the motion of the
-wind notwithstanding that the wind itself is not visible in the air.
-To this I must answer that it is not the motion of the wind but only
-the motion of the things carried along by it which is seen in the
-air.
-
-THE DIVISIONS. [Footnote 76: These observations, added at the bottom
-of the page containing the full description of the doluge seem to
-indicate that it was Leonardo's intention to elaborate the subject
-still farther in a separate treatise.]
-
-Darkness, wind, tempest at sea, floods of water, forests on fire,
-rain, bolts from heaven, earthquakes and ruins of mountains,
-overthrow of cities [Footnote 81: _Spianamenti di citta_ (overthrow
-of cities). A considerable number of drawings in black chalk, at
-Windsor, illustrate this catastrophe. Most of them are much rubbed;
-one of the least injured is reproduced at Pl. XXXIX. Compare also
-the pen and ink sketch Pl. XXXVI.].
-
-Whirlwinds which carry water [spouts] branches of trees, and men
-through the air.
-
-Boughs stripped off by the winds, mingling by the meeting of the
-winds, with people upon them.
-
-Broken trees loaded with people.
-
-Ships broken to pieces, beaten on rocks.
-
-Flocks of sheep. Hail stones, thunderbolts, whirlwinds.
-
-People on trees which are unable to to support them; trees and
-rocks, towers and hills covered with people, boats, tables, troughs,
-and other means of floating. Hills covered with men, women and
-animals; and lightning from the clouds illuminating every thing.
-
-[Footnote: This chapter, which, with the next one, is written on a
-loose sheet, seems to be the passage to which one of the compilers
-of the Vatican copy alluded when he wrote on the margin of fol. 36:
-"_Qua mi ricordo della mirabile discritione del Diluuio dello
-autore._" It is scarcely necessary to point out that these chapters
-are among those which have never before been published. The
-description in No. 607 may be regarded as a preliminary sketch for
-this one. As the MS. G. (in which it is to be found) must be
-attributed to the period of about 1515 we may deduce from it the
-approximate date of the drawings on Pl. XXXIV, XXXV, Nos. 2 and 3,
-XXXVI and XXXVII, since they obviously belong to this text. The
-drawings No. 2 on Pl. XXXV are, in the original, side by side with
-the text of No. 608; lines 57 to 76 are shown in the facsimile. In
-the drawing in Indian ink given on Pl. XXXIV we see Wind-gods in the
-sky, corresponding to the allusion to Aeolus in No. 607 1.
-15.-Plates XXXVI and XXXVII form one sheet in the original. The
-texts reproduced on these Plates have however no connection with the
-sketches, excepting the sketches of clouds on the right hand side.
-These texts are given as No. 477. The group of small figures on Pl.
-XXXVII, to the left, seems to be intended for a '_congregatione
-d'uomini._' See No. 608, 1. 19.]
-
-609.
-
-DESCRIPTION OF THE DELUGE.
-
-Let there be first represented the summit of a rugged mountain with
-valleys surrounding its base, and on its sides let the surface of
-the soil be seen to slide, together with the small roots of the
-bushes, denuding great portions of the surrounding rocks. And
-descending ruinous from these precipices in its boisterous course,
-let it dash along and lay bare the twisted and gnarled roots of
-large trees overthrowing their roots upwards; and let the mountains,
-as they are scoured bare, discover the profound fissures made in
-them by ancient earthquakes. The base of the mountains may be in
-great part clothed and covered with ruins of shrubs, hurled down
-from the sides of their lofty peaks, which will be mixed with mud,
-roots, boughs of trees, with all sorts of leaves thrust in with the
-mud and earth and stones. And into the depth of some valley may have
-fallen the fragments of a mountain forming a shore to the swollen
-waters of its river; which, having already burst its banks, will
-rush on in monstrous waves; and the greatest will strike upon and
-destroy the walls of the cities and farmhouses in the valley [14].
-Then the ruins of the high buildings in these cities will throw up a
-great dust, rising up in shape like smoke or wreathed clouds against
-the falling rain; But the swollen waters will sweep round the pool
-which contains them striking in eddying whirlpools against the
-different obstacles, and leaping into the air in muddy foam; then,
-falling back, the beaten water will again be dashed into the air.
-And the whirling waves which fly from the place of concussion, and
-whose impetus moves them across other eddies going in a contrary
-direction, after their recoil will be tossed up into the air but
-without dashing off from the surface. Where the water issues from
-the pool the spent waves will be seen spreading out towards the
-outlet; and there falling or pouring through the air and gaining
-weight and impetus they will strike on the water below piercing it
-and rushing furiously to reach its depth; from which being thrown
-back it returns to the surface of the lake, carrying up the air that
-was submerged with it; and this remains at the outlet in foam
-mingled with logs of wood and other matters lighter than water.
-Round these again are formed the beginnings of waves which increase
-the more in circumference as they acquire more movement; and this
-movement rises less high in proportion as they acquire a broader
-base and thus they are less conspicuous as they die away. But if
-these waves rebound from various objects they then return in direct
-opposition to the others following them, observing the same law of
-increase in their curve as they have already acquired in the
-movement they started with. The rain, as it falls from the clouds is
-of the same colour as those clouds, that is in its shaded side;
-unless indeed the sun's rays should break through them; in that case
-the rain will appear less dark than the clouds. And if the heavy
-masses of ruin of large mountains or of other grand buildings fall
-into the vast pools of water, a great quantity will be flung into
-the air and its movement will be in a contrary direction to that of
-the object which struck the water; that is to say: The angle of
-reflection will be equal to the angle of incidence. Of the objects
-carried down by the current, those which are heaviest or rather
-largest in mass will keep farthest from the two opposite shores. The
-water in the eddies revolves more swiftly in proportion as it is
-nearer to their centre. The crests of the waves of the sea tumble to
-their bases falling with friction on the bubbles of their sides; and
-this friction grinds the falling water into minute particles and
-this being converted into a dense mist, mingles with the gale in the
-manner of curling smoke and wreathing clouds, and at last it, rises
-into the air and is converted into clouds. But the rain which falls
-through the atmosphere being driven and tossed by the winds becomes
-rarer or denser according to the rarity or density of the winds that
-buffet it, and thus there is generated in the atmosphere a moisture
-formed of the transparent particles of the rain which is near to the
-eye of the spectator. The waves of the sea which break on the slope
-of the mountains which bound it, will foam from the velocity with
-which they fall against these hills; in rushing back they will meet
-the next wave as it comes and and after a loud noise return in a
-great flood to the sea whence they came. Let great numbers of
-inhabitants--men and animals of all kinds--be seen driven [54] by
-the rising of the deluge to the peaks of the mountains in the midst
-of the waters aforesaid.
-
-The wave of the sea at Piombino is all foaming water. [Footnote 55.
-56: These two lines are written below the bottom sketch on Pl. XXXV,
-3. The MS. Leic. being written about the year 1510 or later, it does
-not seem to me to follow that the sketches must have been made at
-Piombino, where Leonardo was in the year 1502 and possibly returned
-there subsequently (see Vol. II. Topographical notes).]
-
-Of the water which leaps up from the spot where great masses fall on
-its surface. Of the winds of Piombino at Piombino. Eddies of wind
-and rain with boughs and shrubs mixed in the air. Emptying the boats
-of the rain water.
-
-[Footnote: The sketches on Pl. XXXV 3 stand by the side of lines 14
-to 54.]
-
-Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).
-
-610.
-
-The tremendous fury of the wind driven by the falling in of the
-hills on the caves within--by the falling of the hills which served
-as roofs to these caverns.
-
-A stone flung through the air leaves on the eye which sees it the
-impression of its motion, and the same effect is produced by the
-drops of water which fall from the clouds when it [16] rains.
-
-[17] A mountain falling on a town, will fling up dust in the form of
-clouds; but the colour of this dust will differ from that of the
-clouds. Where the rain is thickest let the colour of the dust be
-less conspicuous and where the dust is thickest let the rain be less
-conspicuous. And where the rain is mingled with the wind and with
-the dust the clouds created by the rain must be more transparent
-than those of dust [alone]. And when flames of fire are mingled with
-clouds of smoke and water very opaque and dark clouds will be formed
-[Footnote 26-28: Compare Pl. XL, 1--the drawing in Indian ink on the
-left hand side, which seems to be a reminiscence of his observations
-of an eruption (see his remarks on Mount Etna in Vol II).]. And the
-rest of this subject will be treated in detail in the book on
-painting.
-
-[Footnote: See the sketches and text on Pl. XXXVIII, No. 1. Lines
-1-16 are there given on the left hand side, 17-30 on the right. The
-four lines at the bottom on the right are given as No. 472. Above
-these texts, which are written backwards, there are in the original
-sixteen lines in a larger writing from left to right, but only half
-of this is here visible. They treat of the physical laws of motion
-of air and water. It does not seem to me that there is any reason
-for concluding that this writing from left to right is spurious.
-Compare with it the facsimile of the rough copy of Leonardo's letter
-to Ludovico il Moro in Vol. II.]
-
-611.
-
-People were to be seen eagerly embarking victuals on various kinds
-of hastily made barks. But little of the waves were visible in those
-places where the dark clouds and rain were reflected.
-
-But where the flashes caused by the bolts of heaven were reflected,
-there were seen as many bright spots, caused by the image of the
-flashes, as there were waves to reflect them to the eye of the
-spectator.
-
-The number of the images produced by the flash of lightning on the
-waves of the water were multiplied in proportion to the distance of
-the spectator's eye.
-
-So also the number of the images was diminished in proportion as
-they were nearer the eye which saw them [Footnote 22. 23: _Com'e
-provato_. See Vol. II, Nos. 874-878 and 892-901], as it has been
-proved in the definition of the luminosity of the moon, and of our
-marine horizon when the sun's rays are reflected in it and the eye
-which receives the reflection is remote from the sea.
-
-VI.
-
-THE ARTIST'S MATERIALS.
-
-Of chalk and paper (612--617).
-
-612.
-
-To make points [crayons] for colouring dry. Temper with a little wax
-and do not dry it; which wax you must dissolve with water: so that
-when the white lead is thus tempered, the water being distilled, may
-go off in vapour and the wax may remain; you will thus make good
-crayons; but you must know that the colours must be ground with a
-hot stone.
-
-613.
-
-Chalk dissolves in wine and in vinegar or in aqua fortis and can be
-recombined with gum.
-
-614.
-
-PAPER FOR DRAWING UPON IN BLACK BY THE AID OF YOUR SPITTLE.
-
-Take powdered gall nuts and vitriol, powder them and spread them on
-paper like a varnish, then write on it with a pen wetted with
-spittle and it will turn as black as ink.
-
-615.
-
-If you want to make foreshortened letters stretch the paper in a
-drawing frame and then draw your letters and cut them out, and make
-the sunbeams pass through the holes on to another stretched paper,
-and then fill up the angles that are wanting.
-
-616.
-
-This paper should be painted over with candle soot tempered with
-thin glue, then smear the leaf thinly with white lead in oil as is
-done to the letters in printing, and then print in the ordinary way.
-Thus the leaf will appear shaded in the hollows and lighted on the
-parts in relief; which however comes out here just the contrary.
-
-[Footnote: This text, which accompanies a facsimile impression of a
-leaf of sage, has already been published in the _Saggio delle Opere
-di L. da Vinci_, Milano 1872, p. 11. G. GOVI observes on this
-passage: "_Forse aveva egli pensato ancora a farsi un erbario, od
-almeno a riprodurre facilmente su carta le forme e i particolari
-delle foglie di diverse piante; poiche (modificando un metodo che
-probabilmente gli eia stato insegnato da altri, e che piu tardi si
-legge ripetuto in molti ricettarii e libri di segreti), accanto a
-una foglia di Salvia impressa in nero su carta bianca, lascio
-scritto: Questa carta ...
-
-Erano i primi tentativi di quella riproduzione immediata delle parti
-vegetali, che poi sotto il nome d'Impressione Naturale, fu condotta
-a tanta perfezione in questi ultimi tempi dal signor de Hauer e da
-altri_."]
-
-617.
-
-Very excellent will be a stiff white paper, made of the usual
-mixture and filtered milk of an herb called calves foot; and when
-this paper is prepared and damped and folded and wrapped up it may
-be mixed with the mixture and thus left to dry; but if you break it
-before it is moistened it becomes somewhat like the thin paste
-called _lasagne_ and you may then damp it and wrap it up and put it
-in the mixture and leave it to dry; or again this paper may be
-covered with stiff transparent white and _sardonio_ and then damped
-so that it may not form angles and then covered up with strong
-transparent size and as soon as it is firm cut it two fingers, and
-leave it to dry; again you may make stiff cardboard of _sardonio_
-and dry it and then place it between two sheets of papyrus and break
-it inside with a wooden mallet with a handle and then open it with
-care holding the lower sheet of paper flat and firm so that the
-broken pieces be not separated; then have a sheet of paper covered
-with hot glue and apply it on the top of all these pieces and let
-them stick fast; then turn it upside down and apply transparent size
-several times in the spaces between the pieces, each time pouring in
-first some black and then some stiff white and each time leaving it
-to dry; then smooth it and polish it.
-
-On the preparation and use of colours (618-627).
-
-618.
-
-To make a fine green take green and mix it with bitumen and you will
-make the shadows darker. Then, for lighter [shades] green with
-yellow ochre, and for still lighter green with yellow, and for the
-high lights pure yellow; then mix green and turmeric together and
-glaze every thing with it. To make a fine red take cinnabar or red
-chalk or burnt ochre for the dark shadows and for the lighter ones
-red chalk and vermilion and for the lights pure vermilion and then
-glaze with fine lake. To make good oil for painting. One part of
-oil, one of the first refining and one of the second.
-
-619.
-
-Use black in the shadow, and in the lights white, yellow, green,
-vermilion and lake. Medium shadows; take the shadow as above and mix
-it with the flesh tints just alluded to, adding to it a little
-yellow and a little green and occasionally some lake; for the
-shadows take green and lake for the middle shades.
-
-[Footnote 618 and 619: If we may judge from the flourishes with
-which the writing is ornamented these passages must have been
-written in Leonardo's youth.]
-
-620.
-
-You can make a fine ochre by the same method as you use to make
-white.
-
-621.
-
-A FINE YELLOW.
-
-Dissolve realgar with one part of orpiment, with aqua fortis.
-
-WHITE.
-
-Put the white into an earthen pot, and lay it no thicker than a
-string, and let it stand in the sun undisturbed for 2 days; and in
-the morning when the sun has dried off the night dews.
-
-622.
-
-To make reddish black for flesh tints take red rock crystals from
-Rocca Nova or garnets and mix them a little; again armenian bole is
-good in part.
-
-623.
-
-The shadow will be burnt ,terra-verte'.
-
-624.
-
-THE PROPORTIONS OF COLOURS.
-
-If one ounce of black mixed with one ounce of white gives a certain
-shade of darkness, what shade of darkness will be produced by 2
-ounces of black to 1 ounce of white?
-
-625.
-
-Remix black, greenish yellow and at the end blue.
-
-626.
-
-Verdigris with aloes, or gall or turmeric makes a fine green and so
-it does with saffron or burnt orpiment; but I doubt whether in a
-short time they will not turn black. Ultramarine blue and glass
-yellow mixed together make a beautiful green for fresco, that is
-wall-painting. Lac and verdigris make a good shadow for blue in oil
-painting.
-
-627.
-
-Grind verdigris many times coloured with lemon juice and keep it
-away from yellow (?).
-
-Of preparing the panel.
-
-628.
-
-TO PREPARE A PANEL FOR PAINTING ON.
-
-The panel should be cypress or pear or service-tree or walnut. You
-must coat it over with mastic and turpentine twice distilled and
-white or, if you like, lime, and put it in a frame so that it may
-expand and shrink according to its moisture and dryness. Then give
-it [a coat] of aqua vitae in which you have dissolved arsenic or
-[corrosive] sublimate, 2 or 3 times. Then apply boiled linseed oil
-in such a way as that it may penetrate every part, and before it is
-cold rub it well with a cloth to dry it. Over this apply liquid
-varnish and white with a stick, then wash it with urine when it is
-dry, and dry it again. Then pounce and outline your drawing finely
-and over it lay a priming of 30 parts of verdigris with one of
-verdigris with two of yellow.
-
-[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON'S reading varies from mine in the following
-passages:
-
-1._opero allor [?] bo [alloro?]_ = "_ou bien de [laurier]_."
-
-6. _fregalo bene con un panno_. He reads _pane_ for _panno_ and
-renders it. "_Frotte le bien avec un pain de facon [jusqu'a ce]
-qu'il_" etc.
-
-7. _colla stecca po laua_. He reads "_polacca_" = "_avec le couteau
-de bois [?] polonais [?]_."]
-
-The preparation of oils (629--634).
-
-629.
-
-OIL.
-
-Make some oil of mustard seed; and if you wish to make it with
-greater ease mix the ground seeds with linseed oil and put it all
-under the press.
-
-630.
-
-TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF OIL.
-
-Take the rank oil and put ten pints into a jar and make a mark on
-the jar at the height of the oil; then add to it a pint of vinegar
-and make it boil till the oil has sunk to the level of the mark and
-thus you will be certain that the oil is returned to its original
-quantity and the vinegar will have gone off in vapour, carrying with
-it the evil smell; and I believe you may do the same with nut oil or
-any other oil that smells badly.
-
-631.
-
-Since walnuts are enveloped in a thin rind, which partakes of the
-nature of ..., if you do not remove it when you make the oil from
-them, this skin tinges the oil, and when you work with it this skin
-separates from the oil and rises to the surface of the painting, and
-this is what makes it change.
-
-632.
-
-TO RESTORE OIL COLOURS THAT HAVE BECOME DRY.
-
-If you want to restore oil colours that have become dry keep them
-soaking in soft soap for a night and, with your finger, mix them up
-with the soft soap; then pour them into a cup and wash them with
-water, and in this way you can restore colours that have got dry.
-But take care that each colour has its own vessel to itself adding
-the colour by degrees as you restore it and mind that they are
-thoroughly softened, and when you wish to use them for tempera wash
-them five and six times with spring water, and leave them to settle;
-if the soft soap should be thick with any of the colours pass it
-through a filter. [Footnote: The same remark applies to these
-sections as to No. 618 and 619.]
-
-633.
-
-OIL.
-
-Mustard seed pounded with linseed oil.
-
-634.
-
-... outside the bowl 2 fingers lower than the level of the oil, and
-pass it into the neck of a bottle and let it stand and thus all the
-oil will separate from this milky liquid; it will enter the bottle
-and be as clear as crystal; and grind your colours with this, and
-every coarse or viscid part will remain in the liquid. You must know
-that all the oils that have been created in seads or fruits are
-quite clear by nature, and the yellow colour you see in them only
-comes of your not knowing how to draw it out. Fire or heat by its
-nature has the power to make them acquire colour. See for example
-the exudation or gums of trees which partake of the nature of rosin;
-in a short time they harden because there is more heat in them than
-in oil; and after some time they acquire a certain yellow hue
-tending to black. But oil, not having so much heat does not do so;
-although it hardens to some extent into sediment it becomes finer.
-The change in oil which occurs in painting proceeds from a certain
-fungus of the nature of a husk which exists in the skin which covers
-the nut, and this being crushed along with the nuts and being of a
-nature much resembling oil mixes with it; it is of so subtle a
-nature that it combines with all colours and then comes to the
-surface, and this it is which makes them change. And if you want the
-oil to be good and not to thicken, put into it a little camphor
-melted over a slow fire and mix it well with the oil and it will
-never harden.
-
-[Footnote: The same remark applies to these sections as to No. 618
-and 619.]
-
-On varnishes [or powders] (635-637).
-
-635.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Take cypress [oil] and distil it and have a large pitcher, and put
-in the extract with so much water as may make it appear like amber,
-and cover it tightly so that none may evaporate. And when it is
-dissolved you may add in your pitcher as much of the said solution,
-as shall make it liquid to your taste. And you must know that amber
-is the gum of the cypress-tree.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-And since varnish [powder] is the resin of juniper, if you distil
-juniper you can dissolve the said varnish [powder] in the essence,
-as explained above.
-
-636.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Notch a juniper tree and give it water at the roots, mix the liquor
-which exudes with nut-oil and you will have a perfect varnish
-[powder], made like amber varnish [powder], fine and of the best
-quality make it in May or April.
-
-637.
-
-VARNISH [OR POWDER].
-
-Mercury with Jupiter and Venus,--a paste made of these must be
-corrected by the mould (?) continuously, until Mercury separates
-itself entirely from Jupiter and Venus. [Footnote: Here, and in No.
-641 _Mercurio_ seems to mean quicksilver, _Giove_ stands for iron,
-_Venere_ for copper and _Saturno_ for lead.]
-
-On chemical materials (638-650).
-
-638.
-
-Note how aqua vitae absorbs into itself all the colours and smells
-of flowers. If you want to make blue put iris flowers into it and
-for red solanum berries (?)
-
-639.
-
-Salt may be made from human excrement burnt and calcined and made
-into lees, and dried by a slow fire, and all dung in like manner
-yields salt, and these salts when distilled are very pungent.
-
-640.
-
-Sea water filtered through mud or clay, leaves all its saltness in
-it. Woollen stuffs placed on board ship absorb fresh water. If sea
-water is distilled under a retort it becomes of the first excellence
-and any one who has a little stove in his kitchen can, with the same
-wood as he cooks with, distil a great quantity of water if the
-retort is a large one.
-
-641.
-
-MOULD(?).
-
-The mould (?) may be of Venus, or of Jupiter and Saturn and placed
-frequently in the fire. And it should be worked with fine emery and
-the mould (?) should be of Venus and Jupiter impasted over (?)
-Venus. But first you will test Venus and Mercury mixed with Jove,
-and take means to cause Mercury to disperse; and then fold them well
-together so that Venus or Jupiter be connected as thinly as
-possible.
-
-[Footnote: See the note to 637.]
-
-642.
-
-Nitre, vitriol, cinnabar, alum, salt ammoniac, sublimated mercury,
-rock salt, alcali salt, common salt, rock alum, alum schist (?),
-arsenic, sublimate, realgar, tartar, orpiment, verdegris.
-
-643.
-
-Pitch four ounces virgin wax, four ounces incense, two ounces oil of
-roses one ounce.
-
-644.
-
-Four ounces virgin wax, four ounces Greek pitch, two ounces incense,
-one ounce oil of roses, first melt the wax and oil then the Greek
-pitch then the other things in powder.
-
-645.
-
-Very thin glass may be cut with scissors and when placed over inlaid
-work of bone, gilt, or stained of other colours you can saw it
-through together with the bone and then put it together and it will
-retain a lustre that will not be scratched nor worn away by rubbing
-with the hand.
-
-646.
-
-TO DILUTE WHITE WINE AND MAKE IT PURPLE.
-
-Powder gall nuts and let this stand 8 days in the white wine; and in
-the same way dissolve vitriol in water, and let the water stand and
-settle very clear, and the wine likewise, each by itself, and strain
-them well; and when you dilute the white wine with the water the
-wine will become red.
-
-647.
-
-Put marcasite into aqua fortis and if it turns green, know that it
-has copper in it. Take it out with saltpetre and soft soap.
-
-648.
-
-A white horse may have the spots removed with the Spanish haematite
-or with aqua fortis or with ... Removes the black hair on a white
-horse with the singeing iron. Force him to the ground.
-
-649.
-
-FIRE.
-
-If you want to make a fire which will set a hall in a blaze without
-injury do this: first perfume the hall with a dense smoke of incense
-or some other odoriferous substance: It is a good trick to play. Or
-boil ten pounds of brandy to evaporate, but see that the hall is
-completely closed and throw up some powdered varnish among the fumes
-and this powder will be supported by the smoke; then go into the
-room suddenly with a lighted torch and at once it will be in a
-blaze.
-
-650.
-
-FIRE.
-
-Take away that yellow surface which covers oranges and distill them
-in an alembic, until the distillation may be said to be perfect.
-
-FIRE.
-
-Close a room tightly and have a brasier of brass or iron with fire
-in it and sprinkle on it two pints of aqua vitae, a little at a
-time, so that it may be converted into smoke. Then make some one
-come in with a light and suddenly you will see the room in a blaze
-like a flash of lightning, and it will do no harm to any one.
-
-VII.
-
-PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.
-
-The relation of art and nature (651. 652).
-
-651.
-
-What is fair in men, passes away, but not so in art.
-
-652.
-
-HE WHO DESPISES PAINTING LOVES NEITHER PHILOSOPHY NOR NATURE.
-
-If you condemn painting, which is the only imitator of all visible
-works of nature, you will certainly despise a subtle invention which
-brings philosophy and subtle speculation to the consideration of the
-nature of all forms--seas and plains, trees, animals, plants and
-flowers--which are surrounded by shade and light. And this is true
-knowledge and the legitimate issue of nature; for painting is born
-of nature--or, to speak more correctly, we will say it is the
-grandchild of nature; for all visible things are produced by nature,
-and these her children have given birth to painting. Hence we may
-justly call it the grandchild of nature and related to God.
-
-Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).
-
-653.
-
-THAT PAINTING SURPASSES ALL HUMAN WORKS BY THE SUBTLE CONSIDERATIONS
-BELONGING TO IT.
-
-The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the principal
-means by which the central sense can most completely and abundantly
-appreciate the infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second,
-which acquires dignity by hearing of the things the eye has seen. If
-you, historians, or poets, or mathematicians had not seen things
-with your eyes you could not report of them in writing. And if you,
-0 poet, tell a story with your pen, the painter with his brush can
-tell it more easily, with simpler completeness and less tedious to
-be understood. And if you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may
-call poetry blind painting. Now which is the worse defect? to be
-blind or dumb? Though the poet is as free as the painter in the
-invention of his fictions they are not so satisfactory to men as
-paintings; for, though poetry is able to describe forms, actions and
-places in words, the painter deals with the actual similitude of the
-forms, in order to represent them. Now tell me which is the nearer
-to the actual man: the name of man or the image of the man. The name
-of man differs in different countries, but his form is never changed
-but by death.
-
-654.
-
-And if the poet gratifies the sense by means of the ear, the painter
-does so by the eye--the worthier sense; but I will say no more of
-this but that, if a good painter represents the fury of a battle,
-and if a poet describes one, and they are both together put before
-the public, you will see where most of the spectators will stop, to
-which they will pay most attention, on which they will bestow most
-praise, and which will satisfy them best. Undoubtedly painting being
-by a long way the more intelligible and beautiful, will please most.
-Write up the name of God [Christ] in some spot and setup His image
-opposite and you will see which will be most reverenced. Painting
-comprehends in itself all the forms of nature, while you have
-nothing but words, which are not universal as form is, and if you
-have the effects of the representation, we have the representation
-of the effects. Take a poet who describes the beauty of a lady to
-her lover and a painter who represents her and you will see to which
-nature guides the enamoured critic. Certainly the proof should be
-allowed to rest on the verdict of experience. You have ranked
-painting among the mechanical arts but, in truth, if painters were
-as apt at praising their own works in writing as you are, it would
-not lie under the stigma of so base a name. If you call it
-mechanical because it is, in the first place, manual, and that it is
-the hand which produces what is to be found in the imagination, you
-too writers, who set down manually with the pen what is devised in
-your mind. And if you say it is mechanical because it is done for
-money, who falls into this error--if error it can be called--more
-than you? If you lecture in the schools do you not go to whoever
-pays you most? Do you do any work without pay? Still, I do not say
-this as blaming such views, for every form of labour looks for its
-reward. And if a poet should say: "I will invent a fiction with a
-great purpose," the painter can do the same, as Apelles painted
-Calumny. If you were to say that poetry is more eternal, I say the
-works of a coppersmith are more eternal still, for time preserves
-them longer than your works or ours; nevertheless they have not much
-imagination [29]. And a picture, if painted on copper with enamel
-colours may be yet more permanent. We, by our arts may be called the
-grandsons of God. If poetry deals with moral philosophy, painting
-deals with natural philosophy. Poetry describes the action of the
-mind, painting considers what the mind may effect by the motions [of
-the body]. If poetry can terrify people by hideous fictions,
-painting can do as much by depicting the same things in action.
-Supposing that a poet applies himself to represent beauty, ferocity,
-or a base, a foul or a monstrous thing, as against a painter, he may
-in his ways bring forth a variety of forms; but will the painter not
-satisfy more? are there not pictures to be seen, so like the actual
-things, that they deceive men and animals?
-
-Painting is superior to sculpture (655. 656).
-
-655.
-
-THAT SCULPTURE IS LESS INTELLECTUAL THAN PAINTING, AND LACKS MANY
-CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURE.
-
-I myself, having exercised myself no less in sculpture than in
-painting and doing both one and the other in the same degree, it
-seems to me that I can, without invidiousness, pronounce an opinion
-as to which of the two is of the greatest merit and difficulty and
-perfection. In the first place sculpture requires a certain light,
-that is from above, a picture carries everywhere with it its own
-light and shade. Thus sculpture owes its importance to light and
-shade, and the sculptor is aided in this by the nature, of the
-relief which is inherent in it, while the painter whose art
-expresses the accidental aspects of nature, places his effects in
-the spots where nature must necessarily produce them. The sculptor
-cannot diversify his work by the various natural colours of objects;
-painting is not defective in any particular. The sculptor when he
-uses perspective cannot make it in any way appear true; that of the
-painter can appear like a hundred miles beyond the picture itself.
-Their works have no aerial perspective whatever, they cannot
-represent transparent bodies, they cannot represent luminous bodies,
-nor reflected lights, nor lustrous bodies--as mirrors and the like
-polished surfaces, nor mists, nor dark skies, nor an infinite number
-of things which need not be told for fear of tedium. As regards the
-power of resisting time, though they have this resistance [Footnote
-19: From what is here said as to painting on copper it is very
-evident that Leonardo was not acquainted with the method of painting
-in oil on thin copper plates, introduced by the Flemish painters of
-the XVIIth century. J. LERMOLIEFF has already pointed out that in
-the various collections containing pictures by the great masters of
-the Italian Renaissance, those painted on copper (for instance the
-famous reading Magdalen in the Dresden Gallery) are the works of a
-much later date (see _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_. Vol. X pg.
-333, and: _Werke italienischer Master in den Galerien von Munchen,
-Dresden und Berlin_. Leipzig 1880, pg. 158 and 159.)--Compare No.
-654, 29.], a picture painted on thick copper covered with white
-enamel on which it is painted with enamel colours and then put into
-the fire again and baked, far exceeds sculpture in permanence. It
-may be said that if a mistake is made it is not easy to remedy it;
-it is but a poor argument to try to prove that a work be the nobler
-because oversights are irremediable; I should rather say that it
-will be more difficult to improve the mind of the master who makes
-such mistakes than to repair the work he has spoilt.
-
-656.
-
-We know very well that a really experienced and good painter will
-not make such mistakes; on the contrary, with sound rules he will
-remove so little at a time that he will bring his work to a good
-issue. Again the sculptor if working in clay or wax, can add or
-reduce, and when his model is finished it can easily be cast in
-bronze, and this is the last operation and is the most permanent
-form of sculpture. Inasmuch as that which is merely of marble is
-liable to ruin, but not bronze. Hence a painting done on copper
-which as I said of painting may be added to or altered, resembles
-sculpture in bronze, which, having first been made in wax could then
-be altered or added to; and if sculpture in bronze is durable, this
-work in copper and enamel is absolutely imperishable. Bronze is but
-dark and rough after all, but this latter is covered with various
-and lovely colours in infinite variety, as has been said above; or
-if you will have me only speak of painting on panel, I am content to
-pronounce between it and sculpture; saying that painting is the more
-beautiful and the more imaginative and the more copious, while
-sculpture is the more durable but it has nothing else. Sculpture
-shows with little labour what in painting appears a miraculous thing
-to do; to make what is impalpable appear palpable, flat objects
-appear in relief, distant objects seem close. In fact painting is
-adorned with infinite possibilities which sculpture cannot command.
-
-Aphorisms (657-659).
-
-657.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-Men and words are ready made, and you, O Painter, if you do not know
-how to make your figures move, are like an orator who knows not how
-to use his words.
-
-658.
-
-As soon as the poet ceases to represent in words what exists in
-nature, he in fact ceases to resemble the painter; for if the poet,
-leaving such representation, proceeds to describe the flowery and
-flattering speech of the figure, which he wishes to make the
-speaker, he then is an orator and no longer a poet nor a painter.
-And if he speaks of the heavens he becomes an astrologer, and
-philosopher; and a theologian, if he discourses of nature or God.
-But, if he restricts himself to the description of objects, he would
-enter the lists against the painter, if with words he could satisfy
-the eye as the painter does.
-
-659.
-
-Though you may be able to tell or write the exact description of
-forms, the painter can so depict them that they will appear alive,
-with the shadow and light which show the expression of a face; which
-you cannot accomplish with the pen though it can be achieved by the
-brush.
-
-On the history of painting (660. 661).
-
-660.
-
-THAT PAINTING DECLINES AND DETERIORATES FROM AGE TO AGE, WHEN
-PAINTERS HAVE NO OTHER STANDARD THAN PAINTING ALREADY DONE.
-
-Hence the painter will produce pictures of small merit if he takes
-for his standard the pictures of others. But if he will study from
-natural objects he will bear good fruit; as was seen in the painters
-after the Romans who always imitated each other and so their art
-constantly declined from age to age. After these came Giotto the
-Florentine who--not content with imitating the works of Cimabue his
-master--being born in the mountains and in a solitude inhabited only
-by goats and such beasts, and being guided by nature to his art,
-began by drawing on the rocks the movements of the goats of which he
-was keeper. And thus he began to draw all the animals which were to
-be found in the country, and in such wise that after much study he
-excelled not only all the masters of his time but all those of many
-bygone ages. Afterwards this art declined again, because everyone
-imitated the pictures that were already done; thus it went on from
-century to century until Tomaso, of Florence, nicknamed Masaccio,
-showed by his perfect works how those who take for their standard
-any one but nature--the mistress of all masters--weary themselves in
-vain. And, I would say about these mathematical studies that those
-who only study the authorities and not the works of nature are
-descendants but not sons of nature the mistress of all good authors.
-Oh! how great is the folly of those who blame those who learn from
-nature [Footnote 22: _lasciando stare li autori_. In this
-observation we may detect an indirect evidence that Leonardo
-regarded his knowledge of natural history as derived from his own
-investigations, as well as his theories of perspective and optics.
-Compare what he says in praise of experience (Vol II; _XIX_).],
-setting aside those authorities who themselves were the disciples of
-nature.
-
-661.
-
-That the first drawing was a simple line drawn round the shadow of a
-man cast by the sun on a wall.
-
-The painter's scope.
-
-662.
-
-The painter strives and competes with nature.
-
-_X.
-
-Studies and Sketches for Pictures and Decorations.
-
-An artist's manuscript notes can hardly be expected to contain any
-thing more than incidental references to those masterpieces of his
-work of which the fame, sounded in the writings of his
-contemporaries, has left a glorious echo to posterity. We need not
-therefore be surprised to find that the texts here reproduced do not
-afford us such comprehensive information as we could wish. On the
-other hand, the sketches and studies prepared by Leonardo for the
-two grandest compositions he ever executed: The Fresco of the Last
-Supper in the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and
-the Cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari, for the Palazzo della
-Signoria at Florence--have been preserved; and, though far from
-complete, are so much more numerous than the manuscript notes, that
-we are justified in asserting that in value and interest they amply
-compensate for the meagerness of the written suggestions.
-
-The notes for the composition of the Last Supper, which are given
-under nos._ 665 _and_ 666 _occur in a MS. at South Kensington, II2,
-written in the years_ 1494-1495. _This MS. sketch was noted down not
-more than three or four years before the painting was executed,
-which justifies the inference that at the time when it was written
-the painter had not made up his mind definitely even as to the
-general scheme of the work; and from this we may also conclude that
-the drawings of apostles' heads at Windsor, in red chalk, must be
-ascribed to a later date. They are studies for the head of St.
-Matthew, the fourth figure on Christ's left hand--see Pl. XL VII,
-the sketch (in black chalk) for the head of St. Philip, the third
-figure on the left hand--see Pl. XL VIII, for St. Peter's right
-arm--see Pl. XLIX, and for the expressive head of Judas which has
-unfortunately somewhat suffered by subsequent restoration of
-outlines,--see Pl. L. According to a tradition, as unfounded as it
-is improbable, Leonardo made use of the head of Padre Bandelli, the
-prior of the convent, as the prototype of his Judas; this however
-has already been contradicted by Amoretti "Memorie storiche" cap.
-XIV. The study of the head of a criminal on Pl. LI has, it seems to
-me, a better claim to be regarded as one of the preparatory sketches
-for the head of Judas. The Windsor collection contains two old
-copies of the head of St. Simon, the figure to the extreme left of
-Christ, both of about equal merit (they are marked as Nos._ 21 _and_
-36_)--the second was reproduced on Pl. VIII of the Grosvenor
-Gallery Publication in_ 1878. _There is also at Windsor a drawing in
-black chalk of folded hands (marked with the old No._ 212; _No. LXI
-of the Grosvenor Gallery Publication) which I believe to be a copy
-of the hands of St. John, by some unknown pupil. A reproduction of
-the excellent drawings of heads of Apostles in the possession of H.
-R. H. the Grand Duchess of Weimar would have been out of my province
-in this work, and, with regard to them, I must confine myself to
-pointing out that the difference in style does not allow of our
-placing the Weimar drawings in the same category as those here
-reproduced. The mode of grouping in the Weimar drawings is of itself
-sufficient to indicate that they were not executed before the
-picture was painted, but, on the contrary, afterwards, and it is, on
-the face of it, incredible that so great a master should thus have
-copied from his own work.
-
-The drawing of Christ's head, in the Brera palace at Milan was
-perhaps originally the work of Leonardo's hand; it has unfortunately
-been entirely retouched and re-drawn, so that no decisive opinion
-can be formed as to its genuineness.
-
-The red chalk drawing reproduced on Pl. XLVI is in the Accademia at
-Venice; it was probably made before the text, Nos._ 664 _and_ 665,
-_was written.
-
-The two pen and ink sketches on Pl. XLV seem to belong to an even
-earlier date; the more finished drawing of the two, on the right
-hand, represents Christ with only St. John and Judas and a third
-disciple whose action is precisely that described in No._ 666,
-_Pl._ 4. _It is hardly necessary to observe that the other sketches
-on this page and the lines of text below the circle (containing the
-solution of a geometrical problem) have no reference to the picture
-of the Last Supper. With this figure of Christ may be compared a
-similar pen and ink drawing reproduced on page_ 297 _below on the
-left hand; the original is in the Louvre. On this page again the
-rest of the sketches have no direct bearing on the composition of
-the Last Supper, not even, as it seems to me, the group of four men
-at the bottom to the right hand--who are listening to a fifth, in
-their midst addressing them. Moreover the writing on this page (an
-explanation of a disk shaped instrument) is certainly not in the
-same style as we find constantly used by Leonardo after the year_
-1489.
-
-_It may be incidentally remarked that no sketches are known for the
-portrait of "Mona Lisa", nor do the MS. notes ever allude to it,
-though according to Vasari the master had it in hand for fully four
-years.
-
-Leonardo's cartoon for the picture of the battle of Anghiari has
-shared the fate of the rival work, Michaelangelo's "Bathers summoned
-to Battle". Both have been lost in some wholly inexplicable manner.
-I cannot here enter into the remarkable history of this work; I can
-only give an account of what has been preserved to us of Leonardo's
-scheme and preparations for executing it. The extent of the material
-in studies and drawings was till now quite unknown. Their
-publication here may give some adequate idea of the grandeur of this
-famous work. The text given as No._ 669 _contains a description of
-the particulars of the battle, but for the reasons given in the note
-to this text, I must abandon the idea of taking this passage as the
-basis of my attempt to reconstruct the picture as the artist
-conceived and executed it.
-
-I may here remind the reader that Leonardo prepared the cartoon in
-the Sala del Papa of Santa Maria Novella at Florence and worked
-there from the end of October 1503 till February 1504, and then was
-busied with the painting in the Sala del Consiglio in the Palazzo
-della Signoria, till the work was interrupted at the end of May
-1506. (See Milanesi's note to Vasari pp. 43--45 Vol. IV ed. 1880.)
-Vasari, as is well known, describes only one scene or episode of the
-cartoon--the Battle for the Standard in the foreground of the
-composition, as it would seem; and this only was ever finished as a
-mural decoration in the Sala del Consiglio. This portion of the
-composition is familiar to all from the disfigured copy engraved by
-Edelinck. Mariette had already very acutely observed that Edelinck
-must surely have worked from a Flemish copy of the picture. There is
-in the Louvre a drawing by Rubens (No. 565) which also represents
-four horsemen fighting round a standard and which agrees with
-Edelinck's engraving, but the engraving reverses the drawing. An
-earlier Flemish drawing, such as may have served as the model for
-both Rubens and Edelinck, is in the Uffizi collection (see
-Philpots's Photograph, No. 732). It seems to be a work of the second
-half of the XVIth century, a time when both the picture and the
-cartoon had already been destroyed. It is apparently the production
-of a not very skilled hand. Raphael Trichet du Fresne, 1651,
-mentions that a small picture by Leonardo himself of the Battle of
-the Standard was then extant in the Tuileries; by this he probably
-means the painting on panel which is now in the possession of Madame
-Timbal in Paris, and which has lately been engraved by Haussoullier
-as a work by Leonardo. The picture, which is very carefully painted,
-seems to me however to be the work of some unknown Florentine
-painter, and probably executed within the first ten years of the
-XVIth century. At the same time, it would seem to be a copy not from
-Leonardo's cartoon, but from his picture in the Palazzo della
-Signoria; at any rate this little picture, and the small Flemish
-drawing in Florence are the oldest finished copies of this episode
-in the great composition of the Battle of Anghiari.
-
-In his Life of Raphael, Vasari tells us that Raphael copied certain
-works of Leonardo's during his stay in Florence. Raphael's first
-visit to Florence lasted from the middle of October 1504 till July
-1505, and he revisited it in the summer of 1506. The hasty sketch,
-now in the possession of the University of Oxford and reproduced on
-page 337 also represents the Battle of the Standard and seems to
-have been made during his first stay, and therefore not from the
-fresco but from the cartoon; for, on the same sheet we also find,
-besides an old man's head drawn in Leonardo's style, some studies
-for the figure of St. John the Martyr which Raphael used in 1505 in
-his great fresco in the Church of San Severo at Perugia.
-
-Of Leonardo's studies for the Battle of Anghiari I must in the first
-place point to five, on three of which--Pl. LII 2, Pl. LIII, Pl.
-LVI--we find studies for the episode of the Standard. The standard
-bearer, who, in the above named copies is seen stooping, holding on
-to the staff across his shoulder, is immediately recognisable as the
-left-hand figure in Raphael's sketch, and we find it in a similar
-attitude in Leonardo's pen and ink drawing in the British
-Museum--Pl. LII, 2--the lower figure to the right. It is not
-difficult to identify the same figure in two more complicated groups
-in the pen and ink drawings, now in the Accademia at Venice--Pl.
-LIII, and Pl. LIV--where we also find some studies of foot soldiers
-fighting. On the sheet in the British Museum--Pl. LII, 2--we find,
-among others, one group of three horses galloping forwards: one
-horseman is thrown and protects himself with his buckler against the
-lance thrusts of two others on horseback, who try to pierce him as
-they ride past. The same action is repeated, with some variation, in
-two sketches in pen and ink on a third sheet, in the Accademia at
-Venice, Pl. LV; a coincidence which suggests the probability of such
-an incident having actually been represented on the cartoon. We are
-not, it is true, in a position to declare with any certainty which
-of these three dissimilar sketches may have been the nearest to the
-group finally adopted in executing the cartoon.
-
-With regard, however, to one of the groups of horsemen it is
-possible to determine with perfect certainty not only which
-arrangement was preferred, but the position it occupied in the
-composition. The group of horsemen on Pl. LVII is a drawing in black
-chalk at Windsor, which is there attributed to Leonardo, but which
-appears to me to be the work of Cesare da Sesto, and the
-Commendatore Giov. Morelli supports me in this view. It can hardly
-be doubted that da Sesto, as a pupil of Leonardo's, made this
-drawing from his master's cartoon, if we compare it with the copy
-made by Raphael--here reproduced, for just above the fighting
-horseman in Raphael's copy it is possible to detect a horse which is
-seen from behind, going at a slower pace, with his tail flying out
-to the right and the same horse may be seen in the very same
-attitude carrying a dimly sketched rider, in the foreground of
-Cesare da Sesto's drawing._
-
-_If a very much rubbed drawing in black chalk at Windsor--Pl.
-LVI--is, as it appears to be, the reversed impression of an original
-drawing, it is not difficult to supplement from it the portions
-drawn by Cesare da Sesto. Nay, it may prove possible to reconstruct
-the whole of the lost cartoon from the mass of materials we now have
-at hand which we may regard as the nucleus of the composition. A
-large pen and ink drawing by Raphael in the Dresden collection,
-representing three horsemen fighting, and another, by Cesare da
-Sesto, in the Uffizi, of light horsemen fighting are a further
-contribution which will help us to reconstruct it._
-
-_The sketch reproduced on Pl. LV gives a suggestive example of the
-way in which foot-soldiers may have been introduced into the cartoon
-as fighting among the groups of horsemen; and I may here take the
-opportunity of mentioning that, for reasons which it would be out of
-place to enlarge upon here, I believe the two genuine drawings by
-Raphael's hand in his "Venetian sketch-book" as it is called--one of
-a standard bearer marching towards the left, and one of two
-foot-soldiers armed with spears and fighting with a horseman--to be
-undoubtedly copies from the cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari._
-
-_Leonardo's two drawings, preserved in the museum at Buda-Pesth and
-reproduced on pages 338 and 339 are preliminary studies for the
-heads of fighting warriors. The two heads drawn in black chalk (pg.
-338) and the one seen in profile, turned to the left, drawn in red
-chalk (pg. 339), correspond exactly with those of two horsemen in
-the scene of the fight round the standard as we see them in Madame
-Timbal's picture and in the other finished copies. An old copy of
-the last named drawing by a pupil of Leonardo is in MS. C. A. 187b;
-561b (See Saggio, Tav. XXII). Leonardo used to make such finished
-studies of heads as those, drawn on detached sheets, before
-beginning his pictures from his drawings--compare the preparatory
-studies for the fresco of the Last Supper, given on Pl. XLVII and
-Pl. L. Other drawings of heads, all characterised by the expression
-of vehement excitement that is appropriate to men fighting, are to
-be seen at Windsor (No. 44) and at the Accademia at Venice (IV, 13);
-at the back of one of the drawings at Buda-Pesth there is the bust
-of a warrior carrying a spear on his left shoulder, holding up the
-left arm (See Csatakepek a XVI--lk Szazadbol osszeallitotta Pvlszky
-Karoly). These drawings may have been made for other portions of the
-cartoon, of which no copies exist, and thus we are unable to
-identify these preparatory drawings. Finally I may add that a sketch
-of fighting horse and foot soldiers, formerly in the possession of
-M. Thiers and published by Charles Blanc in his "Vies des Peintres"
-can hardly be accepted as genuine. It is not to be found, as I am
-informed, among the late President's property, and no one appears to
-know where it now is._
-
-_An attempted reconstruction of the Cartoon, which is not only
-unsuccessful but perfectly unfounded, is to be seen in the
-lithograph by Bergeret, published in Charles Blanc's "Vies des
-peintres" and reprinted in "The great Artists. L. da Vinci", p. 80.
-This misleading pasticcio may now be rejected without hesitation._
-
-_There are yet a few original drawings by Leonardo which might be
-mentioned here as possibly belonging to the cartoon of the Battle;
-such as the pen and ink sketches on Pl. XXI and on Pl. XXXVIII, No.
-3, but we should risk too wide a departure from the domain of
-ascertained fact._
-
-_With regard to the colours and other materials used by Leonardo the
-reader may be referred to the quotations from the accounts for the
-picture in question given by Milanesi in his edition of Vasari (Vol.
-IV, p. 44, note) where we find entries of a similar character to
-those in Leonardo's note books for the year 1505; S. K. M. 12 (see
-No. 636)._
-
-_That Leonardo was employed in designing decorations and other
-preparations for high festivals, particularly for the court of
-Milan, we learn not only from the writings of his contemporaries but
-from his own incidental allusions; for instance in MS. C. l5b (1),
-l. 9. In the arrangement of the texts referring to this I have
-placed those first, in which historical personages are named--Nos.
-670-674. Among the descriptions of Allegorical subjects two texts
-lately found at Oxford have been included, Nos. 676 and 677. They
-are particularly interesting because they are accompanied by large
-sketches which render the meaning of the texts perfectly clear. It
-is very intelligible that in other cases, where there are no
-illustrative sketches, the notes must necessarily remain obscure or
-admit of various interpretations. The literature of the time affords
-ample evidence of the use of such allegorical representations,
-particularly during the Carnival and in Leonardo's notes we find the
-Carnival expressly mentioned--Nos. 685 and 704. Vasari in his Life
-of Pontormo, particularly describes that artist's various
-undertakings for Carnival festivities. These very graphic
-descriptions appear to me to throw great light in more ways than one
-on the meaning of Leonardo's various notes as to allegorical
-representations and also on mottoes and emblems--Nos. 681-702. In
-passing judgment on the allegorical sketches and emblems it must not
-be overlooked that even as pictures they were always accompanied by
-explanations in words. Several finished drawings of allegorical
-compositions or figures have been preserved, but as they have no
-corresponding explanation in the MSS. they had no claim to be
-reproduced here. The female figure on Pl. XXVI may perhaps be
-regarded as a study for such an allegorical painting, of which the
-purport would have been explained by an inscription._
-
-On Madonna pictures.
-
-663.
-
-[In the autumn of] 1478 I began the two Madonna [pictures].
-
-[Footnote: Photographs of this page have been published by BRAUN,
-No. 439, and PHILPOT, No. 718.
-
-1. _Incominciai_. We have no other information as to the two
-pictures of the Madonna here spoken of. As Leonardo here tells us
-that he had begun two Madonnas at the same time, the word
-'_incominciai_' may be understood to mean that he had begun at the
-same time preparatory studies for two pictures to be painted later.
-If this is so, the non-existence of the pictures may be explained by
-supposing that they were only planned and never executed. I may here
-mention a few studies for pictures of the Madonna which probably
-belong to this early time; particularly a drawing in silver-point on
-bluish tinted paper at Windsor--see Pl. XL, No. 3--, a drawing of
-which the details have almost disappeared in the original but have
-been rendered quite distinct in the reproduction; secondly a slight
-pen and ink sketch in, the Codex VALLARDI, in the Louvre, fol. 64,
-No. 2316; again a silver point drawing of a Virgin and child drawn
-over again with the pen in the His de la Salle collection also in
-the Louvre, No. 101. (See Vicomte BOTH DE TAUZIA, _Notice des
-dessins de la collection His de la Salle, exposes au Louvre_. Paris
-1881, pp. 80, 81.) This drawing is, it is true, traditionally
-ascribed to Raphael, but the author of the catalogue very justly
-points out its great resemblance with the sketches for Madonnas in
-the British Museum which are indisputably Leonardo's. Some of these
-have been published by Mr. HENRY WALLIS in the Art Journal, New Ser.
-No. 14, Feb. 1882. If the non-existence of the two pictures here
-alluded to justifies my hypothesis that only studies for such
-pictures are meant by the text, it may also be supposed that the
-drawings were made for some comrade in VERROCCHIO'S atelier. (See
-VASARI, Sansoni's ed. Florence 1880. Vol. IV, p. 564): "_E perche a
-Lerenzo piaceva fuor di modo la maniera di Lionardo, la seppe cosi
-bene imitare, che niuno fu che nella pulitezza e nel finir l'opere
-con diligenza l'imitasse piu di lui_." Leonardo's notes give me no
-opportunity of discussing the pictures executed by him in Florence,
-before he moved to Milan. So the studies for the unfinished picture
-of the Adoration of the Magi--in the Uffizi, Florence--cannot be
-described here, nor would any discussion about the picture in the
-Louvre "_La Vierge aux Rochers_" be appropriate in the absence of
-all allusion to it in the MSS. Therefore, when I presently add a few
-remarks on this painting in explanation of the Master's drawings for
-it, it will be not merely with a view to facilitate critical
-researches about the picture now in the National Gallery, London,
-which by some critics has been pronounced to be a replica of the
-Louvre picture, but also because I take this opportunity of
-publishing several finished studies of the Master's which, even if
-they were not made in Florence but later in Milan, must have been
-prior to the painting of the Last Supper. The original picture in
-Paris is at present so disfigured by dust and varnish that the
-current reproductions in photography actually give evidence more of
-the injuries to which the picture has been exposed than of the
-original work itself. The wood-cut given on p. 344, is only intended
-to give a general notion of the composition. It must be understood
-that the outline and expression of the heads, which in the picture
-is obscured but not destroyed, is here altogether missed. The
-facsimiles which follow are from drawings which appear to me to be
-studies for "_La Vierge aux Rochers_."
-
-1. A drawing in silver point on brown toned paper of a woman's head
-looking to the left. In the Royal Library at Turin, apparently a
-study from nature for the Angel's head (Pl. XLII).
-
-2. A study of drapery for the left leg of the same figure, done with
-the brush, Indian ink on greenish paper, the lights heightened with
-white.
-
-The original is at Windsor, No. 223. The reproduction Pl. XLIII is
-defective in the shadow on the upper part of the thigh, which is not
-so deep as in the original; it should also be observed that the
-folds of the drapery near the hips are somewhat altered in the
-finished work in the Louvre, while the London copy shows a greater
-resemblance to this study in that particular.
-
-3. A study in red chalk for the bust of the Infant Christ--No. 3 in
-the Windsor collection (Pl. XLIV). The well-known silver-point
-drawing on pale green paper, in the Louvre, of a boy's head (No. 363
-in REISET, _Notice des dessins, Ecoles d'Italie_) seems to me to be
-a slightly altered copy, either from the original picture or from
-this red chalk study.
-
-4. A silver-point study on greenish paper, for the head of John the
-Baptist, reproduced on p. 342. This was formerly in the Codex
-Vallardi and is now exhibited among the drawings in the Louvre. The
-lights are, in the original, heightened with white; the outlines,
-particularly round the head and ear, are visibly restored.
-
-There is a study of an outstretched hand--No. 288 in the Windsor
-collection--which was published in the Grosvenor Gallery
-Publication, 1878, simply under the title of: "No. 72 Study of a
-hand, pointing" which, on the other hand, I regard as a copy by a
-pupil. The action occurs in the kneeling angel of the Paris picture
-and not in the London copy.
-
-These four genuine studies form, I believe, a valuable substitute in
-the absence of any MS. notes referring to the celebrated Paris
-picture.]
-
-Bernardo di Bandino's Portrait.
-
-664.
-
-A tan-coloured small cap, A doublet of black serge, A black jerkin
-lined A blue coat lined, with fur of foxes' breasts, and the collar
-of the jerkin covered with black and white stippled velvet Bernardo
-di Bandino Baroncelli; black hose.
-
-[Footnote: These eleven lines of text are by the side of the pen and
-ink drawing of a man hanged--Pl. LXII, No. 1. This drawing was
-exhibited in 1879 at the _Ecole des Beaux-Arts_ in Paris and the
-compilers of the catalogue amused themselves by giving the victim's
-name as follows: "_Un pendu, vetu d'une longue robe, les mains liees
-sur le dos ... Bernardo di Bendino Barontigni, marchand de
-pantalons_" (see _Catalogue descriptif des Dessins de Mailres
-anciens exposes a l'Ecole des Beaux Arts_, Paris 1879; No. 83, pp.
-9-10). Now, the criminal represented here, is none other than
-Bernardino di Bandino Baroncelli the murderer of Giuliano de'Medici,
-whose name as a coadjutor in the conspiracy of the Pazzi has gained
-a melancholy notoriety by the tragedy of the 26th April 1478.
-Bernardo was descended from an ancient family and the son of the man
-who, under King Ferrante, was President of the High Court of Justice
-in Naples. His ruined fortunes, it would seem, induced him to join
-the Pazzi; he and Francesco Pazzi were entrusted with the task of
-murdering Giuliano de'Medici on the fixed day. Their victim not
-appearing in the cathedral at the hour when they expected him, the
-two conspirators ran to the palace of the Medici and induced him to
-accompany them. Giuliano then took his place in the chancel of the
-Cathedral, and as the officiating priest raised the Host--the sign
-agreed upon--Bernardo stabbed the unsuspecting Giuliano in the
-breast with a short sword; Giuliano stepped backwards and fell dead.
-The attempt on Lorenzo's life however, by the other conspirators at
-the same moment, failed of success. Bernardo no sooner saw that
-Lorenzo tried to make his escape towards the sacristy, than he
-rushed upon him, and struck down Francesco Nori who endeavoured to
-protect Lorenzo. How Lorenzo then took refuge behind the brazen
-doors of the sacristy, and how, as soon as Giuliano's death was made
-known, the further plans of the conspirators were defeated, while a
-terrible vengeance overtook all the perpetrators and accomplices,
-this is no place to tell. Bernardo Bandini alone seemed to be
-favoured by fortune; he hid first in the tower of the Cathedral, and
-then escaped undiscovered from Florence. Poliziano, who was with
-Lorenzo in the Cathedral, says in his 'Conjurationis Pactianae
-Commentarium': "_Bandinus fugitans in Tiphernatem incidit, a quo in
-aciem receptus Senas pervenit_." And Gino Capponi in summing up the
-reports of the numerous contemporary narrators of the event, says:
-"_Bernardo Bandini ricoverato in Costantinopoli, fu per ordine del
-Sultano preso e consegnato a un Antonio di Bernardino dei Medici,
-che Lorenzo aveva mandato apposta in Turchia: cosi era grande la
-potenza di quest' uomo e grande la voglia di farne mostra e che non
-restasse in vita chi aveagli ucciso il fratello, fu egli applicato
-appena giunto_" (_Storia della Republica di Firenze II_, 377, 378).
-Details about the dates may be found in the _Chronichetta di
-Belfredello Strinati Alfieri_: "_Bernardo di Bandino Bandini
-sopradetto ne venne preso da Gostantinopoti a di 14. Dicembre 1479 e
-disaminato, che fu al Bargello, fu impiccato alle finestre di detto
-Bargello allato alla Doana a di 29. Dicembre MCCCCLXXIX che pochi di
-stette_." It may however be mentioned with reference to the mode of
-writing the name of the assassin that, though most of his
-contemporaries wrote Bernardo Bandini, in the _Breve Chronicon
-Caroli Petri de Joanninis_ he is called Bernardo di Bandini
-Baroncelli; and, in the _Sententiae Domini Matthaei de Toscana_,
-Bernardus Joannis Bandini de Baroncellis, as is written on
-Leonardo's drawing of him when hanged. Now VASARI, in the life of
-_Andrea del Castagno_ (Vol. II, 680; ed. Milanesi 1878), tells us
-that in 1478 this painter was commissioned by order of the Signoria
-to represent the members of the Pazzi conspiracy as traitors, on the
-facade of the Palazzo del Podesta--the Bargello. This statement is
-obviously founded on a mistake, for Andrea del Castagno was already
-dead in 1457. He had however been commissioned to paint Rinaldo
-degli Albizzi, when declared a rebel and exiled in 1434, and his
-adherents, as hanging head downwards; and in consequence he had
-acquired the nickname of Andrea degl' Impiccati. On the 21st July
-1478 the Council of Eight came to the following resolution: "_item
-servatis etc. deliberaverunt et santiaverunt Sandro Botticelli pro
-ejus labore in pingendo proditores flor. quadraginta largos_" (see
-G. MILANESI, _Arch. star. VI_ (1862) p. 5 note.)
-
-As has been told, Giuliano de' Medici was murdered on the 26th April
-1478, and we see by this that only three months later Botticelli was
-paid for his painting of the "_proditores_". We can however hardly
-suppose that all the members of the conspiracy were depicted by him
-in fresco on the facade of the palace, since no fewer than eighty
-had been condemned to death. We have no means of knowing whether,
-besides Botticelli, any other painters, perhaps Leonardo, was
-commissioned, when the criminals had been hanged in person out of
-the windows of the Palazzo del Podesta to represent them there
-afterwards in effigy in memory of their disgrace. Nor do we know
-whether the assassin who had escaped may at first not have been
-provisionally represented as hanged in effigy. Now, when we try to
-connect the historical facts with this drawing by Leonardo
-reproduced on Pl. LXII, No. I, and the full description of the
-conspirator's dress and its colour on the same sheet, there seems to
-be no reasonable doubt that Bernardo Bandini is here represented as
-he was actually hanged on December 29th, 1479, after his capture at
-Constantinople. The dress is certainly not that in which he
-committed the murder. A long furred coat might very well be worn at
-Constantinople or at Florence in December, but hardly in April. The
-doubt remains whether Leonardo described Bernardo's dress so fully
-because it struck him as remarkable, or whether we may not rather
-suppose that this sketch was actually made from nature with the
-intention of using it as a study for a wall painting to be executed.
-It cannot be denied that the drawing has all the appearance of
-having been made for this purpose. Be this as it may, the sketch
-under discussion proves, at any rate, that Leonardo was in Florence
-in December 1479, and the note that accompanies it is valuable as
-adding one more characteristic specimen to the very small number of
-his MSS. that can be proved to have been written between 1470 and
-1480.]
-
-Notes on the Last Supper (665-668).
-
-665.
-
-One who was drinking and has left the glass in its position and
-turned his head towards the speaker.
-
-Another, twisting the fingers of his hands together turns with stern
-brows to his companion [6]. Another with his hands spread open shows
-the palms, and shrugs his shoulders up his ears making a mouth of
-astonishment [8].
-
-[9] Another speaks into his neighbour's ear and he, as he listens to
-him, turns towards him to lend an ear [10], while he holds a knife
-in one hand, and in the other the loaf half cut through by the
-knife. [13] Another who has turned, holding a knife in his hand,
-upsets with his hand a glass on the table [14].
-
-[Footnote 665, 666: In the original MS. there is no sketch to
-accompany these passages, and if we compare them with those drawings
-made by Leonardo in preparation for the composition of the
-picture--Pl. XLV, XLVI--, (compare also Pl. LII, 1 and the drawings
-on p. 297) it is impossible to recognise in them a faithful
-interpretation of the whole of this text; but, if we compare these
-passages with the finished picture (see p. 334) we shall see that in
-many places they coincide. For instance, compare No. 665, 1. 6--8,
-with the fourth figure on the right hand of Christ. The various
-actions described in lines 9--10, 13--14 are to be seen in the group
-of Peter, John and Judas; in the finished picture however it is not
-a glass but a salt cellar that Judas is upsetting.]
-
-666.
-
-Another lays his hand on the table and is looking. Another blows his
-mouthful. [3] Another leans forward to see the speaker shading his
-eyes with his hand. [5] Another draws back behind the one who leans
-forward, and sees the speaker between the wall and the man who is
-leaning [Footnote: 6. _chinato_. I have to express my regret for
-having misread this word, written _cinato_ in the original, and
-having altered it to _"ciclo"_ when I first published this text, in
-'The Academy' for Nov. 8, 1879 immediately after I had discovered
-it, and subsequently in the small biography of Leonardo da Vinci
-(Great Artists) p. 29.].
-
-[Footnote: In No. 666. Line I must refer to the furthest figure on
-the left; 3, 5 and 6 describe actions which are given to the group
-of disciples on the left hand of Christ.]
-
-667.
-
-CHRIST.
-
-Count Giovanni, the one with the Cardinal of Mortaro.
-
-[Footnote: As this note is in the same small Manuscript as the
-passage here immediately preceding it, I may be justified in
-assuming that Leonardo meant to use the features of the person here
-named as a suitable model for the figure of Christ. The celebrated
-drawing of the head of Christ, now hanging in the Brera Gallery at
-Milan, has obviously been so much restored that it is now impossible
-to say, whether it was ever genuine. We have only to compare it with
-the undoubtedly genuine drawings of heads of the disciples in PI.
-XLVII, XLVIII and L, to admit that not a single line of the Milan
-drawing in its present state can be by the same hand.]
-
-668.
-
-Philip, Simon, Matthew, Thomas, James the Greater, Peter, Philip,
-Andrew, Bartholomew.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. XLVI. The names of the disciples are given in the
-order in which they are written in the original, from right to left,
-above each head. The original drawing is here slightly reduced in
-scale; it measures 39 centimetres in length by 26 in breadth.]
-
-669.
-
-  On the battle of Anghiari.
-  Florentine
-  Neri di Gino Capponi
-  Bernardetto de' Medici
-  Micheletto,
-  Niccolo da Pisa
-  Conte Francesco
-                         Pietro Gian Paolo
-                         Guelfo Orsino,
-                         Messer  Rinaldo   degli
-                                      Albizzi
-
-Begin with the address of Niccolo Piccinino to the soldiers and the
-banished Florentines among whom are Messer Rinaldo degli Albizzi and
-other Florentines. Then let it be shown how he first mounted on
-horseback in armour; and the whole army came after him--40 squadrons
-of cavalry, and 2000 foot soldiers went with him. Very early in the
-morning the Patriarch went up a hill to reconnoitre the country,
-that is the hills, fields and the valley watered by a river; and
-from thence he beheld Niccolo Picinino coming from Borgo San
-Sepolcro with his people, and with a great dust; and perceiving them
-he returned to the camp of his own people and addressed them. Having
-spoken he prayed to God with clasped hands, when there appeared a
-cloud in which Saint Peter appeared and spoke to the Patriarch.--500
-cavalry were sent forward by the Patriarch to hinder or check the
-rush of the enemy. In the foremost troop Francesco the son of
-Niccolo Piccinino [24] was the first to attack the bridge which was
-held by the Patriarch and the Florentines. Beyond the bridge to his
-left he sent forward some infantry to engage ours, who drove them
-back, among whom was their captain Micheletto [29] whose lot it was
-to be that day at the head of the army. Here, at this bridge there
-is a severe struggle; our men conquer and the enemy is repulsed.
-Here Guido and Astorre, his brother, the Lord of Faenza with a great
-number of men, re-formed and renewed the fight, and rushed upon the
-Florentines with such force that they recovered the bridge and
-pushed forward as far as the tents. But Simonetto advanced with 600
-horse, and fell upon the enemy and drove them back once more from
-the place, and recaptured the bridge; and behind him came more men
-with 2000 horse soldiers. And thus for a long time they fought with
-varying fortune. But then the Patriarch, in order to divert the
-enemy, sent forward Niccolo da Pisa [44] and Napoleone Orsino, a
-beardless lad, followed by a great multitude of men, and then was
-done another great feat of arms. At the same time Niccolo Piccinino
-urged forward the remnant of his men, who once more made ours give
-way; and if it had not been that the Patriarch set himself at their
-head and, by his words and deeds controlled the captains, our
-soldiers would have taken to flight. The Patriarch had some
-artillery placed on the hill and with these he dispersed the enemy's
-infantry; and the disorder was so complete that Niccolo began to
-call back his son and all his men, and they took to flight towards
-Borgo. And then began a great slaughter of men; none escaped but the
-foremost of those who had fled or who hid themselves. The battle
-continued until sunset, when the Patriarch gave his mind to
-recalling his men and burying the dead, and afterwards a trophy was
-erected.
-
-[Footnote: 669. This passage does not seem to me to be in Leonardo's
-hand, though it has hitherto been generally accepted as genuine. Not
-only is the writing unlike his, but the spelling also is quite
-different. I would suggest that this passage is a description of the
-events of the battle drawn up for the Painter by order of the
-Signoria, perhaps by some historian commissioned by them, to serve
-as a scheme or programme of the work. The whole tenor of the style
-seems to me to argue in favour of this theory; and besides, it would
-be in no way surprising that such a document should have been
-preserved among Leonardo's autographs.]
-
-Allegorical representations referring to the duke of Milan
-(670-673).
-
-670.
-
-Ermine with blood Galeazzo, between calm weather and a
-representation of a tempest.
-
-[Footnote: 670. Only the beginning of this text is legible; the
-writing is much effaced and the sense is consequently obscure. It
-seems to refer like the following passage to an allegorical
-picture.]
-
-671.
-
-Il Moro with spectacles, and Envy depicted with False Report and
-Justice black for il Moro.
-
-Labour as having a branch of vine [_or_ a screw] in her hand.
-
-672.
-
-Il Moro as representing Good Fortune, with hair, and robes, and his
-hands in front, and Messer Gualtieri taking him by the robes with a
-respectful air from below, having come in from the front [5].
-
-Again, Poverty in a hideous form running behind a youth. Il Moro
-covers him with the skirt of his robe, and with his gilt sceptre he
-threatens the monster.
-
-A plant with its roots in the air to represent one who is at his
-last;--a robe and Favour.
-
-Of tricks [_or_ of magpies] and of burlesque poems [_or_ of
-starlings].
-
-Those who trust themselves to live near him, and who will be a large
-crowd, these shall all die cruel deaths; and fathers and mothers
-together with their families will be devoured and killed by cruel
-creatures.
-
-[Footnote: 1--10 have already been published by _Amoretti_ in
-_Memorie Storiche_ cap. XII. He adds this note with regard to
-Gualtieri: "_A questo M. Gualtieri come ad uomo generoso e benefico
-scrive il Bellincioni un Sonetto (pag, 174) per chiedergli un
-piacere; e 'l Tantio rendendo ragione a Lodovico il Moro, perche
-pubblicasse le Rime del Bellincioni; cio hammi imposto, gli dice:
-l'humano fidele, prudente e sollicito executore delli tuoi
-comandamenti Gualtero, che fa in tutte le cose ove tu possi far
-utile, ogni studio vi metti._" A somewhat mysterious and evidently
-allegorical composition--a pen and ink drawing--at Windsor, see PL
-LVIII, contains a group of figures in which perhaps the idea is
-worked out which is spoken of in the text, lines 1-5.]
-
-673.
-
-He was blacker than a hornet, his eyes were as red as a burning fire
-and he rode on a tall horse six spans across and more than 20 long
-with six giants tied up to his saddle-bow and one in his hand which
-he gnawed with his teeth. And behind him came boars with tusks
-sticking out of their mouths, perhaps ten spans.
-
-Allegorical representations (674--678).
-
-674.
-
-Above the helmet place a half globe, which is to signify our
-hemisphere, in the form of a world; on which let there be a peacock,
-richly decorated, and with his tail spread over the group; and every
-ornament belonging to the horse should be of peacock's feathers on a
-gold ground, to signify the beauty which comes of the grace bestowed
-on him who is a good servant.
-
-On the shield a large mirror to signify that he who truly desires
-favour must be mirrored in his virtues.
-
-On the opposite side will be represented Fortitude, in like manner
-in her place with her pillar in her hand, robed in white, to signify
-... And all crowned; and Prudence with 3 eyes. The housing of the
-horse should be of plain cloth of gold closely sprinkled with
-peacock's eyes, and this holds good for all the housings of the
-horse, and the man's dress. And the man's crest and his neck-chain
-are of peacock's feathers on golden ground.
-
-On the left side will be a wheel, the centre of which should be
-attached to the centre of the horse's hinder thigh piece, and in the
-centre Prudence is seen robed in red, Charity sitting in a fiery
-chariot and with a branch of laurel in her hand, to signify the hope
-which comes of good service.
-
-[21] Messer Antonio Grimani of Venice companion of Antonio Maria
-[23].
-
-[Footnote: _Messer Antonio Gri_. His name thus abbreviated is, there
-can be no doubt, Grimani. Antonio Grimani was the famous Doge who in
-1499 commanded the Venetian fleet in battle against the Turks. But
-after the abortive conclusion of the expedition--Ludovico being the
-ally of the Turks who took possession of Friuli--, Grimani was driven
-into exile; he went to live at Rome with his son Cardinal Domenico
-Grimani. On being recalled to Venice he filled the office of Doge
-from 1521 to 1523. _Antonio Maria_ probably means Antonio Maria
-Grimani, the Patriarch of Aquileia.]
-
-675.
-
-Fame should be depicted as covered all over with tongues instead of
-feathers, and in the figure of a bird.
-
-676.
-
-Pleasure and Pain represent as twins, since there never is one
-without the other; and as if they were united back to back, since
-they are contrary to each other.
-
-[6] Clay, gold.
-
-[Footnote: 7. _oro. fango_: gold, clay. These words stand below the
-allegorical figure.]
-
-If you take Pleasure know that he has behind him one who will deal
-you Tribulation and Repentance.
-
-[9] This represents Pleasure together with Pain, and show them as
-twins because one is never apart from the other. They are back to
-back because they are opposed to each other; and they exist as
-contraries in the same body, because they have the same basis,
-inasmuch as the origin of pleasure is labour and pain, and the
-various forms of evil pleasure are the origin of pain. Therefore it
-is here represented with a reed in his right hand which is useless
-and without strength, and the wounds it inflicts are poisoned. In
-Tuscany they are put to support beds, to signify that it is here
-that vain dreams come, and here a great part of life is consumed. It
-is here that much precious time is wasted, that is, in the morning,
-when the mind is composed and rested, and the body is made fit to
-begin new labours; there again many vain pleasures are enjoyed; both
-by the mind in imagining impossible things, and by the body in
-taking those pleasures that are often the cause of the failing of
-life. And for these reasons the reed is held as their support.
-
-[Footnote: 676. The pen and ink drawing on PI. LIX belongs to this
-passage.]
-
-[Footnote: 8. _tribolatione_. In the drawing caltrops may be seen
-lying in the old man's right hand, others are falling and others
-again are shewn on the ground. Similar caltrops are drawn in MS.
-Tri. p. 98 and underneath them, as well as on page 96 the words
-_triboli di ferro_ are written. From the accompanying text it
-appears that they were intended to be scattered on the ground at the
-bottom of ditches to hinder the advance of the enemy. Count Giulio
-Porro who published a short account of the Trivulzio MS. in the
-"_Archivio Storico Lombardo_", Anno VIII part IV (Dec. 31, 1881) has
-this note on the passages treating of "_triboli_": "_E qui
-aggiungero che anni sono quando venne fabbricata la nuova
-cavallerizza presso il castello di Milano, ne furono trovati due che
-io ho veduto ed erano precisamente quali si trovano descritti e
-disegnati da Leonardo in questo codice_".
-
-There can therefore be no doubt that this means of defence was in
-general use, whether it were originally Leonardo's invention or not.
-The play on the word "_tribolatione_", as it occurs in the drawing
-at Oxford, must then have been quite intelligible.]
-
-[Footnote: 9--22. These lines, in the original, are written on the
-left side of the page and refer to the figure shown on PI. LXI. Next
-to it is placed the group of three figures given in PI. LX No. I.
-Lines 21 and 22, which are written under it, are the only
-explanation given.]
-
-Evil-thinking is either Envy or Ingratitude.
-
-677.
-
-Envy must be represented with a contemptuous motion of the hand
-towards heaven, because if she could she would use her strength
-against God; make her with her face covered by a mask of fair
-seeming; show her as wounded in the eye by a palm branch and by an
-olive-branch, and wounded in the ear by laurel and myrtle, to
-signify that victory and truth are odious to her. Many thunderbolts
-should proceed from her to signify her evil speaking. Let her be
-lean and haggard because she is in perpetual torment. Make her heart
-gnawed by a swelling serpent, and make her with a quiver with
-tongues serving as arrows, because she often offends with it. Give
-her a leopard's skin, because this creature kills the lion out of
-envy and by deceit. Give her too a vase in her hand full of flowers
-and scorpions and toads and other venomous creatures; make her ride
-upon death, because Envy, never dying, never tires of ruling. Make
-her bridle, and load her with divers kinds of arms because all her
-weapons are deadly.
-
-Toleration.
-
-Intolerable.
-
-No sooner is Virtue born than Envy comes into the world to attack
-it; and sooner will there be a body without a shadow than Virtue
-without Envy.
-
-[Footnote: The larger of the two drawings on PI. LXI is explained by
-the first 21 lines of this passage. L. 22 and 23, which are written
-above the space between the two drawings, do not seem to have any
-reference to either. L. 24-27 are below the allegorical twin figure
-which they serve to explain.]
-
-678.
-
-When Pluto's Paradise is opened, then there may be devils placed in
-twelve pots like openings into hell. Here will be Death, the Furies,
-ashes, many naked children weeping; living fires made of various
-colours....
-
-679.
-
-  John the Baptist
-  Saint Augustin
-  Saint Peter
-  Paul
-  Elisabeth
-  Saint Clara.
-  Bernardino
-  Our Lady  Louis
-  Bonaventura
-  Anthony of Padua.
-  Saint Francis.
-  Francis,
-  Anthony, a lily and book;
-  Bernardino with the [monogram of] Jesus,
-  Louis with 3 fleur de lys on his breast and
-              the crown at his feet,
-  Bonaventura with Seraphim,
-  Saint Clara with the tabernacle,
-  Elisabeth with a Queen's crown.
-
-[Footnote: 679. The text of the first six lines is written within a
-square space of the same size as the copy here given. The names are
-written in the margin following the order in which they are here
-printed. In lines 7--12 the names of those saints are repeated of
-whom it seemed necessary to point out the emblems.]
-
-List of drawings.
-
-680.
-
-  A head, full face, of a young man
-  with fine flowing hair,
-  Many flowers drawn from nature,
-  A head, full face, with curly hair,
-  Certain figures of Saint Jerome,
-  [6] The measurements of a figure,
-  Drawings of furnaces.
-  A head of the Duke,
-  [9] many designs for knots,
-  4 studies for the panel of Saint Angelo
-  A small composition of Girolamo da Fegline,
-  A head of Christ done with the pen,
-  [13] 8 Saint Sebastians,
-  Several compositions of Angels,
-  A chalcedony,
-  A head in profile with fine hair,
-  Some pitchers seen in(?) perspective,
-  Some machines for ships,
-  Some machines for waterworks,
-  A head, a portrait of Atalanta raising her
-  face;
-  The head of Geronimo da Fegline,
-  The head of Gian Francisco Borso,
-  Several throats of old women,
-  Several heads of old men,
-  Several nude figures, complete,
-  Several arms, eyes, feet, and positions,
-  A Madonna, finished,
-  Another, nearly in profile,
-  Head of Our Lady ascending into Heaven,
-  A head of an old man with long chin,
-  A head of a gypsy girl,
-  A head with a hat on,
-  A representation of the Passion, a cast,
-  A head of a girl with her hair gathered in a knot,
-  A head, with the brown hair dressed.
-
-[Footnote: 680. This has already been published by AMORETTI _Memorie
-storiche_ cap. XVI. His reading varies somewhat from that here
-given, _e. g._ l. 5 and 6. _Certi Sangirolami in su d'una figura_;
-and instead of I. 13. _Un San Bastiano_.]
-
-[Footnote: 680. 9. _Molti disegni di gruppi_. VASARI in his life of
-Leonardo (IV, 21, ed. MILANESI 1880) says: "_Oltreche perse tempo
-fino a disegnare_ gruppi _di corde fatti con ordine, e che da un
-capo seguissi tutto il resto fino all' altro, tanto che s'empiessi
-un tondo; che se ne vede in istampa uno difficilissimo e molto
-bello, e nel mezzo vi sono queste parole: Leonardus Vinci
-Accademia_". _Gruppi_ must here be understood as a technical
-expression for those twisted ornaments which are well known through
-wood cuts. AMORETTI mentions six different ones in the Ambrosian
-Library. I am indebted to M. DELABORDE for kindly informing me that
-the original blocks of these are preserved in his department in the
-Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. On the cover of these volumes is a
-copy from one of them. The size of the original is 23 1/2
-centimetres by 26 1/4. The centre portion of another is given on p.
-361. G. Govi remarks on these ornaments (_Saggio_ p. 22): "_Codesti
-gruppi eran probabilmente destinati a servir di modello a ferri da
-rilegatori per adornar le cartelle degli scolari (?). Fregi
-somigliantissimi a questi troviamo infatti impressi in oro sui
-cartoni di vari volumi contemporanei, e li vediam pur figurare nelle
-lettere iniziali di alcune edizioni del tempo._"
-
-Durer who copied them, omitting the inscription, added to the second
-impressions his own monogram. In his diary he designates them simply
-as "_Die sechs Knoten_" (see THAUSING, Life of A. Durer I, 362,
-363). In Leonardo's MSS. we find here and there little sketches or
-suggestions for similar ornaments. Compare too G. MONGERI, _L'Arte
-in Milano_, p. 315 where an ornament of the same character is given
-from the old decorations of the vaulted ceiling of the Sacristy of
-S. Maria delle Grazie.]
-
-[Footnote: 680, 17. The meaning in which the word _coppi_, literally
-pitchers, is here used I am unable to determine; but a change to
-_copie_ seems to me too doubtful to be risked.]
-
-681.
-
-  Stubborn rigour.
-  Doomed rigour.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXII, No. 2, the two upper pen and ink drawings.
-The originals, in the Windsor collection are slightly washed with
-colour. The background is blue sky; the plough and the instrument
-with the compass are reddish brown, the sun is tinted yellow].
-
-682.
-
-  Obstacles cannot crush me
-  Every obstacle yields to stern resolve
-  He who is fixed to a star does not change
-  his mind.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written to elucidate two sketches which were
-obviously the first sketches for the drawings reproduced on PL LXII,
-No. 2.]
-
-683.
-
-Ivy is [a type] of longevity.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there is, near this text, a sketch of a
-coat wreathed above the waist with ivy.]
-
-684.
-
-  Truth      the sun.
-  falsehood   a mask.
-  innocence,
-  malignity.
-
-  Fire destroys falsehood,
-  that is sophistry, and
-  restores truth, driving out
-  darkness.
-
-  Fire may be represented as the destroy of
-  all sophistry, and as the
-  image and demonstration of truth;
-  because it is light and drives
-  out darkness which conceals
-  all essences [or subtle things].
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXIII. L. 1-8 are in the middle of the page; 1.
-9-14 to the right below; 1. 15-22 below in the middle column. The
-rest of the text is below the sketches on the left. There are some
-other passages on this page relating to geometry.]
-
-TRUTH.
-
-  Fire destroys all sophistry, that is deceit;
-  and maintains truth alone, that is gold.
-
-  Truth at last cannot be hidden.
-  Dissimulation  is of no avail. Dissimulation is
-  to no purpose before
-  so great a judge.
-  Falsehood puts on a mask.
-  Nothing is hidden under the sun.
-
-  Fire is to represent truth because it
-  destroys all sophistry and lies; and the
-  mask is for lying and falsehood
-  which conceal truth.
-
-685.
-
-  Movement will cease before we are
-  weary
-  of being useful.
-
-  Movement will fail sooner than usefulness.
-  Death sooner than        I am never weary   of
-  weariness.               being useful,
-  In serving others I      is a motto for carnval.
-  cannot do enough.        Without fatigue.
-
-  No labour is
-  sufficient to tire me.
-
-  Hands into which
-  ducats and precious
-  stones fall like snow; they
-  never become tired by serving,
-  but this  service is only for its
-  utility and not for our      I am never weary
-  own benefit.                 of being useful.
-
-  Naturally
-  nature has so disposed me.
-
-686.
-
-  This shall be placed in the
-  hand of Ingratitude.
-  Wood nourishes the fire that
-  consumes it.
-
-687.
-
-TO REPRESENT INGRATITUDE.
-
-  When the sun appears
-  which dispels darkness in
-  general, you put out the
-  light which dispelled it
-  for you in particular
-  for your need and convenience.
-
-688.
-
-  On this side Adam and Eve on the other;
-  O misery of mankind, of how many things do
-  you make yourself the slave for money!
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LXIV. The figures of Adam and Eve in the clouds
-here alluded to would seem to symbolise their superiority to all
-earthly needs.]
-
-689.
-
-Thus are base unions sundered.
-
-[Footnote: A much blurred sketch is on the page by this text. It
-seems to represent an unravelled plait or tissue.]
-
-690.
-
-  Constancy does not begin, but is that
-  which perseveres.
-
-[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk, also rubbed, which stands in the
-original in the middle of this text, seems to me to be intended for
-a sword hilt, held in a fist.]
-
-691.
-
-  Love, Fear, and Esteem,--
-  Write these on three stones. Of servants.
-
-692.
-
-Prudence Strength.
-
-693.
-
-  Fame alone raises herself to Heaven,
-  because virtuous things are in favour with God.
-
-  Disgrace should be represented upside
-  down, because all her deeds are contrary to
-  God and tend to hell.
-
-694.
-
-Short liberty.
-
-695.
-
-  Nothing is so much to be feared as Evil
-  Report.
-  This Evil Report is born of life.
-
-696.
-
-Not to disobey.
-
-697.
-
-  A felled tree which is shooting
-  again.
-
-  I am still hopeful.
-  A falcon,
-  Time.
-
-[Footnote: I. _Albero tagliato_. This emblem was displayed during
-the Carnival at Florence in 1513. See VASARI VI, 251, ed. MILANESI
-1881. But the coincidence is probably accidental.]
-
-698.
-
-  Truth here makes Falsehood torment
-  lying tongues.
-
-699.
-
-  Such as harm is when it hurts me not,
-  is good which avails me not.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 2. Compare this sketch with that on PI.
-LXII, No. 2. Below the two lines of the text there are two more
-lines: _li guchi (giunchi) che ritego le paglucole (pagliucole)
-chelli (che li) anniegano_.]
-
-700.
-
-He who offends others, does not secure himself.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 3.]
-
-701.
-
-Ingratitude.
-
-[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 4. Below the bottom sketches are the
-unintelligible words "_sta stilli_." For "_Ingratitudo_" compare
-also Nos. 686 and 687.]
-
-702.
-
-One's thoughts turn towards Hope.
-
-[Footnote: 702. By the side of this passage is a sketch of
-a cage with a bird sitting in it.]
-
-Ornaments and Decorations for feasts (703-705).
-
-703.
-
-A bird, for a comedy.
-
-[Footnote: The biographies say so much, and the author's notes say
-so little of the invention attributed to Leonardo of making
-artificial birds fly through the air, that the text here given is of
-exceptional interest from being accompanied by a sketch. It is a
-very slight drawing of a bird with outspread wings, which appears to
-be sliding down a stretched string. Leonardo's flying machines and
-his studies of the flight of birds will be referred to later.]
-
-704.
-
-A DRESS FOR THE CARNIVAL.
-
-To make a beautiful dress cut it in thin cloth and give it an
-odoriferous varnish, made of oil of turpentine and of varnish in
-grain, with a pierced stencil, which must be wetted, that it may not
-stick to the cloth; and this stencil may be made in a pattern of
-knots which afterwards may be filled up with black and the ground
-with white millet.[Footnote 7: The grains of black and white millet
-would stick to the varnish and look like embroidery.]
-
-[Footnote: Ser Giuliano, da Vinci the painter's brother, had been
-commissioned, with some others, to order and to execute the garments
-of the Allegorical figures for the Carnival at Florence in 1515--16;
-VASARI however is incorrect in saying of the Florentine Carnival of
-1513: "_equelli che feciono ed ordinarono gli abiti delle figure
-furono Ser Piero da Vinci, padre di Lonardo, e Bernardino di
-Giordano, bellissimi ingegni_" (See MILANESI'S ed. Voi. VI, pg.
-251.)]
-
-705.
-
-Snow taken from the high peaks of mountains might be carried to hot
-places and let to fall at festivals in open places at summer time.
-
-
-
-*** End of Volume 1
-
-
-The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci
-
-Volume 2
-
-Translated by Jean Paul Richter
-
-1888
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-XI.
-
-The notes on Sculpture.
-
-Compared with the mass of manuscript treating of Painting, a very
-small number of passages bearing on the practice and methods of
-Sculpture are to be found scattered through the note books; these
-are here given at the beginning of this section (Nos. 706-709).
-There is less cause for surprise at finding that the equestrian
-statue of Francesco Sforza is only incidentally spoken of; for,
-although Leonardo must have worked at it for a long succession of
-years, it is not in the nature of the case that it could have given
-rise to much writing. We may therefore regard it as particularly
-fortunate that no fewer than thirteen notes in the master's
-handwriting can be brought together, which seem to throw light on
-the mysterious history of this famous work. Until now writers on
-Leonardo were acquainted only with the passages numbered 712, 719,
-720, 722 and 723.
-
-In arranging these notes on sculpture I have given the precedence to
-those which treat of the casting of the monument, not merely because
-they are the fullest, but more especially with a view to
-reconstructing the monument, an achievement which really almost lies
-within our reach by combining and comparing the whole of the
-materials now brought to light, alike in notes and in sketches.
-
-A good deal of the first two passages, Nos. 710 and 711, which refer
-to this subject seems obscure and incomprehensible; still, they
-supplement each other and one contributes in no small degree to the
-comprehension of the other. A very interesting and instructive
-commentary on these passages may be found in the fourth chapter of
-Vasari's Introduzione della Scultura under the title "Come si fanno
-i modelli per fare di bronzo le figure grandi e picciole, e come le
-forme per buttarle; come si armino di ferri, e come si gettino di
-metallo," &c. Among the drawings of models of the moulds for casting
-we find only one which seems to represent the horse in the act of
-galloping--No. 713. All the other designs show the horse as pacing
-quietly and as these studies of the horse are accompanied by copious
-notes as to the method of casting, the question as to the position
-of the horse in the model finally selected, seems to be decided by
-preponderating evidence. "Il cavallo dello Sforza"--C. Boito remarks
-very appositely in the Saggio on page 26, "doveva sembrare fratello
-al cavallo del Colleoni. E si direbbe che questo fosse figlio del
-cavallo del Gattamelata, il quale pare figlio di uno dei quattro
-cavalli che stavano forse sull' Arco di Nerone in Roma" (now at
-Venice). The publication of the Saggio also contains the
-reproduction of a drawing in red chalk, representing a horse walking
-to the left and supported by a scaffolding, given here on Pl. LXXVI,
-No. 1. It must remain uncertain whether this represents the model as
-it stood during the preparations for casting it, or whether--as
-seems to me highly improbable--this sketch shows the model as it was
-exhibited in 1493 on the Piazza del Castello in Milan under a
-triumphal arch, on the occasion of the marriage of the Emperor
-Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza. The only important point here is
-to prove that strong evidence seems to show that, of the numerous
-studies for the equestrian statue, only those which represent the
-horse pacing agree with the schemes of the final plans.
-
-The second group of preparatory sketches, representing the horse as
-galloping, must therefore be considered separately, a distinction
-which, in recapitulating the history of the origin of the monument
-seems justified by the note given under No. 720.
-
-Galeazza Maria Sforza was assassinated in 1476 before his scheme for
-erecting a monument to his father Francesco Sforza could be carried
-into effect. In the following year Ludovico il Moro the young
-aspirant to the throne was exiled to Pisa, and only returned to
-Milan in 1479 when he was Lord (Governatore) of the State of Milan,
-in 1480 after the minister Cecco Simonetta had been murdered. It may
-have been soon after this that Ludovico il Moro announced a
-competition for an equestrian statue, and it is tolerably certain
-that Antonio del Pollajuolo took part in it, from this passage in
-Vasari's Life of this artist: "E si trovo, dopo la morte sua, il
-disegno e modello che a Lodovico Sforza egli aveva fatto per la
-statua a cavallo di Francesco Sforza, duca di Milano; il quale
-disegno e nel nostro Libro, in due modi: in uno egli ha sotto
-Verona; nell'altro, egli tutto armato, e sopra un basamento pieno di
-battaglie, fa saltare il cavallo addosso a un armato; ma la cagione
-perche non mettesse questi disegni in opera, non ho gia potuto
-sapere." One of Pollajuolo's drawings, as here described, has lately
-been discovered by Senatore Giovanni Morelli in the Munich
-Pinacothek. Here the profile of the horseman is a portrait of
-Francesco Duke of Milan, and under the horse, who is galloping to
-the left, we see a warrior thrown and lying on the ground; precisely
-the same idea as we find in some of Leonardo's designs for the
-monument, as on Pl. LXVI, LXVII, LXVIII, LXIX and LXXII No. 1; and,
-as it is impossible to explain this remarkable coincidence by
-supposing that either artist borrowed it from the other, we can only
-conclude that in the terms of the competition the subject proposed
-was the Duke on a horse in full gallop, with a fallen foe under its
-hoofs.
-
-Leonardo may have been in the competition there and then, but the
-means for executing the monument do not seem to have been at once
-forthcoming. It was not perhaps until some years later that Leonardo
-in a letter to the Duke (No. 719) reminded him of the project for
-the monument. Then, after he had obeyed a summons to Milan, the plan
-seems to have been so far modified, perhaps in consequence of a
-remonstrance on the part of the artist, that a pacing horse was
-substituted for one galloping, and it may have been at the same time
-that the colossal dimensions of the statue were first decided on.
-The designs given on Pl. LXX, LXXI, LXXII, 2 and 3, LXXIII and LXXIV
-and on pp. 4 and 24, as well as three sketches on Pl. LXIX may be
-studied with reference to the project in its new form, though it is
-hardly possible to believe that in either of these we see the design
-as it was actually carried out. It is probable that in Milan
-Leonardo worked less on drawings, than in making small models of wax
-and clay as preparatory to his larger model. Among the drawings
-enumerated above, one in black chalk, Pl. LXXIII--the upper sketch
-on the right hand side, reminds us strongly of the antique statue of
-Marcus Aurelius. If, as it would seem, Leonardo had not until then
-visited Rome, he might easily have known this statue from drawings
-by his former master and friend Verrocchio, for Verrocchio had been
-in Rome for a long time between 1470 and 1480. In 1473 Pope Sixtus
-IV had this antique equestrian statue restored and placed on a new
-pedestal in front of the church of San Giovanni in Luterano.
-Leonardo, although he was painting independently as early as in 1472
-is still spoken of as working in Verrocchio's studio in 1477. Two
-years later the Venetian senate decided on erecting an equestrian
-statue to Colleoni; and as Verrocchio, to whom the work was
-entrusted, did not at once move from Florence to Venice--where he
-died in 1488 before the casting was completed--but on the contrary
-remained in Florence for some years, perhaps even till 1485,
-Leonardo probably had the opportunity of seeing all his designs for
-the equestrian statue at Venice and the red chalk drawing on Pl.
-LXXIV may be a reminiscence of it.
-
-The pen and ink drawing on Pl. LXXII, No. 3, reminds us of
-Donatello's statue of Gattamelata at Padua. However it does not
-appear that Leonardo was ever at Padua before 1499, but we may
-conclude that he took a special interest in this early bronze statue
-and the reports he could procure of it, form an incidental remark
-which is to be found in C. A. 145a; 432a, and which will be given in
-Vol. II under Ricordi or Memoranda. Among the studies--in the widest
-sense of the word--made in preparation statue we may include the
-Anatomy of the Horse which Lomazzo and Vas mention; the most
-important parts of this work still exist in the Queen's Li Windsor.
-It was beyond a doubt compiled by Leonardo when at Milan; only
-interesting records to be found among these designs are reproduced
-in Nos. 716a but it must be pointed out that out of 40 sheets of
-studies of the movements of the belonging to that treatise, a horse
-in full gallop occurs but once.
-
-If we may trust the account given by Paulus Jovius--about l527--
-Leonardo's horse was represented as "vehementer incitatus et
-anhelatus". Jovius had probably seen the model exhibited at Milan;
-but, need we, in fact, infer from this description that the horse
-was galloping? Compare Vasari's description of the Gattamelata
-monument at Padua: "Egli [Donatello] vi ando ben volentieri, e fece
-il cavallo di bronzo, che e in sulla piazza di Sant Antonio, nel
-quale si dimostra lo sbuffamento ed il fremito del cavallo, ed il
-grande animo e la fierezza vivacissimamente espressa dall'arte nella
-figura che lo cavalca".
-
-These descriptions, it seems to me, would only serve to mark the
-difference between the work of the middle ages and that of the
-renaissance.
-
-We learn from a statement of Sabba da Castiglione that, when Milan
-was taken by the French in 1499, the model sustained some injury;
-and this informant, who, however is not invariably trustworthy, adds
-that Leonardo had devoted fully sixteen years to this work (la forma
-del cavallo, intorno a cui Leonardo avea sedici anni continui
-consumati). This often-quoted passage has given ground for an
-assumption, which has no other evidence to support it, that Leonardo
-had lived in Milan ever since 1483. But I believe it is nearer the
-truth to suppose that this author's statement alludes to the fact
-that about sixteen years must have past since the competition in
-which Leonardo had taken part.
-
-I must in these remarks confine myself strictly to the task in hand
-and give no more of the history of the Sforza monument than is
-needed to explain the texts and drawings I have been able to
-reproduce. In the first place, with regard to the drawings, I may
-observe that they are all, with the following two exceptions, in the
-Queen's Library at Windsor Castle; the red chalk drawing on Pl.
-LXXVI No. 1 is in the MS. C. A. (see No. 7l2) and the fragmentary
-pen and ink drawing on page 4 is in the Ambrosian Library. The
-drawings from Windsor on Pl. LXVI have undergone a trifling
-reduction from the size of the originals.
-
-There can no longer be the slightest doubt that the well-known
-engraving of several horsemen (Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, Vol.
-V, p. 181, No. 3) is only a copy after original drawings by
-Leonardo, executed by some unknown engraver; we have only to compare
-the engraving with the facsimiles of drawings on Pl. LXV, No. 2, Pl.
-LXVII, LXVIII and LXIX which, it is quite evident, have served as
-models for the engraver.
-
-On Pl. LXV No. 1, in the larger sketch to the right hand, only the
-base is distinctly visible, the figure of the horseman is effaced.
-Leonardo evidently found it unsatisfactory and therefore rubbed it
-out.
-
-The base of the monument--the pedestal for the equestrian statue--is
-repeatedly sketched on a magnificent plan. In the sketch just
-mentioned it has the character of a shrine or aedicula to contain a
-sarcophagus. Captives in chains are here represented on the
-entablature with their backs turned to that portion of the monument
-which more
-
-strictly constitutes the pedestal of the horse. The lower portion of
-the aedicula is surrounded by columns. In the pen and ink drawing
-Pl. LXVI--the lower drawing on the right hand side--the sarcophagus
-is shown between the columns, and above the entablature is a plinth
-on which the horse stands. But this arrangement perhaps seemed to
-Leonardo to lack solidity, and in the little sketch on the left
-hand, below, the sarcophagus is shown as lying under an arched
-canopy. In this the trophies and the captive warriors are detached
-from the angles. In the first of these two sketches the place for
-the trophies is merely indicated by a few strokes; in the third
-sketch on the left the base is altogether broader, buttresses and
-pinnacles having been added so as to form three niches. The black
-chalk drawing on Pl. LXVIII shows a base in which the angles are
-formed by niches with pilasters. In the little sketch to the extreme
-left on Pl. LXV, No. 1, the equestrian statue serves to crown a
-circular temple somewhat resembling Bramante's tempietto of San
-Pietro in Montario at Rome, while the sketch above to the right
-displays an arrangement faintly reminding us of the tomb of the
-Scaligers in Verona. The base is thus constructed of two platforms
-or slabs, the upper one considerably smaller than the lower one
-which is supported on flying buttresses with pinnacles.
-
-On looking over the numerous studies in which the horse is not
-galloping but merely walking forward, we find only one drawing for
-the pedestal, and this, to accord with the altered character of the
-statue, is quieter and simpler in style (Pl. LXXIV). It rises almost
-vertically from the ground and is exactly as long as the pacing
-horse. The whole base is here arranged either as an independent
-baldaquin or else as a projecting canopy over a recess in which the
-figure of the deceased Duke is seen lying on his sarcophagus; in the
-latter case it was probably intended as a tomb inside a church.
-Here, too, it was intended to fill the angles with trophies or
-captive warriors. Probably only No. 724 in the text refers to the
-work for the base of the monument.
-
-If we compare the last mentioned sketch with the description of a
-plan for an equestrian monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (No. 725)
-it seems by no means impossible that this drawing is a preparatory
-study for the very monument concerning which the manuscript gives us
-detailed information. We have no historical record regarding this
-sketch nor do the archives in the Trivulzio Palace give us any
-information. The simple monument to the great general in San Nazaro
-Maggiore in Milan consists merely of a sarcophagus placed in recess
-high on the wall of an octagonal chapel. The figure of the warrior
-is lying on the sarcophagus, on which his name is inscribed; a piece
-of sculpture which is certainly not Leonardo's work. Gian Giacomo
-Trivulzio died at Chartres in 1518, only five months before
-Leonardo, and it seems to me highly improbable that this should have
-been the date of this sketch; under these circumstances it would
-have been done under the auspices of Francis I, but the Italian
-general was certainly not in favour with the French monarch at the
-time. Gian Giacomo Trivulzio was a sworn foe to Ludovico il Moro,
-whom he strove for years to overthrow. On the 6th September 1499 he
-marched victorious into Milan at the head of a French army. In a
-short time, however, he was forced to quit Milan again when Ludovico
-il Moro bore down upon the city with a force of Swiss troops. On the
-15th of April following, after defeating Lodovico at Novara,
-Trivulzio once more entered Milan as a Conqueror, but his hopes of
-becoming _Governatore_ of the place were soon wrecked by intrigue.
-This victory and triumph, historians tell us, were signalised by
-acts of vengeance against the dethroned Sforza, and it might have
-been particularly flattering to him that the casting and
-construction of the Sforza monument were suspended for the time.
-
-It must have been at this moment--as it seems to me--that he
-commissioned the artist to prepare designs for his own monument,
-which he probably intended should find a place in the Cathedral or
-in some other church. He, the husband of Margherita di Nicolino
-Colleoni, would have thought that he had a claim to the same
-distinction and public homage as his less illustrious connection had
-received at the hands of the Venetian republic. It was at this very
-time that Trivulzio had a medal struck with a bust portrait of
-himself and the following remarkable inscription on the reverse:_
-DEO FAVENTE--1499--DICTVS--10--IA--EXPVLIT--LVDOVICV--SF--
-(Sfortiam) DVC-- (ducem) MLI (Mediolani)--NOIE
-(nomine)--REGIS--FRANCORVM--EODEM--ANN --(anno) RED'T (redit)--LVS
-(Ludovicus)--SVPERATVS ET CAPTVS--EST--AB--EO. _In the Library of
-the Palazzo Trivulzio there is a MS. of Callimachus Siculus written
-at the end of the XVth or beginning of the XVIth century. At the
-beginning of this MS. there is an exquisite illuminated miniature of
-an equestrian statue with the name of the general on the base; it is
-however very doubtful whether this has any connection with
-Leonardo's design.
-
-Nos. 731-740, which treat of casting bronze, have probably a very
-indirect bearing on the arrangements made for casting the equestrian
-statue of Francesco Sforza. Some portions evidently relate to the
-casting of cannon. Still, in our researches about Leonardo's work on
-the monument, we may refer to them as giving us some clue to the
-process of bronze casting at that period.
-
-Some practical hints (706-709).
-
-7O6.
-
-OF A STATUE.
-
-If you wish to make a figure in marble, first make one of clay, and
-when you have finished it, let it dry and place it in a case which
-should be large enough, after the figure is taken out of it, to
-receive also the marble, from which you intend to reveal the figure
-in imitation of the one in clay. After you have put the clay figure
-into this said case, have little rods which will exactly slip in to
-the holes in it, and thrust them so far in at each hole that each
-white rod may touch the figure in different parts of it. And colour
-the portion of the rod that remains outside black, and mark each rod
-and each hole with a countersign so that each may fit into its
-place. Then take the clay figure out of this case and put in your
-piece of marble, taking off so much of the marble that all your rods
-may be hidden in the holes as far as their marks; and to be the
-better able to do this, make the case so that it can be lifted up;
-but the bottom of it will always remain under the marble and in this
-way it can be lifted with tools with great ease.
-
-707.
-
-Some have erred in teaching sculptors to measure the limbs of their
-figures with threads as if they thought that these limbs were
-equally round in every part where these threads were wound about
-them.
-
-708.
-
-MEASUREMENT AND DIVISION OF A STATUE.
-
-Divide the head into 12 degrees, and each degree divide into 12
-points, and each point into 12 minutes, and the minutes into minims
-and the minims into semi minims.
-
-Degree--point--minute--minim.
-
-709.
-
-Sculptured figures which appear in motion, will, in their standing
-position, actually look as if they were falling forward.
-
-[Footnote: _figure di rilievo_. Leonardo applies this term
-exclusively to wholly detached figures, especially to those standing
-free. This note apparently refers to some particular case, though we
-have no knowledge of what that may have been. If we suppose it to
-refer to the first model of the equestrian statue of Francesco
-Sforza (see the introduction to the notes on Sculpture) this
-observation may be regarded as one of his arguments for abandoning
-the first scheme of the Sforza Monument, in which the horse was to
-be galloping (see page 2). It is also in favour of this theory that
-the note is written in a manuscript volume already completed in
-1492. Leonardo's opinions as to the shortcomings of plastic works
-when compared with paintings are given under No. 655 and 656.]
-
-Notes on the casting of the Sforza monument (710-715).
-
-710.
-
-Three braces which bind the mould.
-
-[If you want to make simple casts quickly, make them in a box of
-river sand wetted with vinegar.]
-
-[When you shall have made the mould upon the horse you must make the
-thickness of the metal in clay.]
-
-Observe in alloying how many hours are wanted for each
-hundredweight. [In casting each one keep the furnace and its fire
-well stopped up.] [Let the inside of all the moulds be wetted with
-linseed oil or oil of turpentine, and then take a handful of
-powdered borax and Greek pitch with aqua vitae, and pitch the mould
-over outside so that being under ground the damp may not [damage
-it?]
-
-[To manage the large mould make a model of the small mould, make a
-small room in proportion.]
-
-[Make the vents in the mould while it is on the horse.]
-
-Hold the hoofs in the tongs, and cast them with fish glue. Weigh the
-parts of the mould and the quantity of metal it will take to fill
-them, and give so much to the furnace that it may afford to each
-part its amount of metal; and this you may know by weighing the clay
-of each part of the mould to which the quantity in the furnace must
-correspond. And this is done in order that the furnace for the legs
-when filled may not have to furnish metal from the legs to help out
-the head, which would be impossible. [Cast at the same casting as
-the horse the little door]
-
-[Footnote: The importance of the notes included under this number is
-not diminished by the fact that they have been lightly crossed out
-with red chalk. Possibly they were the first scheme for some fuller
-observations which no longer exist; or perhaps they were crossed out
-when Leonardo found himself obliged to give up the idea of casting
-the equestrian statue. In the original the first two sketches are
-above l. 1, and the third below l. 9.]
-
-711.
-
-THE MOULD FOR THE HORSE.
-
-Make the horse on legs of iron, strong and well set on a good
-foundation; then grease it and cover it with a coating, leaving each
-coat to dry thoroughly layer by layer; and this will thicken it by
-the breadth of three fingers. Now fix and bind it with iron as may
-be necessary. Moreover take off the mould and then make the
-thickness. Then fill the mould by degrees and make it good
-throughout; encircle and bind it with its irons and bake it inside
-where it has to touch the bronze.
-
-OF MAKING THE MOULD IN PIECES.
-
-Draw upon the horse, when finished, all the pieces of the mould with
-which you wish to cover the horse, and in laying on the clay cut it
-in every piece, so that when the mould is finished you can take it
-off, and then recompose it in its former position with its joins, by
-the countersigns.
-
-The square blocks _a b_ will be between the cover and the core, that
-is in the hollow where the melted bronze is to be; and these square
-blocks of bronze will support the intervals between the mould and
-the cover at an equal distance, and for this reason these squares
-are of great importance.
-
-The clay should be mixed with sand.
-
-Take wax, to return [what is not used] and to pay for what is used.
-
-Dry it in layers.
-
-Make the outside mould of plaster, to save time in drying and the
-expense in wood; and with this plaster enclose the irons [props]
-both outside and inside to a thickness of two fingers; make terra
-cotta. And this mould can be made in one day; half a boat load of
-plaster will serve you.
-
-Good.
-
-Dam it up again with glue and clay, or white of egg, and bricks and
-rubbish.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXV. The figure "40," close to the sketch in the
-middle of the page between lines 16 and 17 has been added by a
-collector's hand.
-
-In the original, below line 21, a square piece of the page has been
-cut out about 9 centimetres by 7 and a blank piece has been gummed
-into the place.
-
-Lines 22-24 are written on the margin. l. 27 and 28 are close to the
-second marginal sketch. l. 42 is a note written above the third
-marginal sketch and on the back of this sheet is the text given as
-No. 642. Compare also No. 802.]
-
-712.
-
-All the heads of the large nails.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI, No. i. This drawing has already been
-published in the "_Saggio delle Opere di L. da Vinci_." Milano 1872,
-Pl. XXIV, No. i. But, for various reasons I cannot regard the
-editor's suggestions as satisfactory. He says: "_Veggonsi le
-armature di legname colle quali forse venne sostenuto il modello,
-quando per le nozze di Bianca Maria Sforza con Massimiliano
-imperatore, esso fu collocato sotto un arco trionfale davanti al
-Castello_."
-
-713.
-
-These bindings go inside.
-
-714.
-
-Salt may be made from human excrements, burnt and calcined, made
-into lees and dried slowly at a fire, and all the excrements produce
-salt in a similar way and these salts when distilled, are very
-strong.
-
-[Footnote: VASARI repeatedly states, in the fourth chapter of his
-_Introduzione della Scultura_, that in preparing to cast bronze
-statues horse-dung was frequently used by sculptors. If,
-notwithstanding this, it remains doubtful whether I am justified in
-having introduced here this text of but little interest, no such
-doubt can be attached to the sketch which accompanies it.]
-
-715.
-
-METHOD OF FOUNDING AGAIN.
-
-This may be done when the furnace is made [Footnote: this note is
-written below the sketches.] strong and bruised.
-
-Models for the horse of the Sforza monument (716-718).
-
-7l6.
-
-Messer Galeazzo's big genet
-
-717.
-
-Messer Galeazzo's Sicilian horse.
-
-[Footnote: These notes are by the side of a drawing of a horse with
-figured measurements.]
-
-718.
-
-Measurement of the Sicilian horse the leg from behind, seen in
-front, lifted and extended.
-
-[Footnote: There is no sketch belonging to this passage. Galeazze
-here probably means Galeazze di San Severino, the famous captain who
-married Bianca the daughter of Ludovico il Moro.]
-
-Occasional references to the Sforza monument (719-724).
-
-719.
-
-Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to the
-immortal glory and eternal honour of the happy memory of the prince
-your father, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
-
-[Footnote: The letter from which this passage is here extracted will
-be found complete in section XXI. (see the explanation of it, on
-page 2).]
-
-720.
-
-On the 23rd of April 1490 I began this book, and recommenced the
-horse.
-
-721.
-
-There is to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and Piacenza, a
-multitude of shells and corals full of holes, still sticking to the
-rocks, and when I was at work on the great horse for Milan, a large
-sackful of them, which were found thereabout, was brought to me into
-my workshop, by certain peasants.
-
-722.
-
-Believe me, Leonardo the Florentine, who has to do the equestrian
-bronze statue of the Duke Francesco that he does not need to care
-about it, because he has work for all his life time, and, being so
-great a work, I doubt whether he can ever finish it. [Footnote: This
-passage is quoted from a letter to a committee at Piacenza for whom
-Leonardo seems to have undertaken to execute some work. The letter
-is given entire in section XXL; in it Leonardo remonstrates as to
-some unreasonable demands.]
-
-723.
-
-Of the horse I will say nothing because I know the times. [Footnote:
-This passage occurs in a rough copy of a letter to Ludovico il Moro,
-without date (see below among the letters).]
-
-724.
-
-During ten years the works on the marbles have been going on I will
-not wait for my payment beyond the time, when my works are finished.
-[Footnote: This possibly refers to the works for the pedestal of the
-equestrian statue concerning which we have no farther information in
-the MSS. See p. 6.]
-
-The project of the Trivulzio monument.
-
-725.
-
-THE MONUMENT TO MESSER GIOVANNI JACOMO DA TREVULZO.
-
-[2] Cost of the making and materials for the horse [5].
-
-[Footnote: In the original, lines 2-5, 12-14, 33-35, are written on
-the margin. This passage has been recently published by G. Govi in
-Vol. V, Ser. 3a, of _Transunti, Reale Accademia dei Linea, sed. del
-5 Giugno, 1881,_ with the following introductory note: _"Desidero
-intanto che siano stampati questi pochi frammenti perche so che sono
-stati trascritti ultimamente, e verranno messi in luce tra poco
-fuori d'Italia. Li ripubblichi pure chi vuole, ma si sappia almeno
-che anche tra noi si conoscevano, e s'eran raccolti da anni per
-comporne, quando che fosse, una edizione ordinata degli scritti di
-Leonardo."_
-
-The learned editor has left out line 22 and has written 3 _pie_ for
-8 _piedi_ in line 25. There are other deviations of less importance
-from the original.]
-
-A courser, as large as life, with the rider requires for the cost of
-the metal, duc. 500.
-
-And for cost of the iron work which is inside the model, and
-charcoal, and wood, and the pit to cast it in, and for binding the
-mould, and including the furnace where it is to be cast ... duc.
-200.
-
-To make the model in clay and then in wax......... duc. 432.
-
-To the labourers for polishing it when it is cast. ....... duc. 450.
-
-in all. . duc. 1582.
-
-[12] Cost of the marble of the monument [14].
-
-Cost of the marble according to the drawing. The piece of marble
-under the horse which is 4 braccia long, 2 braccia and 2 inches wide
-and 9 inches thick 58 hundredweight, at 4 Lire and 10 Soldi per
-hundredweight.. duc. 58.
-
-And for 13 braccia and 6 inches of cornice, 7 in. wide and 4 in.
-thick, 24 hundredweight....... duc. 24.
-
-And for the frieze and architrave, which is 4 br. and 6 in. long, 2
-br. wide and 6 in. thick, 29 hundredweight., duc. 20.
-
-And for the capitals made of metal, which are 8, 5 inches in. square
-and 2 in. thick, at the price of 15 ducats each, will come to......
-duc. 122.
-
-And for 8 columns of 2 br. 7 in., 4 1/2 in. thick, 20 hundredweight
-duc. 20.
-
-And for 8 bases which are 5 1/2 in. square and 2 in. high 5 hund'..
-duc. 5.
-
-And for the slab of the tombstone 4 br. io in. long, 2 br. 4 1/2 in.
-wide 36 hundredweight....... duc. 36.
-
-And for 8 pedestal feet each 8 br. long and 6 1/2 in. wide and 6 1/2
-in. thick, 20 hundredweight come to... duc. 20.
-
-And for the cornice below which is 4 br. and 10 in. long, and 2 br.
-and 5 in. wide, and 4 in. thick, 32 hund'.. duc. 32.
-
-And for the stone of which the figure of the deceased is to be made
-which is 3 br. and 8 in. long, and 1 br. and 6 in. wide, and 9 in.
-thick, 30 hund'.. duc. 30.
-
-And for the stone on which the figure lies which is 3 br. and 4 in.
-long and 1 br. and 2 in., wide and 4 1/2 in. thick duc. 16.
-
-And for the squares of marble placed between the pedestals which are
-8 and are 9 br. long and 9 in. wide, and 3 in. thick, 8
-hundredweight . . . duc. 8. in all. . duc. 389.
-
-[33]Cost of the work in marble[35].
-
-Round the base on which the horse stands there are 8 figures at 25
-ducats each ............ duc. 200.
-
-And on the same base there are 8 festoons with some other ornaments,
-and of these there are 4 at the price of 15 ducats each, and 4 at
-the price of 8 ducats each ....... duc. 92.
-
-And for squaring the stones duc. 6.
-
-Again, for the large cornice which goes below the base on which the
-horse stands, which is 13 br. and 6 in., at 2 due. per br. ......
-duc. 27.
-
-And for 12 br. of frieze at 5 due. per br. ........... duc. 60.
-
-And for 12 br. of architrave at 1 1/2 duc. per br. ....... duc. 18.
-
-And for 3 rosettes which will be the soffit of the monument, at 20
-ducats each .......... duc. 60.
-
-And for 8 fluted columns at 8 ducats each ......... duc. 64.
-
-And for 8 bases at 1 ducat each, duc. 8.
-
-And for 8 pedestals, of which 4 are at 10 duc. each, which go above
-the angles; and 4 at 6 duc. each .. duc. 64.
-
-And for squaring and carving the moulding of the pedestals at 2 duc.
-each, and there are 8 .... duc. 16.
-
-And for 6 square blocks with figures and trophies, at 25 duc. each
-.. duc. 150.
-
-And for carving the moulding of the stone under the figure of the
-deceased .......... duc. 40.
-
-For the statue of the deceased, to do it well .......... duc. 100.
-
-For 6 harpies with candelabra, at 25 ducats each ......... duc. 150.
-
-For squaring the stone on which the statue lies, and carving the
-moulding ............ duc. 20.
-
-in all .. duc. 1075.
-
-The sum total of every thing added together amount to ...... duc.
-3046.
-
-726.
-
-MINT AT ROME.
-
-It can also be made without a spring. But the screw above must
-always be joined to the part of the movable sheath: [Margin note:
-The mint of Rome.] [Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI. This passage is taken
-from a note book which can be proved to have been used in Rome.]
-
-All coins which do not have the rim complete, are not to be accepted
-as good; and to secure the perfection of their rim it is requisite
-that, in the first place, all the coins should be a perfect circle;
-and to do this a coin must before all be made perfect in weight, and
-size, and thickness. Therefore have several plates of metal made of
-the same size and thickness, all drawn through the same gauge so as
-to come out in strips. And out of [24] these strips you will stamp
-the coins, quite round, as sieves are made for sorting chestnuts
-[27]; and these coins can then be stamped in the way indicated
-above; &c.
-
-[31] The hollow of the die must be uniformly wider than the lower,
-but imperceptibly [35].
-
-This cuts the coins perfectly round and of the exact thickness, and
-weight; and saves the man who cuts and weighs, and the man who makes
-the coins round. Hence it passes only through the hands of the
-gauger and of the stamper, and the coins are very superior.
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI No. 2. The text of lines 31-35 stands
-parallel 1. 24-27.
-
-Farther evidence of Leonardo's occupations and engagements at Rome
-under Pope Leo X. may be gathered from some rough copies of letters
-which will be found in this volume. Hitherto nothing has been known
-of his work in Rome beyond some doubtful, and perhaps mythical,
-statements in Vasari.]
-
-727.
-
-POWDER FOR MEDALS.
-
-The incombustible growth of soot on wicks reduced to powder, burnt
-tin and all the metals, alum, isinglass, smoke from a brass forge,
-each ingredient to be moistened, with aqua vitae or malmsey or
-strong malt vinegar, white wine or distilled extract of turpentine,
-or oil; but there should be little moisture, and cast in moulds.
-[Margin note: On the coining of medals (727. 728).] [Footnote: The
-meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]
-
-728.
-
-OF TAKING CASTS OF MEDALS.
-
-A paste of emery mixed with aqua vitae, or iron filings with
-vinegar, or ashes of walnut leaves, or ashes of straw very finely
-powdered.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.]
-
-The diameter is given in the lead enclosed; it is beaten with a
-hammer and several times extended; the lead is folded and kept
-wrapped up in parchment so that the powder may not be spilt; then
-melt the lead, and the powder will be on the top of the melted lead,
-which must then be rubbed between two plates of steel till it is
-thoroughly pulverised; then wash it with aqua fortis, and the
-blackness of the iron will be dissolved leaving the powder clean.
-
-Emery in large grains may be broken by putting it on a cloth many
-times doubled, and hit it sideways with the hammer, when it will
-break up; then mix it little by little and it can be founded with
-ease; but if you hold it on the anvil you will never break it, when
-it is large.
-
-Any one who grinds smalt should do it on plates of tempered steel
-with a cone shaped grinder; then put it in aqua fortis, which melts
-away the steel that may have been worked up and mixed with the
-smalt, and which makes it black; it then remains purified and clean;
-and if you grind it on porphyry the porphyry will work up and mix
-with the smalt and spoil it, and aqua fortis will never remove it
-because it cannot dissolve the porphyry.
-
-If you want a fine blue colour dissolve the smalt made with tartar,
-and then remove the salt.
-
-Vitrified brass makes a fine red.
-
-729.
-
-STUCCO.
-
-Place stucco over the prominence of the..... which may be composed
-of Venus and Mercury, and lay it well over that prominence of the
-thickness of the side of a knife, made with the ruler and cover this
-with the bell of a still, and you will have again the moisture with
-which you applied the paste. The rest you may dry [Margin note: On
-stucco (729. 730).] [Footnote: In this passage a few words have been
-written in a sort of cipher--that is to say backwards; as in l. 3
-_erenev_ for _Venere_, l. 4 _oirucrem_ for Mercurio, l. 12 _il
-orreve co ecarob_ for _il everro (?) co borace_. The meaning of the
-word before _"di giesso"_ in l. 1 is unknown; and the sense, in
-which _sagoma_ is used here and in other passages is obscure.--
-_Venere_ and _Mercurio_ may mean 'marble' and 'lime', of which
-stucco is composed.
-
-12. The meaning of _orreve_ is unknown.]
-
-well; afterwards fire it, and beat it or burnish it with a good
-burnisher, and make it thick towards the side.
-
-STUCCO.
-
-Powder ... with borax and water to a paste, and make stucco of it,
-and then heat it so that it may dry, and then varnish it, with fire,
-so that it shines well.
-
-730.
-
-STUCCO FOR MOULDING.
-
-Take of butter 6 parts, of wax 2 parts, and as much fine flour as
-when put with these 2 things melted, will make them as firm as wax
-or modelling clay.
-
-GLUE.
-
-Take mastic, distilled turpentine and white lead.
-
-On bronze casting generally (731-740).
-
-731.
-
-TO CAST.
-
-Tartar burnt and powdered with plaster and cast cause the plaster to
-hold together when it is mixed up again; and then it will dissolve
-in water.
-
-732.
-
-TO CAST BRONZE IN PLASTER.
-
-Take to every 2 cups of plaster 1 of ox-horns burnt, mix them
-together and make your cast with it.
-
-733.
-
-When you want to take a cast in wax, burn the scum with a candle,
-and the cast will come out without bubbles.
-
-734.
-
-2 ounces of plaster to a pound of metal;-- walnut, which makes it
-like the curve.
-
-[Footnote: The second part of this is quite obscure.]
-
-735.
-
-[Dried earth 16 pounds, 100 pounds of metal wet clay 20,--of wet
-100,-half,- which increases 4 Ibs. of water,--1 of wax, 1 Ib. of
-metal, a little less,-the scrapings of linen with earth, measure for
-measure.] [Footnote: The translation is given literally, but the
-meaning is quite obscure.]
-
-736.
-
-Such as the mould is, so will the cast be.
-
-737.
-
-HOW CASTS OUGHT TO BE POLISHED.
-
-Make a bunch of iron wire as thick as thread, and scrub them with
-[this and] water; hold a bowl underneath that it may not make a mud
-below.
-
-HOW TO REMOVE THE ROUGH EDGES FROM BRONZE.
-
-Make an iron rod, after the manner of a large chisel, and with this
-rub over those seams on the bronze which remain on the casts of the
-guns, and which are caused by the joins in the mould; but make the
-tool heavy enough, and let the strokes be long and broad.
-
-TO FACILITATE MELTING.
-
-First alloy part of the metal in the crucible, then put it in the
-furnace, and this being in a molten state will assist in beginning
-to melt the copper.
-
-TO PREVENT THE COPPER COOLING IN THE FURNACE.
-
-When the copper cools in the furnace, be ready, as soon as you
-perceive it, to cut it with a long stick while it is still in a
-paste; or if it is quite cold cut it as lead is cut with broad and
-large chisels.
-
-IF YOU HAVE TO MAKE A LARGE CAST.
-
-If you have to make a cast of a hundred thousand pounds do it with
-two furnaces and with 2000 pounds in each, or as much as 3000 pounds
-at most.
-
-738.
-
-HOW TO PROCEED TO BREAK A LARGE MASS OF BRONZE.
-
-If you want to break up a large mass of bronze, first suspend it,
-and then make round it a wall on the four sides, like a trough of
-bricks, and make a great fire therein. When it is quite red hot give
-it a blow with a heavy weight raised above it, and with great force.
-
-739.
-
-TO COMBINE LEAD WITH OTHER METAL.
-
-If you wish for economy in combining lead with the metal in order to
-lessen the amount of tin which is necessary in the metal, first
-alloy the lead with the tin and then add the molten copper.
-
-How TO MELT [METAL] IN A FURNACE.
-
-The furnace should be between four well founded pillars.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF THE COATING.
-
-The coating should not be more than two fingers thick, it should be
-laid on in four thicknesses over fine clay and then well fixed, and
-it should be fired only on the inside and then carefully covered
-with ashes and cow's dung.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF THE GUN.
-
-The gun being made to carry 600 Ibs. of ball and more, by this rule
-you will take the measure of the diameter of the ball and divide it
-into 6 parts and one of these parts will be its thickness at the
-muzzle; but at the breech it must always be half. And if the ball is
-to be 700 lbs., 1/7th of the diameter of the ball must be its
-thickness in front; and if the ball is to be 800, the eighth of its
-diameter in front; and if 900, 1/8th and 1/2 [3/16], and if 1000,
-1/9th.
-
-OF THE LENGTH OF THE BODY OF THE GUN.
-
-If you want it to throw a ball of stone, make the length of the gun
-to be 6, or as much as 7 diameters of the ball; and if the ball is
-to be of iron make it as much as 12 balls, and if the ball is to be
-of lead, make it as much as 18 balls. I mean when the gun is to have
-the mouth fitted to receive 600 lbs. of stone ball, and more.
-
-OF THE THICKNESS OF SMALL GUNS.
-
-The thickness at the muzzle of small guns should be from a half to
-one third of the diameter of the ball, and the length from 30 to 36
-balls.
-
-740.
-
-OF LUTING THE FURNACE WITHIN.
-
-The furnace must be luted before you put the metal in it, with earth
-from Valenza, and over that with ashes.
-
-[Footnote 1. 2.: _Terra di Valenza_.--Valenza is north of
-Alessandria on the Po.]
-
-OF RESTORING THE METAL WHEN IT IS BECOMING COOL.
-
-When you see that the bronze is congealing take some willow-wood cut
-in small chips and make up the fire with it.
-
-THE CAUSE OF ITS CURDLING.
-
-I say that the cause of this congealing often proceeds from too much
-fire, or from ill-dried wood.
-
-TO KNOW THE CONDITION OF THE FIRE.
-
-You may know when the fire is good and fit for your purpose by a
-clear flame, and if you see the tips of the flames dull and ending
-in much smoke do not trust it, and particularly when the flux metal
-is almost fluid.
-
-OF ALLOYING THE METAL.
-
-Metal for guns must invariably be made with 6 or even 8 per cent,
-that is 6 of tin to one hundred of copper, for the less you put in,
-the stronger will the gun be.
-
-WHEN THE TIN SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE COPPER.
-
-The tin should be put in with the copper when the copper is reduced
-to a fluid.
-
-HOW TO HASTEN THE MELTING.
-
-You can hasten the melting when 2/3ds of the copper is fluid; you
-can then, with a stick of chestnut-wood, repeatedly stir what of
-copper remains entire amidst what is melted.
-
-_Introductory Observations on the Architectural Designs (XII), and
-Writings on Architecture (XIII)._
-
-_Until now very little has been known regarding Leonardo's labours
-in the domain of Architecture. No building is known to have been
-planned and executed by him, though by some contemporary writers
-incidental allusion is made to his occupying himself with
-architecture, and his famous letter to Lodovico il Moro,--which has
-long been a well-known document,--in which he offers his service as
-an architect to that prince, tends to confirm the belief that he was
-something more than an amateur of the art. This hypothesis has
-lately been confirmed by the publication of certain documents,
-preserved at Milan, showing that Leonardo was not only employed in
-preparing plans but that he took an active part, with much credit,
-as member of a commission on public buildings; his name remains
-linked with the history of the building of the Cathedral at Pavia
-and that of the Cathedral at Milan._
-
-_Leonardo's writings on Architecture are dispersed among a large
-number of MSS., and it would be scarcely possible to master their
-contents without the opportunity of arranging, sorting and comparing
-the whole mass of materials, so as to have some comprehensive idea
-of the whole. The sketches, when isolated and considered by
-themselves, might appear to be of but little value; it is not till
-we understand their general purport, from comparing them with each
-other, that we can form any just estimate of their true worth._
-
-_Leonardo seems to have had a project for writing a complete and
-separate treatise on Architecture, such as his predecessors and
-contemporaries had composed--Leon Battista Alberti, Filarete,
-Francesco di Giorgio and perhaps also Bramante. But, on the other
-hand, it cannot be denied that possibly no such scheme was connected
-with the isolated notes and researches, treating on special
-questions, which are given in this work; that he was merely working
-at problems in which, for some reason or other he took a special
-interest._
-
-_A great number of important buildings were constructed in Lombardy
-during the period between 1472 and 1499, and among them there are
-several by unknown architects, of so high an artistic merit, that it
-is certainly not improbable that either Bramante or Leonardo da
-Vinci may have been, directly or indirectly, concerned in their
-erection._
-
-_Having been engaged, for now nearly twenty years, in a thorough
-study of Bramante's life and labours, I have taken a particular
-interest in detecting the distinguishing marks of his style as
-compared with Leonardo's. In 1869 I made researches about the
-architectural drawings of the latter in the Codex Atlanticus at
-Milan, for the purpose of finding out, if possible the original
-plans and sketches of the churches of Santa Maria delle Grazie at
-Milan, and of the Cathedral at Pavia, which buildings have been
-supposed to be the work both of Bramante and of Leonardo. Since 1876
-I have repeatedly examined Leonardo's architectural studies in the
-collection of his manuscripts in the Institut de France, and some of
-these I have already given to the public in my work on_ "Les Projets
-Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome", _P1. 43. In 1879
-I had the opportunity of examining the manuscript in the Palazzo
-Trivulzio at Milan, and in 1880 Dr Richter showed me in London the
-manuscripts in the possession of Lord Ashburnham, and those in the
-British Museum. I have thus had opportunities of seeing most of
-Leonardo's architectural drawings in the original, but of the
-manuscripts tliemselves I have deciphered only the notes which
-accompany the sketches. It is to Dr Richter's exertions that we owe
-the collected texts on Architecture which are now published, and
-while he has undertaken to be responsible for the correct reading of
-the original texts, he has also made it his task to extract the
-whole of the materials from the various MSS. It has been my task to
-arrange and elucidate the texts under the heads which have been
-adopted in this work. MS. B. at Paris and the Codex Atlanticus at
-Milan are the chief sources of our knowledge of Leonardo as an
-architect, and I have recently subjected these to a thorough
-re-investigation expressly with a view to this work._
-
-_A complete reproduction of all Leonardo's architectural sketches
-has not, indeed, been possible, but as far as the necessarily
-restricted limits of the work have allowed, the utmost completeness
-has been aimed at, and no efforts have been spared to include every
-thing that can contribute to a knowledge of Leonardo's style. It
-would have been very interesting, if it had been possible, to give
-some general account at least of Leonardo's work and studies in
-engineering, fortification, canal-making and the like, and it is
-only on mature reflection that we have reluctantly abandoned this
-idea. Leonardo's occupations in these departments have by no means
-so close a relation to literary work, in the strict sense of the
-word as we are fairly justified in attributing to his numerous notes
-on Architecture._
-
-_Leonardo's architectural studies fall naturally under two heads:_
-
-_I. Those drawings and sketches, often accompanied by short remarks
-and explanations, which may be regarded as designs for buildings or
-monuments intended to be built. With these there are occasionally
-explanatory texts._
-
-_II. Theoretical investigations and treatises. A special interest
-attaches to these because they discuss a variety of questions which
-are of practical importance to this day. Leonardo's theory as to the
-origin and progress of cracks in buildings is perhaps to be
-considered as unique in its way in the literature of Architecture._
-
-_HENRY DE GEYMULLER_
-
-_XII._
-
-_Architectural Designs._
-
-_I. Plans for towns._
-
-_A. Sketches for laying out a new town with a double system of high-
-level and low-level road-ways._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 15b). A general view of a town, with the
-roads outside it sloping up to the high-level ways within._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 3 (MS. B, 16b. see No. 741; and MS. B. 15b, see No.
-742) gives a partial view of the town, with its streets and houses,
-with explanatory references._
-
-_Pl. LXXVII, No. 2 (MS. B, 15b; see No. 743). View of a double
-staircaise with two opposite flights of steps._
-
-_Pl. LXXVIII, Nos. 2 and 3 (MS. B, 37a). Sketches illustrating the
-connection of the two levels of roads by means of steps. The lower
-galleries are lighted by openings in the upper roadway._
-
-_B. Notes on removing houses (MS. Br. M., 270b, see No. 744)._
-
-741.
-
-The roads _m_ are 6 braccia higher than the roads _p s_, and each
-road must be 20 braccia wide and have 1/2 braccio slope from the
-sides towards the middle; and in the middle let there be at every
-braccio an opening, one braccio long and one finger wide, where the
-rain water may run off into hollows made on the same level as _p s_.
-And on each side at the extremity of the width of the said road let
-there be an arcade, 6 braccia broad, on columns; and understand that
-he who would go through the whole place by the high level streets
-can use them for this purpose, and he who would go by the low level
-can do the same. By the high streets no vehicles and similar objects
-should circulate, but they are exclusively for the use of gentlemen.
-The carts and burdens for the use and convenience of the inhabitants
-have to go by the low ones. One house must turn its back to the
-other, leaving the lower streets between them. Provisions, such as
-wood, wine and such things are carried in by the doors _n_, and
-privies, stables and other fetid matter must be emptied away
-underground. From one arch to the next
-
-742.
-
-must be 300 braccia, each street receiving its light through the
-openings of the upper streets, and at each arch must be a winding
-stair on a circular plan because the corners of square ones are
-always fouled; they must be wide, and at the first vault there must
-be a door entering into public privies and the said stairs lead from
-the upper to the lower streets and the high level streets begin
-outside the city gates and slope up till at these gates they have
-attained the height of 6 braccia. Let such a city be built near the
-sea or a large river in order that the dirt of the city may be
-carried off by the water.
-
-743.
-
-The construction of the stairs: The stairs _c d_ go down to _f g_,
-and in the same way _f g_ goes down to _h k_.
-
-744.
-
-ON MOVING HOUSES.
-
-Let the houses be moved and arranged in order; and this will be done
-with facility because such houses are at first made in pieces on the
-open places, and can then be fitted together with their timbers in
-the site where they are to be permanent.
-
-[9] Let the men of the country [or the village] partly inhabit the
-new houses when the court is absent [12].
-
-[Footnote: On the same page we find notes referring to Romolontino
-and Villafranca with a sketch-map of the course of the "Sodro" and
-the "(Lo)cra" (both are given in the text farther on). There can
-hardly be a doubt that the last sentence of the passage given above,
-refers to the court of Francis I. King of France.--L.9-13 are
-written inside the larger sketch, which, in the original, is on the
-right hand side of the page by the side of lines 1-8. The three
-smaller sketches are below. J. P. R.]
-
-_II. Plans for canals and streets in a town.
-
-Pl. LXXIX, 1. and 2, (MS. B, 37b, see No. 745, and MS. B. 36a, see
-No. 746). A Plan for streets and canals inside a town, by which the
-cellars of the houses are made accessible in boats.
-
-The third text given under No. 747 refers to works executed by
-Leonardo in France._
-
-745.
-
-The front _a m_ will give light to the rooms; _a e_ will be 6
-braccia--_a b_ 8 braccia --_b e_ 30 braccia, in order that the rooms
-under the porticoes may be lighted; _c d f_ is the place where the
-boats come to the houses to be unloaded. In order to render this
-arrangement practicable, and in order that the inundation of the
-rivers may not penetrate into the cellars, it is necessary to chose
-an appropriate situation, such as a spot near a river which can be
-diverted into canals in which the level of the water will not vary
-either by inundations or drought. The construction is shown below;
-and make choice of a fine river, which the rains do not render
-muddy, such as the Ticino, the Adda and many others. [Footnote 12:
-_Tesino, Adda e molti altri, i.e._ rivers coming from the mountains
-and flowing through lakes.] The construction to oblige the waters to
-keep constantly at the same level will be a sort of dock, as shown
-below, situated at the entrance of the town; or better still, some
-way within, in order that the enemy may not destroy it [14].
-
-[Footnote: L. 1-4 are on the left hand side and within the sketch
-given on Pl. LXXIX, No. I. Then follows after line 14, the drawing
-of a sluicegate--_conca_--of which the use is explained in the text
-below it. On the page 38a, which comes next in the original MS. is
-the sketch of an oval plan of a town over which is written "_modo di
-canali per la citta_" and through the longer axis of it "_canale
-magior_" is written with "_Tesino_" on the prolongation of the
-canal. J. P. R.]
-
-746.
-
-Let the width of the streets be equal to the average height of the
-houses.
-
-747.
-
-The main underground channel does not receive turbid water, but that
-water runs in the ditches outside the town with four mills at the
-entrance and four at the outlet; and this may be done by damming the
-water above Romorantin.
-
-[11]There should be fountains made in each piazza[13].
-
-[Footnote: In the original this text comes immediately after the
-passage given as No. 744. The remainder of the writing on the same
-page refers to the construction of canals and is given later, in the
-"Topographical Notes".
-
-Lines 1-11 are written to the right of the plan lines 11-13
-underneath it. J. P. R.]
-
-[Footnote 10: _Romolontino_ is Romorantin, South of Orleans in
-France.]
-
-_III. Castles and Villas.
-
-A. Castles.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 1 (P. V. fol. 39b; No. d'ordre 2282). The fortified
-place here represented is said by Vallardi to be the_ "castello" _at
-Milan, but without any satisfactory reason. The high tower behind
-the_ "rivellino" _ravelin--seems to be intended as a watch-tower.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 2 (MS. B, 23b). A similarly constructed tower probably
-intended for the same use.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 3 (MS. B). Sketches for corner towers with steps for a
-citadel.
-
-Pl. LXXX, No. 4 (W. XVI). A cupola crowning a corner tower; an
-interesting example of decorative fortification. In this
-reproduction of the original pen and ink drawing it appears
-reversed.
-
-B. Projects for Palaces.
-
-Pl. LXXXI, No. 2 (MS. C. A, 75b; 221a, see No. 748). Project for a
-royal residence at Amboise in France.
-
-Pl. LXXXII, No. 1 (C. A 308a; 939a). A plan for a somewhat extensive
-residence, and various details; but there is no text to elucidate
-it; in courts are written the three names:
-
-Sam                   cosi                   giova
-       _(St. Mark)_           _(Cosmo)_               _(John)_,
-arch                   mo                     nino
-
-C. Plans for small castles or Villas.
-
-The three following sketches greatly resemble each other. Pl.
-LXXXII, No. 2 (MS. K3 36b; see No. 749)._
-
-_Pl. LXXXII, No. 3 (MS. B 60a; See No. 750).
-
-Pl. LXXXIII (W. XVII). The text on this sheet refers to Cyprus (see
-Topographical Notes No. 1103), but seems to have no direct
-connection with the sketches inserted between.
-
-Pl. LXXXVIII, Nos. 6 and 7 (MS. B, 12a; see No. 751). A section of a
-circular pavilion with the plan of a similar building by the side of
-it. These two drawings have a special historical interest because
-the text written below mentions the Duke and Duchess of Milan.
-
-The sketch of a villa on a terrace at the end of a garden occurs in
-C. A. 150; and in C. A. 77b; 225b is another sketch of a villa
-somewhat resembling the_ Belvedere _of Pope Innocent VIII, at Rome.
-In C. A. 62b; 193b there is a Loggia.
-
-Pl. LXXXII, No. 4 (C. A. 387a; 1198a) is a tower-shaped_ Loggia
-_above a fountain. The machinery is very ingeniously screened from
-view._
-
-748.
-
-The Palace of the prince must have a piazza in front of it.
-
-Houses intended for dancing or any kind of jumping or any other
-movements with a multitude of people, must be on the ground- floor;
-for I have already witnessed the destruction of some, causing death
-to many persons, and above all let every wall, be it ever so thin,
-rest on the ground or on arches with a good foundation.
-
-Let the mezzanines of the dwellings be divided by walls made of very
-thin bricks, and without wood on account of fire.
-
-Let all the privies have ventilation [by shafts] in the thickness of
-the walls, so as to exhale by the roofs.
-
-The mezzanines should be vaulted, and the vaults will be stronger in
-proportion as they are of small size.
-
-The ties of oak must be enclosed in the walls in order to be
-protected from fire.
-
-[Footnote: The remarks accompanying the plan reproduced on Pl.
-LXXXI, No. 2 are as follows: Above, to the left: "_in_ a _angholo
-stia la guardia de la sstalla_" (in the angle _a_ may be the keeper
-of the stable). Below are the words "_strada dabosa_" (road to
-Amboise), parallel with this "_fossa br 40_" (the moat 40 braccia)
-fixing the width of the moat. In the large court surrounded by a
-portico "_in terre No.--Largha br.80 e lugha br 120_." To the right
-of the castle is a large basin for aquatic sports with the words
-"_Giostre colle nave cioe li giostra li stieno sopra le na_"
-(Jousting in boats that is the men are to be in boats). J. P. R.]
-
-The privies must be numerous and going one into the other in order
-that the stench may not penetrate into the dwellings., and all their
-doors must shut off themselves with counterpoises.
-
-The main division of the facade of this palace is into two portions;
-that is to say the width of the court-yard must be half the whole
-facade; the 2nd ...
-
-749.
-
-30 braccia wide on each side; the lower entrance leads into a hall
-10 braccia wide and 30 braccia long with 4 recesses each with a
-chimney.
-
-[Footnote: On each side of the castle, Pl. LXXXII. No. 2 there are
-drawings of details, to the left "_Camino_" a chimney, to the right
-the central lantern, sketched in red "_8 lati_" _i.e._ an octagon.]
-
-750.
-
-The firststorey [or terrace] must be entirely solid.
-
-751.
-
-The pavilion in the garden of the Duchess of Milan.
-
-The plan of the pavilion which is in the middle of the labyrinth of
-the Duke of Milan.
-
-[Footnote: This passage was first published by AMORETTI in _Memorie
-Storiche_ Cap. X: Una sua opera da riportarsi a quest' anno fu il
-bagno fatto per la duchessa Beatrice nel parco o giardino del
-Castello. Lionardo non solo ne disegno il piccolo edifizio a foggia
-di padiglione, nel cod. segnato Q. 3, dandone anche separatamente la
-pianta; ma sotto vi scrisse: Padiglione del giardino della duchessa;
-e sotto la pianta: Fondamento del padiglione ch'e nel mezzo del
-labirinto del duca di Milano; nessuna data e presso il padiglione,
-disegnato nella pagina 12, ma poco sopra fra molti circoli
-intrecciati vedesi = 10 Luglio 1492 = e nella pagina 2 presso ad
-alcuni disegni di legumi qualcheduno ha letto Settembre 1482 in vece
-di 1492, come dovea scriverevi, e probabilmente scrisse Lionardo.
-
-The original text however hardly bears the interpretation put upon
-it by AMORETTI. He is mistaken as to the mark on the MS. as well as
-in his statements as to the date, for the MS. in question has no
-date; the date he gives occurs, on the contrary, in another
-note-book. Finally, it appears to me quite an open question whether
-Leonardo was the architect who carried out the construction of the
-dome-like Pavilion here shown in section, or of the ground plan of
-the Pavilion drawn by the side of it. Must we, in fact, suppose that
-"_il duca di Milano_" here mentioned was, as has been generally
-assumed, Ludovico il Moro? He did not hold this title from the
-Emperor before 1494; till that date he was only called _Governatore_
-and Leonardo in speaking of him, mentions him generally as "_il
-Moro_" even after 1494. On January 18, 1491, he married Beatrice
-d'Este the daughter of Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara. She died on the
-2nd January 1497, and for the reasons I have given it seems
-improbable that it should be this princess who is here spoken of as
-the "_Duchessa di Milano_". From the style of the handwriting it
-appears to me to be beyond all doubt that the MS. B, from which this
-passage is taken, is older than the dated MSS. of 1492 and 1493. In
-that case the Duke of Milan here mentioned would be Gian Galeazzo
-(1469-1494) and the Duchess would be his wife Isabella of Aragon, to
-whom he was married on the second February 1489. J. P. R.]
-
-752.
-
-The earth that is dug out from the cellars must be raised on one
-side so high as to make a terrace garden as high as the level of the
-hall; but between the earth of the terrace and the wall of the
-house, leave an interval in order that the damp may not spoil the
-principal walls.
-
-_IV. Ecclesiastical Architecture.
-
-A. General Observations._
-
-753.
-
-A building should always be detached on all sides so that its form
-may be seen.
-
-[Footnote: The original text is reproduced on Pl. XCII, No. 1 to the
-left hand at the bottom.]
-
-754.
-
-Here there cannot and ought not to be any _campanile_; on the
-contrary it must stand apart like that of the Cathedral and of San
-Giovanni at Florence, and of the Cathedral at Pisa, where the
-campanile is quite detached as well as the dome. Thus each can
-display its own perfection. If however you wish to join it to the
-church, make the lantern serve for the campanile as in the church at
-Chiaravalle.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written by the side of the plan given on Pl.
-XCI. No. 2.]
-
-[Footnote 12: The Abbey of Chiaravalle, a few miles from Milan, has
-a central tower on the intersection of the cross in the style of
-that of the Certosa of Pavia, but the style is mediaeval (A. D.
-1330). Leonardo seems here to mean, that in a building, in which the
-circular form is strongly conspicuous, the campanile must either be
-separated, or rise from the centre of the building and therefore
-take the form of a lantern.]
-
-755.
-
-It never looks well to see the roofs of a church; they should rather
-be flat and the water should run off by gutters made in the frieze.
-
-[Footnote: This text is to the left of the domed church reproduced
-on Pl. LXXXVII, No. 2.]
-
-_B. The theory of Dome Architecture.
-
-This subject has been more extensively treated by Leonardo in
-drawings than in writing. Still we may fairly assume that it was his
-purpose, ultimately to embody the results of his investigation in a_
-"Trattato delle Cupole." _The amount of materials is remarkably
-extensive. MS. B is particularly rich in plans and elevations of
-churches with one or more domes--from the simplest form to the most
-complicated that can be imagined. Considering the evident connexion
-between a great number of these sketches, as well as the
-impossibility of seeing in them designs or preparatory sketches for
-any building intended to be erected, the conclusion is obvious that
-they were not designed for any particular monument, but were
-theoretical and ideal researches, made in order to obtain a clear
-understanding of the laws which must govern the construction of a
-great central dome, with smaller ones grouped round it; and with or
-without the addition of spires, so that each of these parts by
-itself and in its juxtaposition to the other parts should produce
-the grandest possible effect.
-
-In these sketches Leonardo seems to have exhausted every imaginable
-combination. [Footnote 1: In MS. B, 32b (see Pl. C III, No. 2) we
-find eight geometrical patterns, each drawn in a square; and in MS.
-C.A., fol. 87 to 98 form a whole series of patterns done with the
-same intention.] The results of some of these problems are perhaps
-not quite satisfactory; still they cannot be considered to give
-evidence of a want of taste or of any other defect in Leonardo s
-architectural capacity. They were no doubt intended exclusively for
-his own instruction, and, before all, as it seems, to illustrate the
-features or consequences resulting from a given principle._
-
-_I have already, in another place,_ [Footnote 1: Les Projets
-Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome, par Bramante,
-Raphael etc.,Vol. I, p. 2.] _pointed out the law of construction for
-buildings crowned by a large dome: namely, that such a dome, to
-produce the greatest effect possible, should rise either from the
-centre of a Greek cross, or from the centre of a structure of which
-the plan has some symmetrical affinity to a circle, this circle
-being at the same time the centre of the whole plan of the building.
-
-Leonardo's sketches show that he was fully aware, as was to be
-expected, of this truth. Few of them exhibit the form of a Latin
-cross, and when this is met with, it generally gives evidence of the
-determination to assign as prominent a part as possible to the dome
-in the general effect of the building.
-
-While it is evident, on the one hand, that the greater number of
-these domes had no particular purpose, not being designed for
-execution, on the other hand several reasons may be found for
-Leonardo's perseverance in his studies of the subject.
-
-Besides the theoretical interest of the question for Leonardo and
-his_ Trattato _and besides the taste for domes prevailing at that
-time, it seems likely that the intended erection of some building of
-the first importance like the Duomos of Pavia and Como, the church
-of Sta. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and the construction of a Dome
-or central Tower_ (Tiburio) _on the cathedral of Milan, may have
-stimulated Leonardo to undertake a general and thorough
-investigation of the subject; whilst Leonardo's intercourse with
-Bramante for ten years or more, can hardly have remained without
-influence in this matter. In fact now that some of this great
-Architect's studies for S. Peter's at Rome have at last become
-known, he must be considered henceforth as the greatest master of
-Dome-Architecture that ever existed. His influence, direct or
-indirect even on a genius like Leonardo seems the more likely, since
-Leonardo's sketches reveal a style most similar to that of Bramante,
-whose name indeed, occurs twice in Leonardo's manuscript notes. It
-must not be forgotten that Leonardo was a Florentine; the
-characteristic form of the two principal domes of Florence, Sta.
-Maria del Fiore and the Battisterio, constantly appear as leading
-features in his sketches.
-
-The church of San Lorenzo at Milan, was at that time still intact.
-The dome is to this day one of the most wonderful cupolas ever
-constructed, and with its two smaller domes might well attract the
-attention and study of a never resting genius such as Leonardo. A
-whole class of these sketches betray in fact the direct influence of
-the church of S. Lorenzo, and this also seems to have suggested the
-plan of Bramante's dome of St. Peter's at Rome.
-
-In the following pages the various sketches for the construction of
-domes have been classified and discussed from a general point of
-view. On two sheets: Pl. LXXXIV (C.A. 354b; 118a) and Pl. LXXXV,
-Nos. 1-11 (Ash. II, 6b) we see various dissimilar types, grouped
-together; thus these two sheets may be regarded as a sort of
-nomenclature of the different types, on which we shall now have to
-treat._
-
-_1. Churches formed on the plan of a Greek cross.
-
-Group I.
-
-Domes rising from a circular base.
-
-The simplest type of central building is a circular edifice.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 9. Plan of a circular building surrounded by a
-colonnade.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 8. Elevation of the former, with a conical roof.
-
-Pl. XC. No. 5. A dodecagon, as most nearly approaching the circle.
-
-Pl. LXXXVI, No. 1, 2, 3. Four round chapels are added at the
-extremities of the two principal axes;--compare this plan with fig.
-1 on p. 44 and fig. 3 on p. 47 (W. P. 5b) where the outer wall is
-octagonal.
-
-Group II.
-
-Domes rising from a square base.
-
-The plan is a square surrounded by a colonnade, and the dome seems
-to be octagonal.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV. The square plan below the circular building No. 8, and
-its elevation to the left, above the plan: here the ground-plan is
-square, the upper storey octagonal. A further development of this
-type is shown in two sketches C. A. 3a (not reproduced here), and in
-
-Pl. LXXXVI, No. 5 (which possibly belongs to No. 7 on Pl. LXXXIV).
-
-Pl, LXXXV, No. 4, and p. 45, Fig. 3, a Greek cross, repeated p. 45,
-Fig. 3, is another development of the square central plan.
-
-The remainder of these studies show two different systems; in the
-first the dome rises from a square plan,--in the second from an
-octagonal base._
-
-_Group III.
-
-Domes rising from a square base and four pillars. [Footnote 1: The
-ancient chapel San Satiro, via del Falcone, Milan, is a specimen of
-this type.]_
-
-a) First type. _A Dome resting on four pillars in the centre of a
-square edifice, with an apse in the middle, of each of the four
-sides. We have eleven variations of this type.
-
-aa) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
-
-bb) Pl. LXXX, No. 5.
-
-cc) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 2, 3, 5.
-
-dd) Pl. LXXXIV, No. 1 and 4 beneath.
-
-ee) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 1, 7, 10, 11._
-
-b) Second type. _This consists in adding aisles to the whole plan of
-the first type; columns are placed between the apses and the aisles;
-the plan thus obtained is very nearly identical with that of S.
-Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-Fig. 1 on p. 56. (MS. B, 75a) shows the result of this treatment
-adapted to a peculiar purpose about which we shall have to say a few
-words later on.
-
-Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows the same plan but with the addition of a short
-nave. This plan seems to have been suggested by the general
-arrangement of S. Sepolcro at Milan.
-
-MS. B. 57b (see the sketch reproduced on p.51). By adding towers in
-the four outer angles to the last named plan, we obtain a plan which
-bears the general features of Bramante's plans for S. Peter's at
-Rome. [Footnote 2: See_ Les projets primitifs _etc., Pl. 9-12.] (See
-p. 51 Fig. 1.)
-
-Group IV.
-
-Domes rising from an octagonal base.
-
-This system, developed according to two different schemes, has given
-rise to two classes with many varieties.
-
-In a) On each side of the octagon chapels of equal form are added.
-
-In b) The chapels are dissimilar; those which terminate the
-principal axes being different in form from those which are added on
-the diagonal sides of the octagon.
-
-a. First Class.
-
-The Chapel_ "degli Angeli," _at Florence, built only to a height of
-about 20 feet by Brunellesco, may be considered as the prototype of
-this group; and, indeed it probably suggested it. The fact that we
-see in MS. B. 11b (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) by the side of Brunellesco's
-plan for the Basilica of Sto. Spirito at Florence, a plan almost
-identical with that of the_ Capella degli Angeli, _confirms this
-supposition. Only two small differences, or we may say improvements,
-have been introduced by Leonardo. Firstly the back of the chapels
-contains a third niche, and each angle of the Octagon a folded
-pilaster like those in Bramante's_ Sagrestia di S. M. presso San
-Satiro _at Milan, instead of an interval between the two pilasters
-as seen in the Battistero at Florence and in the Sacristy of Sto.
-Spirito in the same town and also in the above named chapel by
-Brunellesco.
-
-The first set of sketches which come under consideration have at
-first sight the appearance of mere geometrical studies. They seem to
-have been suggested by the plan given on page 44 Fig. 2 (MS. B, 55a)
-in the centre of which is written_ "Santa Maria in perticha da
-Pavia", _at the place marked A on the reproduction.
-
-a) (MS. B, 34b, page 44 Fig. 3). In the middle of each side a column
-is added, and in the axes of the intercolumnar spaces a second row
-of columns forms an aisle round the octagon. These are placed at the
-intersection of a system of semicircles, of which the sixteen
-columns on the sides of the octagon are the centres.
-
-b) The preceding diagram is completed and becomes more monumental in
-style in the sketch next to it (MS. B, 35a, see p. 45 Fig. 1). An
-outer aisle is added by circles, having for radius the distance
-between the columns in the middle sides of the octagon.
-
-c) (MS. B. 96b, see p. 45 Fig. 2). Octagon with an aisle round it;
-the angles of both are formed by columns. The outer sides are formed
-by 8 niches forming chapels. The exterior is likewise octagonal,
-with the angles corresponding to the centre of each of the interior
-chapels.
-
-Pl. XCII, No. 2 (MS. B. 96b). Detail and modification of the
-preceding plan--half columns against piers--an arrangement by which
-the chapels of the aisle have the same width of opening as the inner
-arches between the half columns. Underneath this sketch the
-following note occurs:_ questo vole - avere 12 facce - co 12
-tabernaculi - come - _a_ - _b_. _(This will have twelve sides with
-twelve tabernacles as_ a b._) In the remaining sketches of this
-class the octagon is not formed by columns at the angles.
-
-The simplest type shows a niche in the middle of each side and is
-repeated on several sheets, viz: MS. B 3; MS. C.A. 354b (see Pl.
-LXXXIV, No. 11) and MS. Ash II 6b; (see Pl. LXXXV, No. 9 and the
-elevations No. 8; Pl. XCII, No. 3; MS. B. 4b [not reproduced here]
-and Pl. LXXXIV, No. 2)._
-
-_Pl. XCII, 3 (MS. B, 56b) corresponds to a plan like the one in MS.
-B 35a, in which the niches would be visible outside or, as in the
-following sketch, with the addition of a niche in the middle of each
-chapel.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 6. The niches themselves are surrounded by smaller
-niches (see also No. 1 on the same plate).
-
-Octagon expanded on each side.
-
-A. by a square chapel:
-
-MS. B. 34b (not reproduced here).
-
-B. by a square with 3 niches:
-
-MS. B. 11b (see Pl. XCIV, No. 3).
-
-C. by octagonal chapels:
-
-a) MS. B, 21a; Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 4.
-
-b) No. 2 on the same plate. Underneath there is the remark:_
-"quest'e come le 8 cappele ano a essere facte" _(this is how the
-eight chapels are to be executed).
-
-c) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 5. Elevation to the plans on the same sheet, it
-is accompanied by the note:_ "ciasscuno de' 9 tiburi no'uole -
-passare l'alteza - di - 2 - quadri" _(neither of the 9 domes must
-exceed the height of two squares).
-
-d) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 1. Inside of the same octagon. MS. B, 30a, and
-34b; these are three repetitions of parts of the same plan with very
-slight variations.
-
-D. by a circular chapel:
-
-MS. B, 18a (see Fig. 1 on page 47) gives the plan of this
-arrangement in which the exterior is square on the ground floor with
-only four of the chapels projecting, as is explained in the next
-sketch.
-
-Pl. LXXXIX, MS. B, 17b. Elevation to the preceding plan sketched on
-the opposite side of the sheet, and also marked A. It is accompanied
-by the following remark, indicating the theoretical character of
-these studies:_ questo - edifitio - anchora - starebbe - bene
-affarlo dalla linja - _a_ - _b_ - _c_ - _d_ - insu. _("This edifice
-would also produce a good effect if only the part above the lines_ a
-b, c d, _were executed").
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11. The exterior has the form of an octagon, but the
-chapels project partly beyond it. On the left side of the sketch
-they appear larger than on the right side.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 1, (MS. B, 25b); Repetition of Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11.
-
-Pl. XC, No. 2. Elevation to the plan No. 1, and also to No. 6 of the
-same sheet._
-
-_E. By chapels formed by four niches:
-
-Pl. LXXXIV, No. 7 (the circular plan on the left below) shows this
-arrangement in which the central dome has become circular inside and
-might therefore be classed after this group. [Footnote 1: This plan
-and some others of this class remind us of the plan of the Mausoleum
-of Augustus as it is represented for instance by Durand. See_ Cab.
-des Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Topographie de Rome, V,
-6, 82._]
-
-The sketch on the right hand side gives most likely the elevation
-for the last named plan.
-
-F. By chapels of still richer combinations, which necessitate an
-octagon of larger dimensions:
-
-Pl. XCI, No. 2 (MS. Ash. 11. 8b) [Footnote 2: The note accompanying
-this plan is given under No. 754.]; on this plan the chapels
-themselves appear to be central buildings formed like the first type
-of the third group. Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3.
-
-Pl. XCI, No. 2 above; the exterior of the preceding figure,
-particularly interesting on account of the alternation of apses and
-niches, the latter containing statues of a gigantic size, in
-proportion to the dimension of the niches.
-
-b. Second Class.
-
-Composite plans of this class are generally obtained by combining
-two types of the first class--the one worked out on the principal
-axes, the other on the diagonal ones.
-
-MS. B. 22 shows an elementary combination, without any additions on
-the diagonal axes, but with the dimensions of the squares on the two
-principal axes exceeding those of the sides of the octagon.
-
-In the drawing W. P. 5b (see page 44 Fig. 1) the exterior only of
-the edifice is octagonal, the interior being formed by a circular
-colonnade; round chapels are placed against the four sides of the
-principal axes.
-
-The elevation, drawn on the same sheet (see page 47 Fig. 3), shows
-the whole arrangement which is closely related with the one on Pl.
-LXXXVI No. 1, 2.
-
-MS. B. 21a shows:
-
-a) four sides with rectangular chapels crowned by pediments Pl.
-LXXXVII No. 3 (plan and elevation);
-
-b) four sides with square chapels crowned by octagonal domes. Pl.
-LXXXVII No. 4; the plan underneath.
-
-MS. B. 18a shows a variation obtained by replacing the round chapels
-in the principal axes of the sketch MS. B. l8a by square ones, with
-an apse. Leonardo repeated both ideas for better comparison side by
-side, see page 47. Fig. 2.
-
-Pl. LXXXIX (MS. B. 17b). Elevation for the preceding figure. The
-comparison of the drawing marked M with the plan on page 47 Fig. 2,
-bearing the same mark, and of the elevation on Pl. LXXXIX below
-(marked A) with the corresponding plan on page 47 is highly
-instructive, as illustrating the spirit in which Leonardo pursued
-these studies.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 12 shows the design Pl. LXXXVII No. 3 combined with
-apses, with the addition of round chapels on the diagonal sides.
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 13 is a variation of the preceding sketch.
-
-Pl. XC No. 3. MS. B. 25b. The round chapels of the preceding sketch
-are replaced by octagonal chapels, above which rise campaniles.
-
-Pl. XC No. 4 is the elevation for the preceding plan.
-
-Pl. XCII No. 1. (MS. B. 39b.); the plan below. On the principal as
-well as on the diagonal axes are diagonal chapels, but the latter
-are separated from the dome by semicircular recesses. The
-communication between these eight chapels forms a square aisle round
-the central dome.
-
-Above this figure is the elevation, showing four campaniles on the
-angles. [Footnote 1: The note accompanying this drawing is
-reproduced under No. 753.]
-
-Pl. LXXXIV No. 3. On the principal axes are square chapels with
-three niches; on the diagonals octagonal chapels with niches. Cod.
-Atl. 340b gives a somewhat similar arrangement.
-
-MS. B. 30. The principal development is thrown on the diagonal axes
-by square chapels with three niches; on the principal axes are inner
-recesses communicating with outer ones.
-
-The plan Pl. XCIII No. 2 (MS. B. 22) differs from this only in so
-far as the outer semicircles have become circular chapels,
-projecting from the external square as apses; one of them serves as
-the entrance by a semicircular portico.
-
-The elevation is drawn on the left side of the plan.
-
-MS. B. 19. A further development of MS. B. 18, by employing for the
-four principal chapels the type Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, as we have
-already seen in Pl. XCI No. 2; the exterior presents two varieties.
-
-a) The outer contour follows the inner. [Footnote 2: These chapels
-are here sketched in two different sizes; it is the smaller type
-which is thus formed.]
-
-b) It is semicircular.
-
-Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 (MS. B. 18b) Elevation to the first variation MS.
-B. 19. If we were not certain that this sketch was by Leonardo, we
-might feel tempted to take it as a study by Bramante for St. Peter's
-at Rome. [Footnote 3: See_ Les projets primitifs Pl. 43._]_
-
-_MS. P. V. 39b. In the principal axes the chapels of MS. B. 19, and
-semicircular niches on the diagonals. The exterior of the whole
-edifice is also an octagon, concealing the form of the interior
-chapels, but with its angles on their axes.
-
-Group V.
-
-Suggested by San Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-In MS. C. A. 266 IIb, 8l2b there is a plan almost identical with
-that of San Lorenzo. The diagonal sides of the irregular octagon are
-not indicated.
-
-If it could be proved that the arches which, in the actual church,
-exist on these sides in the first story, were added in 1574 by
-Martimo Bassi, then this plan and the following section would be
-still nearer the original state of San Lorenzo than at present. A
-reproduction of this slightly sketched plan has not been possible.
-It may however be understood from Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, by suppressing
-the four pillars corresponding to the apses.
-
-Pl. LXXXVII No. 1 shows the section in elevation corresponding with
-the above-named plan. The recessed chapels are decorated with large
-shells in the halfdomes like the arrangement in San Lorenzo, but
-with proportions like those of Bramante's Sacristy of Santa Maria
-presso S. Satiro.
-
-MS. C. A. 266; a sheet containing three views of exteriors of Domes.
-On the same sheet there is a plan similar to the one above-named but
-with uninterrupted aisles and with the addition of round chapels in
-the axes (compare Pl. XCVII No. 3 and page 44 Fig. 1), perhaps a
-reminiscence of the two chapels annexed to San Lorenzo.--Leonardo
-has here sketched the way of transforming this plan into a Latin
-cross by means of a nave with side aisles.
-
-Pl. XCI No. 1. Plan showing a type deprived of aisles and comprised
-in a square building which is surrounded by a portico. It is
-accompanied by the following text:_
-
-756.
-
-This edifice is inhabited [accessible] below and above, like San
-Sepolcro, and it is the same above as below, except that the upper
-story has the dome _c d_; and the [Footnote: The church of San
-Sepolcro at Milan, founded in 1030 and repeatedly rebuilt after the
-middle of the XVIth century, still stands over the crypt of the
-original structure.] lower has the dome _a b_, and when you enter
-into the crypt, you descend 10 steps, and when you mount into the
-upper you ascend 20 steps, which, with 1/3 braccio for each, make 10
-braccia, and this is the height between one floor of the church and
-the other.
-
-_Above the plan on the same sheet is a view of the exterior. By the
-aid of these two figures and the description, sections of the
-edifice may easily be reconstructed. But the section drawn on the
-left side of the building seems not to be in keeping with the same
-plan, notwithstanding the explanatory note written underneath it:
-"dentro il difitio di sopra" (interior of the edifice
-above)[Footnote 1: _The small inner dome corresponds to_ a b _on the
-plan--it rises from the lower church into the upper-- above, and
-larger, rises the dome_ c d. _The aisles above and below thus
-correspond_ (e di sopra come di sotto, salvoche etc.). _The only
-difference is, that in the section Leonardo has not taken the
-trouble to make the form octagonal, but has merely sketched circular
-lines in perspective._ J. P. R._].
-
-_Before leaving this group, it is well to remark that the germ of it
-seems already indicated by the diagonal lines in the plans Pl. LXXXV
-No. 11 and No. 7. We shall find another application of the same type
-to the Latin cross in Pl. XCVII No. 3.
-
-_2. Churches formed on the plan of a Latin cross.
-
-We find among Leonardo's studies several sketches for churches on
-the plan of the Latin cross; we shall begin by describing them, and
-shall add a few observations.
-
-A. Studies after existing Monuments.
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 2. (MS. B. 11b.) Plan of Santo Spirito at Florence, a
-basilica built after the designs of Brunellesco.--Leonardo has added
-the indication of a portico in front, either his own invention or
-the reproduction of a now lost design.
-
-Pl. XCV No. 2. Plan accompanied by the words: "A_ e santo sepolcro
-di milano di sopra"(A _is the upper church of S. Sepolcro at Milan);
-although since Leonardo's time considerably spoilt, it is still the
-same in plan.
-
-The second plan with its note: "B_ e la sua parte socto tera" (B _is
-its subterranean part [the crypt]) still corresponds with the
-present state of this part of the church as I have ascertained by
-visiting the crypt with this plan. Excepting the addition of a few
-insignificant walls, the state of this interesting part of the
-church still conforms to Leonardo's sketch; but in the Vestibolo the
-two columns near the entrance of the winding stairs are absent.
-
-B. Designs or Studies.
-
-PL. XCV No. 1. Plan of a church evidently suggested by that of San
-Sepolcro at Milan. The central part has been added to on the
-principle of the second type of Group III. Leonardo has placed the_
-"coro" _(choir) in the centre._
-
-_Pl. XCVI No. 2. In the plan the dome, as regards its interior,
-belongs to the First Class of Group IV, and may be grouped with the
-one in MS. B. 35a. The nave seems to be a development of the type
-represented in Pl. XCV No. 2, B. by adding towers and two lateral
-porticos[Footnote 1: Already published in Les projets primitifs Pl.
-XLIII.].
-
-On the left is a view of the exterior of the preceding plan. It is
-accompanied by the following note:_
-
-757.
-
-This building is inhabited below and above; the way up is by the
-campaniles, and in going up one has to use the platform, where the
-drums of the four domes are, and this platform has a parapet in
-front, and none of these domes communicate with the church, but they
-are quite separate.
-
-_Pl. XCVI No. 1 (MS. C. A. 16b; 65a). Perspective view of a church
-seen from behind; this recalls the Duomo at Florence, but with two
-campaniles[Footnote 2: Already published in the Saggio Pl. IX.].
-
-Pl. XCVII No. 3 (MS. B. 52a). The central part is a development of
-S. Lorenzo at Milan, such as was executed at the Duomo of Pavia.
-There is sufficient analogy between the building actually executed
-and this sketch to suggest a direct connection between them.
-Leonardo accompanied Francesco di Giorgio[Footnote 3: See MALASPINA,
-il Duomo di Pavia. Documents.] when the latter was consulted on June
-21st, 1490 as to this church; the fact that the only word
-accompanying the plan is:_ "sagrestia", _seems to confirm our
-supposition, for the sacristies were added only in 1492, i. e. four
-years after the beginning of the Cathedral, which at that time was
-most likely still sufficiently unfinished to be capable of receiving
-the form of the present sketch.
-
-Pl. XCVII No. 2 shows the exterior of this design. Below is the
-note:_ edifitio al proposito del fodameto figurato di socto
-_(edifice proper for the ground plan figured below).
-
-Here we may also mention the plan of a Latin cross drawn in MS. C.
-A. fol. 266 (see p. 50).
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 1 (MS. L. 15b). External side view of Brunellesco's
-Florentine basilica San Lorenzo, seen from the North.
-
-Pl. XCIV No. 4 (V. A. V, 1). Principal front of a nave, most likely
-of a church on the plan of a Latin cross. We notice here not only
-the principal features which were employed afterwards in Alberti's
-front of S. Maria Novella, but even details of a more advanced
-style, such as we are accustomed to meet with only after the year
-1520.
-
-In the background of Leonardo's unfinished picture of St. Jerome
-(Vatican Gallery) a somewhat similar church front is indicated (see
-the accompanying sketch).
-
-[Illustration with caption: The view of the front of a temple,
-apparently a dome in the centre of four corinthian porticos bearing
-pediments (published by Amoretti Tav. II. B as being by Leonardo),
-is taken from a drawing, now at the Ambrosian Gallery. We cannot
-consider this to be by the hand of the master.]_
-
-_C. Studies for a form of a Church most proper for preaching.
-
-The problem as to what form of church might answer the requirements
-of acoustics seems to have engaged Leonardo's very particular
-attention. The designation of_ "teatro" _given to some of these
-sketches, clearly shows which plan seemed to him most favourable for
-hearing the preacher's voice.
-
-Pl. XCVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 52). Rectangular edifice divided into three
-naves with an apse on either side, terminated by a semicircular
-theatre with rising seats, as in antique buildings. The pulpit is in
-the centre. Leonardo has written on the left side of the sketch_:
-"teatro da predicare" _(Theatre for preaching).
-
-MS. B, 55a (see page 56, Fig. 1). A domed church after the type of
-Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows four theatres occupying the apses and facing
-the square_ "coro" _(choir), which is in the centre between the four
-pillars of the dome.[Footnote 1: The note_ teatro de predicar, _on
-the right side is, I believe, in the handwriting of Pompeo Leoni. J.
-P. R.] The rising arrangement of the seats is shown in the sketch
-above. At the place marked_ B _Leonardo wrote_ teatri per uldire
-messa _(rows of seats to hear mass), at_ T teatri,_ and at_ C coro
-_(choir).
-
-In MS. C.A. 260, are slight sketches of two plans for rectangular
-choirs and two elevations of the altar and pulpit which seem to be
-in connection with these plans.
-
-In MS. Ash II, 8a (see p. 56 and 57. Fig. 2 and 3)._ "Locho dove si
-predica" _(Place for preaching). A most singular plan for a
-building. The interior is a portion of a sphere, the centre of which
-is the summit of a column destined to serve as the preacher's
-pulpit. The inside is somewhat like a modern theatre, whilst the
-exterior and the galleries and stairs recall the ancient
-amphitheatres.
-
-[Illustration with caption: Page 57, Fig. 4. A plan accompanying the
-two preceding drawings. If this gives the complete form Leonardo
-intended for the edifice, it would have comprised only about two
-thirds of the circle. Leonardo wrote in the centre_ "fondamento", _a
-word he often employed for plans, and on the left side of the view
-of the exterior:_ locho dove si predicha _(a place for preaching
-in)._]
-
-_D. Design for a Mausoleum.
-
-Pl. XCVIII (P. V., 182._ No. d'ordre 2386). In the midst of a hilly
-landscape rises an artificial mountain in the form of a gigantic
-cone, crowned by an imposing temple. At two thirds of the height a
-terrace is cut out with six doorways forming entrances to galleries,
-each leading to three sepulchral halls, so constructed as to contain
-about five hundred funeral urns, disposed in the customary antique
-style. From two opposite sides steps ascend to the terrace in a
-single flight and beyond it to the temple above. A large circular
-opening, like that in the Pantheon, is in the dome above what may be
-the altar, or perhaps the central monument on the level of the
-terrace below.
-
-The section of a gallery given in the sketch to the right below
-shows the roof to be constructed on the principle of superimposed
-horizontal layers, projecting one beyond the other, and each
-furnished with a sort of heel, which appears to be undercut, so as
-to give the appearance of a beam from within. Granite alone would be
-adequate to the dimensions here given to the key stone, as the
-thickness of the layers can hardly be considered to be less than a
-foot. In taking this as the basis of our calculation for the
-dimensions of the whole construction, the width of the chamber would
-be about 25 feet but, judging from the number of urns it
-contains--and there is no reason to suppose that these urns were
-larger than usual--it would seem to be no more than about 8 or 10
-feet.
-
-The construction of the vaults resembles those in the galleries of
-some etruscan tumuli, for instance the Regulini Galeassi tomb at
-Cervetri (lately discovered) and also that of the chamber and
-passages of the pyramid of Cheops and of the treasury of Atreus at
-Mycenae.
-
-The upper cone displays not only analogies with the monuments
-mentioned in the note, but also with Etruscan tumuli, such as the
-Cocumella tomb at Vulci, and the Regulini Galeassi tomb_[Footnote 1:
-_See_ FERSGUSON, _Handbook of Architecture, I,_ 291.]. _The whole
-scheme is one of the most magnificent in the history of
-Architecture.
-
-It would be difficult to decide as to whether any monument he had
-seen suggested this idea to Leonardo, but it is worth while to
-enquire, if any monument, or group of monuments of an earlier date
-may be supposed to have done so._[Footnote 2: _There are, in
-Algiers, two Monuments, commonly called_ "Le Madracen" _and_ "Le
-tombeau de la Chretienne," _which somewhat resemble Leonardo's
-design. They are known to have served as the Mausolea of the Kings
-of Mauritania. Pomponius Mela, the geographer of the time of the
-Emperor Claudius, describes them as having been_ "Monumentum commune
-regiae gentis." _See_ Le Madracen, Rapport fait par M. le Grand
-Rabbin AB. CAHEN, Constantine 1873--Memoire sur les fouilles
-executees au Madras'en .. par le Colonel BRUNON, Constantine
-l873.--Deux Mausolees Africains, le Madracen et le tombeau de la
-Chretienne par M. J. DE LAURIERE, Tours l874.--Le tombeau de la
-Chretienne, Mausolee des rois Mauritaniens par M. BERBRUGGER, Alger
-1867.--_I am indebted to M. LE BLANC, of the Institut, and M. LUD,
-LALANNE, Bibliothecaire of the Institut for having first pointed out
-to me the resemblance between these monuments; while M. ANT. HERON
-DE VlLLEFOSSE of the Louvre was kind enough to place the
-abovementioned rare works at my disposal. Leonardo's observations on
-the coast of Africa are given later in this work. The Herodium near
-Bethlehem in Palestine_ (Jebel el Fureidis, _the Frank Mountain)
-was, according to the latest researches, constructed on a very
-similar plan. See_ Der Frankenberg, von Baurath C. SCHICK in
-Jerusalem, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins, _Leipzag_
-1880, _Vol. III, pages_ 88-99 _and Plates IV and V._ J. P. R.]
-
-_E. Studies for the Central Tower, or Tiburio of Milan Cathedral.
-
-Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Fabbricceria del Duomo
-had to settle on the choice of a model for the crowning and central
-part of this vast building. We learn from a notice published by G.
-L. Calvi [Footnote: G. L. CALVI, Notizie sulla vita e sulle opere
-dei principali architetti scultori e pittori che fiorirono in
-Milano, Part III, 20. See also: H. DE GEYMULLER, Les projets
-primitifs etc. I, 37 and 116-119.--The Fabbricceria of the Duomo has
-lately begun the publication of the archives, which may possibly
-tell us more about the part taken by Leonardo, than has hitherto
-been known.] that among the artists who presented models in the year
-1488 were: Bramante, Pietro da Gorgonzola, Luca Paperio (Fancelli),
-and Leonardo da Vinci.--
-
-Several sketches by Leonardo refer to this important project:
-
-Pl. XCIX, No. 2 (MS. S. K. III, No. 36a) a small plan of the whole
-edifice.--The projecting chapels in the middle of the transept are
-wanting here. The nave appears to be shortened and seems to be
-approached by an inner "vestibolo".--
-
-Pl. C, No. 2 (Tr. 21). Plan of the octagon tower, giving the
-disposition of the buttresses; starting from the eight pillars
-adjoining the four principal piers and intended to support the eight
-angles of the Tiburio. These buttresses correspond exactly with
-those described by Bramante as existing in the model presented by
-Omodeo. [Footnote: Bramante's opinion was first published by G.
-MONGERl, Arch. stor. Lomb. V, fasc. 3 and afterwards by me in the
-publication mentioned in the preceding note.]
-
-Pl. C, 3 (MS. Tr. 16). Two plans showing different arrangements of
-the buttresses, which seem to be formed partly by the intersection
-of a system of pointed arches such as that seen in **
-
-Pl. C, No. 5 (MS. B, 27a) destined to give a broader base to the
-drum. The text underneath is given under No. 788.
-
-MS. B, 3--three slight sketches of plans in connexion with the
-preceding ones._
-
-_Pl. XCIX, No.1 (MS. Tr. 15) contains several small sketches of
-sections and exterior views of the Dome; some of them show
-buttress-walls shaped as inverted arches. Respecting these Leonardo
-notes:_
-
-758.
-
-L'arco rivescio e migliore per fare spalla che l'ordinario, perche
-il rovescio trova sotto se muro resistete alla sua debolezza, e
-l'ordinario no trova nel suo debole se non aria
-
-The inverted arch is better for giving a shoulder than the ordinary
-one, because the former finds below it a wall resisting its
-weakness, whilst the latter finds in its weak part nothing but air.
-
-[Footnote: _Three slight sketches of sections on the same
-leaf--above those reproduced here--are more closely connected with
-the large drawing in the centre of Pl. C, No. 4 (M.S, Tr. 41) which
-shows a section of a very elevated dome, with double vaults,
-connected by ribs and buttresses ingeniously disposed, so as to
-bring the weight of the lantern to bear on the base of the dome.
-
-A sketch underneath it shows a round pillar on which is indicated
-which part of its summit is to bear the weight: "il pilastro sara
-charicho in . a . b." (The column will bear the weight at a b.)
-Another note is above on the right side:_ Larcho regiera tanto sotto
-asse chome di sopra se _(The arch supports as much below it [i. e. a
-hanging weight] as above it).
-
-Pl. C, No. 1 (C. A. 303a). Larger sketch of half section of the
-Dome, with a very complicated system of arches, and a double vault.
-Each stone is shaped so as to be knit or dovetailed to its
-neighbours. Thus the inside of the Dome cannot be seen from below.
-
-MS. C. A. 303b. A repetition of the preceding sketch with very
-slight modifications._]
-
-[Figs. 1. and Fig. 2. two sketeches of the dome]
-
-MS. Tr. 9 (see Fig. 1 and 2). Section of the Dome with reverted
-buttresses between the windows, above which iron anchors or chains
-seem to be intended. Below is the sketch of the outside._
-
-_PI. XCIX, No. 3 (C. A., 262a) four sketches of the exterior of the
-Dome.
-
-C. A. 12. Section, showing the points of rupture of a gothic vault,
-in evident connection with the sketches described above.
-
-It deserves to be noticed how easily and apparently without effort,
-Leonardo manages to combine gothic details and structure with the
-more modern shape of the Dome.
-
-The following notes are on the same leaf,_ oni cosa poderosa, _and_
-oni cosa poderosa desidera de(scendere); _farther below, several
-multiplications most likely intended to calculate the weight of some
-parts of the Dome, thus 16 x 47 = 720; 720 x 800 = 176000, next to
-which is written:_ peso del pilastro di 9 teste _(weight of the
-pillar 9 diameters high).
-
-Below:_ 176000 x 8 = 1408000; _and below:_
-
-Semjlio e se ce 80 (?) il peso del tiburio _(six millions six
-hundred (?) 80 the weight of the Dome).
-
-Bossi hazarded the theory that Leonardo might have been the
-architect who built the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, but there
-is no evidence to support this, either in documents or in the
-materials supplied by Leonardos manuscripts and drawings. The sketch
-given at the side shows the arrangement of the second and third
-socle on the apses of the choir of that church; and it is remarkable
-that those sketches, in MS. S. K. M. II2, 2a and Ib, occur with the
-passage given in Volume I as No. 665 and 666 referring to the
-composition of the Last Supper in the Refectory of that church._]
-
-_F. The Project for lifting up the Battistero of Florence and
-setting it on a basement._
-
-_Among the very few details Vasari gives as to the architectural
-studies of Leonardo, we read: "And among these models and designs
-there was one by way of which he showed several times to many
-ingenious citizens who then governed Florence, his readiness to lift
-up without ruining it, the church of San Giovanni in Florence (the
-Battistero, opposite the Duomo) in order to place under it the
-missing basement with steps; he supported his assertions with
-reasons so persuasive, that while he spoke the undertaking seemed
-feasable, although every one of his hearers, when he had departed,
-could see by himself the impossibility of so vast an undertaking."_
-
-[Footnote: _This latter statement of Vasari's must be considered to
-be exaggerated. I may refer here to some data given by_ LIBRI,
-Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie (II, 216, 217): "On a
-cru dans ces derniers temps faire un miracle en mecanique en
-effectuant ce transport, et cependant des l'annee 1455, Gaspard Nadi
-et Aristote de Fioravantio avaient transporte, a une distance
-considerable, la tour de la Magione de Bologne, avec ses fondements,
-qui avait presque quatre-vingts pieds de haut. Le continuateur de la
-chronique de Pugliola dit que le trajet fut de 35 pieds et que
-durant le transport auquel le chroniqueur affirme avoir assiste, il
-arriva un accident grave qui fit pencher de trois pieds la tour
-pendant qu'elle etait suspendue, mais que cet accident fut
-promptement repare (Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital. Tom. XVIII, col.
-717, 718). Alidosi a rapporte une note ou Nadi rend compte de ce
-transport avec une rare simplicite. D'apres cette note, on voit que
-les operations de ce genre n'etaient pas nouvelles. Celle-ci ne
-couta que 150 livres (monnaie d'alors) y compris le cadeau que le
-Legat fit aux deux mecaniciens. Dans la meme annee, Aristote
-redressa le clocher de Cento, qui penchait de plus de cinq pieds
-(Alidosi, instruttione p. 188-- Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital.,
-tom. XXIII, col. 888.--Bossii, chronica Mediol., 1492, in-fol. ad
-ann. 1455). On ne concoit pas comment les historiens des beaux-arts
-ont pu negliger de tels hommes." J. P. R.]
-
-_In the MS. C. A. fol. 293, there are two sketches which possibly
-might have a bearing on this bold enterprise. We find there a plan
-of a circular or polygonal edifice surrounded by semicircular arches
-in an oblique position. These may be taken for the foundation of the
-steps and of the new platform. In the perspective elevation the same
-edifice, forming a polygon, is shown as lifted up and resting on a
-circle of inverted arches which rest on an other circle of arches in
-the ordinary position, but so placed that the inverted arches above
-rest on the spandrels of the lower range._
-
-_What seems to confirm the supposition that the lifting up of a
-building is here in question, is the indication of engines for
-winding up, such as jacks, and a rack and wheel. As the lifting
-apparatus represented on this sheet does not seem particularly
-applicable to an undertaking of such magnitude, we may consider it
-to be a first sketch or scheme for the engines to be used._
-
-_G. Description of an unknown Temple._
-
-759.
-
-Twelve flights of steps led up to the great temple, which was eight
-hundred braccia in circumference and built on an octagonal plan. At
-the eight corners were eight large plinths, one braccia and a half
-high, and three wide, and six long at the bottom, with an angle in
-the middle; on these were eight great pillars, standing on the
-plinths as a foundation, and twenty four braccia high. And on the
-top of these were eight capitals three braccia long and six wide,
-above which were the architrave frieze and cornice, four braccia and
-a half high, and this was carried on in a straight line from one
-pillar to the next and so, continuing for eight hundred braccia,
-surrounded the whole temple, from pillar to pillar. To support this
-entablature there were ten large columns of the same height as the
-pillars, three braccia thick above their bases which were one
-braccia and a half high.
-
-The ascent to this temple was by twelve flights of steps, and the
-temple was on the twelfth, of an octagonal form, and at each angle
-rose a large pillar; and between the pillars were placed ten columns
-of the same height as the pillars, rising at once from the pavement
-to a height of twenty eight braccia and a half; and at this height
-the architrave, frieze and cornice were placed which surrounded the
-temple having a length of eight hundred braccia. At the same height,
-and within the temple at the same level, and all round the centre of
-the temple at a distance of 24 braccia farther in, are pillars
-corresponding to the eight pillars in the angles, and columns
-corresponding to those placed in the outer spaces. These rise to the
-same height as the former ones, and over these the continuous
-architrave returns towards the outer row of pillars and columns.
-
-[Footnote: Either this description is incomplete, or, as seems to me
-highly probable, it refers to some ruin. The enormous dimensions
-forbid our supposing this to be any temple in Italy or Greece. Syria
-was the native land of colossal octagonal buildings, in the early
-centuries A. D. The Temple of Baalbek, and others are even larger
-than that here described. J. P. R.]
-
-_V. Palace architecture.
-
-But a small number of Leonardo's drawings refer to the architecture
-of palaces, and our knowledge is small as to what style Leonardo
-might have adopted for such buildings.
-
-Pl. CII No. 1 (W. XVIII). A small portion of a facade of a palace
-in two stories, somewhat resembling Alberti's Palazzo
-Rucellai.--Compare with this Bramante's painted front of the Casa
-Silvestri, and a painting by Montorfano in San Pietro in Gessate at
-Milan, third chapel on the left hand side and also with Bramante's
-palaces at Rome. The pilasters with arabesques, the rustica between
-them, and the figures over the window may be painted or in
-sgraffito. The original is drawn in red chalk.
-
-Pl. LXXXI No. 1 (MS. Tr. 42). Sketch of a palace with battlements
-and decorations, most likely graffiti; the details remind us of
-those in the Castello at Vigevano._ [Footnote 1: _Count GIULIO
-PORRO, in his valuable contribution to the_ Archivio Storico
-Lombardo, Anno VIII, Fasc. IV (31 Dec. 1881): Leonardo da Vinci,
-Libro di Annotazioni e Memorie, _refers to this in the following
-note:_ "Alla pag. 41 vi e uno schizzo di volta ed accanto scrisse:
-'il pilastro sara charicho in su 6' e potrebbe darsi che si
-riferisse alla cupola della chiesa delle Grazie tanto piu che a
-pag. 42 vi e un disegno che rassomiglia assai al basamento che oggi
-si vede nella parte esterna del coro di quella chiesa." _This may
-however be doubted. The drawing, here referred to, on page 41 of the
-same manuscript, is reproduced on Pl. C No. 4 and described on page
-61 as being a study for the cupola of the Duomo of Milan._ J. P. R.]
-
-_MS. Mz. 0", contains a design for a palace or house with a loggia
-in the middle of the first story, over which rises an attic with a
-Pediment reproduced on page 67. The details drawn close by on the
-left seem to indicate an arrangement of coupled columns against the
-wall of a first story.
-
-Pl. LXXXV No. 14 (MS. S. K. M. Ill 79a) contains a very slight
-sketch in red chalk, which most probably is intended to represent
-the facade of a palace. Inside is the short note 7 he 7 (7 and 7)._
-
-_MS. J2 8a (see pages 68 Fig. 1 and 2) contains a view of an unknown
-palace. Its plan is indicated at the side._
-
-_In MS. Br. M. 126a(see Fig. 3 on page 68) there is a sketch of a
-house, on which Leonardo notes; casa con tre terrazi (house with
-three terraces)._
-
-_Pl. CX, No. 4 (MS. L. 36b) represents the front of a fortified
-building drawn at Cesena in 1502 (see No. 1040)._
-
-_Here we may also mention the singular building in the allegorical
-composition represented on Pl. LVIII in Vol. I. In front of it
-appears the head of a sphinx or of a dragon which seems to be
-carrying the palace away._
-
-_The following texts refer to the construction of palaces and other
-buildings destined for private use:_
-
-760.
-
-In the courtyard the walls must be half the height of its width,
-that is if the court be 40 braccia, the house must be 20 high as
-regards the walls of the said courtyard; and this courtyard must be
-half as wide as the whole front.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CI, no. 1, and compare the dimensions here given,
-with No. 748 lines 26-29; and the drawing belonging to it Pl. LXXXI,
-no. 2.]
-
-On the dispositions of a stable.
-
-761.
-
-FOR MAKING A CLEAN STABLE.
-
-The manner in which one must arrange a stable. You must first divide
-its width in 3 parts, its depth matters not; and let these 3
-divisions be equal and 6 braccia broad for each part and 10 high,
-and the middle part shall be for the use of the stablemasters; the 2
-side ones for the horses, each of which must be 6 braccia in width
-and 6 in length, and be half a braccio higher at the head than
-behind. Let the manger be at 2 braccia from the ground, to the
-bottom of the rack, 3 braccia, and the top of it 4 braccia. Now, in
-order to attain to what I promise, that is to make this place,
-contrary to the general custom, clean and neat: as to the upper part
-of the stable, i. e. where the hay is, that part must have at its
-outer end a window 6 braccia high and 6 broad, through which by
-simple means the hay is brought up to the loft, as is shown by the
-machine _E_; and let this be erected in a place 6 braccia wide, and
-as long as the stable, as seen at _k p_. The other two parts, which
-are on either side of this, are again divided; those nearest to the
-hay-loft are 4 braccia, _p s_, and only for the use and circulation
-of the servants belonging to the stable; the other two which reach
-to the outer walls are 2 braccia, as seen at _s k_, and these are
-made for the purpose of giving hay to the mangers, by means of
-funnels, narrow at the top and wide over the manger, in order that
-the hay should not choke them. They must be well plastered and clean
-and are represented at 4 _f s_. As to the giving the horses water,
-the troughs must be of stone and above them [cisterns of] water. The
-mangers may be opened as boxes are uncovered by raising the lids.
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVIII, No.1.]
-
-Decorations for feasts.
-
-762.
-
-THE WAY TO CONSTRUCT A FRAME-WORK FOR DECORATING BUILDINGS.
-
-The way in which the poles ought to be placed for tying bunches of
-juniper on to them. These poles must lie close to the framework of
-the vaulting and tie the bunches on with osier withes, so as to clip
-them even afterwards with shears.
-
-Let the distance from one circle to another be half a braccia; and
-the juniper [sprigs] must lie top downwards, beginning from below.
-
-Round this column tie four poles to which willows about as thick as
-a finger must be nailed and then begin from the bottom and work
-upwards with bunches of juniper sprigs, the tops downwards, that is
-upside down. [Footnote: See Pl. CII, No. 3. The words here given as
-the title line, lines 1--4, are the last in the original MS.--Lines
-5--16 are written under fig. 4.]
-
-763.
-
-The water should be allowed to fall from the whole circle _a b_.
-[Footnote: Other drawings of fountains are given on Pl. CI (W. XX);
-the original is a pen and ink drawing on blue paper; on Pl. CIII
-(MS. B.) and Pl. LXXXII.]
-
-_VI. Studies of architectural details._
-
-_Several of Leonardo's drawings of architectural details prove that,
-like other great masters of that period, he had devoted his
-attention to the study of the proportion of such details. As every
-organic being in nature has its law of construction and growth,
-these masters endeavoured, each in his way, to discover and prove a
-law of proportion in architecture. The following notes in Leonardo's
-manuscripts refer to this subject._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. Ill, 47b (see Fig. 1). A diagram, indicating the rules
-as given by Vitruvius and by Leon Battista Alberti for the
-proportions of the Attic base of a column._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. Ill 55a (see Fig. 2). Diagram showing the same rules._
-
-764.
-
-B toro superiore  .  .  .  .  .    toro superiore
-2B nestroli    .  .  .  .  .  .  astragali quadre
-3B orbiculo    .  .  .  .  .  .   .   .   troclea
-4B nestroli    .  .  .  .  .  .  astragali quadre
-5B toro iferiore  .  .  .  .  .  .  toro iferiore
-6B latastro    .  .  .  .  .  .  .   .    plintho
-
-[Footnote: No explanation can be offered of the meaning of the
-letter B, which precedes each name. It may be meant for _basa_
-(base). Perhaps it refers to some author on architecture or an
-architect (Bramante?) who employed the designations, thus marked for
-the mouldings. 3. _troclea._ Philander: _Trochlea sive trochalia aut
-rechanum._ 6. _Laterculus_ or _latastrum_ is the Latin name for
-_Plinthus_ (pi lambda Xiv) but Vitruvius adopted this Greek name
-and "latastro" seems to have been little in use. It is to be found
-besides the text given above, as far as I am aware, only two
-drawings of the Uffizi Collection, where in one instance, it
-indicates the _abacus_ of a Doric capital.]
-
-765.
-
-STEPS OF URRBINO.
-
-The plinth must be as broad as the thickness of the wall against
-which the plinth is built. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3. The hasty
-sketch on the right hand side illustrates the unsatisfactory effect
-produced when the plinth is narrower than the wall.]
-
-766.
-
-The ancient architects ...... beginning with the Egyptians (?) who,
-as Diodorus Siculus writes, were the first to build and construct
-large cities and castles, public and private buildings of fine form,
-large and well proportioned .....
-
-The column, which has its thickness at the third part .... The one
-which would be thinnest in the middle, would break ...; the one
-which is of equal thickness and of equal strength, is better for the
-edifice. The second best as to the usefulness will be the one whose
-greatest thickness is where it joins with the base.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIII, No. 3, where the sketches belonging to
-lines 10--16 are reproduced, but reversed. The sketch of columns,
-here reproduced by a wood cut, stands in the original close to lines
-5--8.]
-
-The capital must be formed in this way. Divide its thickness at the
-top into 8; at the foot make it 5/7, and let it be 5/7 high and you
-will have a square; afterwards divide the height into 8 parts as you
-did for the column, and then take 1/8 for the echinus and another
-eighth for the thickness of the abacus on the top of the capital.
-The horns of the abacus of the capital have to project beyond the
-greatest width of the bell 2/7, i. e. sevenths of the top of the
-bell, so 1/7 falls to the projection of each horn. The truncated
-part of the horns must be as broad as it is high. I leave the rest,
-that is the ornaments, to the taste of the sculptors. But to return
-to the columns and in order to prove the reason of their strength or
-weakness according to their shape, I say that when the lines
-starting from the summit of the column and ending at its base and
-their direction and length ..., their distance apart or width may be
-equal; I say that this column ...
-
-767.
-
-The cylinder of a body columnar in shape and its two opposite ends
-are two circles enclosed between parallel lines, and through the
-centre of the cylinder is a straight line, ending at the centre of
-these circles, and called by the ancients the axis.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo wrote these lines on the margin of a page of the
-Trattato di Francesco di Giorgio, where there are several drawings
-of columns, as well as a head drawn in profile inside an outline
-sketch of a capital.]
-
-768.
-
-_a b_ is 1/3 of _n m_; _m o_ is 1/6 of _r o_. The ovolo projects 1/6
-of _r o_; _s_ 7 1/5 of _r o_, _a b_ is divided into 9 1/2; the
-abacus is 3/9 the ovolo 4/9, the bead-moulding and the fillet 2/9
-and 1/2.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXV, No. 16. In the original the drawing and
-writing are both in red chalk.]
-
-_Pl. LXXXV No. 6 (MS. Ash. II 6b) contains a small sketch of a
-capital with the following note, written in three lines:_ I chorni
-del capitelo deono essere la quarta parte d'uno quadro _(The horns
-of a capital must measure the fourth part of a square)._
-
-_MS. S. K. M. III 72b contains two sketches of ornamentations of
-windows._
-
-_In MS. C. A. 308a; 938a (see Pl. LXXXII No. 1) there are several
-sketches of columns. One of the two columns on the right is similar
-to those employed by Bramante at the Canonica di S. Ambrogio. The
-same columns appear in the sketch underneath the plan of a castle.
-There they appear coupled, and in two stories one above the other.
-The archivolls which seem to spring out of the columns, are shaped
-like twisted cords, meant perhaps to be twisted branches. The walls
-between the columns seem to be formed out of blocks of wood, the
-pedestals are ornamented with a reticulated pattern. From all this
-we may suppose that Leonardo here had in mind either some festive
-decoration, or perhaps a pavilion for some hunting place or park.
-The sketch of columns marked "35" gives an example of columns shaped
-like candelabra, a form often employed at that time, particularly in
-Milan, and the surrounding districts for instance in the Cortile di
-Casa Castiglione now Silvestre, in the cathedral of Como, at Porta
-della Rana &c._
-
-769.
-
-CONCERNING ARCHITRAVES OF ONE OR SEVERAL PIECES.
-
-An architrave of several pieces is stronger than that of one single
-piece, if those pieces are placed with their length in the direction
-of the centre of the world. This is proved because stones have their
-grain or fibre generated in the contrary direction i. e. in the
-direction of the opposite horizons of the hemisphere, and this is
-contrary to fibres of the plants which have ...
-
-[Footnote: The text is incomplete in the original.]
-
-_The Proportions of the stories of a building are indicated by a
-sketch in MS. S. K. M. II2 11b (see Pl. LXXXV No. 15). The measures
-are written on the left side, as follows: br 1 1/2--6 3/4--br
-1/12--2 br--9 e 1/2--1 1/2--br 5--o 9--o 3 [br=braccia; o=oncie].
-
-Pl. LXXXV No. 13 (MS. B. 62a) and Pl. XCIII No. 1. (MS. B. 15a) give
-a few examples of arches supported on piers._
-
-_XIII.
-
-Theoretical writings on Architecture.
-
-Leonardo's original writings on the theory of Architecture have come
-down to us only in a fragmentary state; still, there seems to be no
-doubt that he himself did not complete them. It would seem that
-Leonardo entertained the idea of writing a large and connected book
-on Architecture; and it is quite evident that the materials we
-possess, which can be proved to have been written at different
-periods, were noted down with a more or less definite aim and
-purpose. They might all be collected under the one title: "Studies
-on the Strength of Materials". Among them the investigations on the
-subject of fissures in walls are particularly thorough, and very
-fully reported; these passages are also especially interesting,
-because Leonardo was certainly the first writer on architecture who
-ever treated the subject at all. Here, as in all other cases
-Leonardo carefully avoids all abstract argument. His data are not
-derived from the principles of algebra, but from the laws of
-mechanics, and his method throughout is strictly experimental.
-
-Though the conclusions drawn from his investigations may not have
-that precision which we are accustomed to find in Leonardo's
-scientific labours, their interest is not lessened. They prove at
-any rate his deep sagacity and wonderfully clear mind. No one
-perhaps, who has studied these questions since Leonardo, has
-combined with a scientific mind anything like the artistic delicacy
-of perception which gives interest and lucidity to his observations.
-
-I do not assert that the arrangement here adopted for the passages
-in question is that originally intended by Leonardo; but their
-distribution into five groups was suggested by the titles, or
-headings, which Leonardo himself prefixed to most of these notes.
-Some of the longer sections perhaps should not, to be in strict
-agreement with this division, have been reproduced in their entirety
-in the place where they occur. But the comparatively small amount of
-the materials we possess will render them, even so, sufficiently
-intelligible to the reader; it did not therefore seem necessary or
-desirable to subdivide the passages merely for the sake of strict
-classification._
-
-_The small number of chapters given under the fifth class, treating
-on the centre of gravity in roof-beams, bears no proportion to the
-number of drawings and studies which refer to the same subject. Only
-a small selection of these are reproduced in this work since the
-majority have no explanatory text._
-
-I.
-
-ON FISSURES IN WALLS.
-
-770.
-
-First write the treatise on the causes of the giving way of walls
-and then, separately, treat of the remedies.
-
-Parallel fissures constantly occur in buildings which are erected on
-a hill side, when the hill is composed of stratified rocks with an
-oblique stratification, because water and other moisture often
-penetrates these oblique seams carrying in greasy and slippery soil;
-and as the strata are not continuous down to the bottom of the
-valley, the rocks slide in the direction of the slope, and the
-motion does not cease till they have reached the bottom of the
-valley, carrying with them, as though in a boat, that portion of the
-building which is separated by them from the rest. The remedy for
-this is always to build thick piers under the wall which is
-slipping, with arches from one to another, and with a good scarp and
-let the piers have a firm foundation in the strata so that they may
-not break away from them.
-
-In order to find the solid part of these strata, it is necessary to
-make a shaft at the foot of the wall of great depth through the
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-strata; and in this shaft, on the side from which the hill slopes,
-smooth and flatten a space one palm wide from the top to the bottom;
-and after some time this smooth portion made on the side of the
-shaft, will show plainly which part of the hill is moving.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIV.]
-
-771.
-
-The cracks in walls will never be parallel unless the part of the
-wall that separates from the remainder does not slip down.
-
-WHAT IS THE LAW BY WHICH BUILDINGS HAVE STABILITY.
-
-The stability of buildings is the result of the contrary law to the
-two former cases. That is to say that the walls must be all built up
-equally, and by degrees, to equal heights all round the building,
-and the whole thickness at once, whatever kind of walls they may be.
-And although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one it will
-not necessarily give way under the added weight day by day and thus,
-[16] although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one, it
-will not give way under the weight which the latter may acquire from
-day to day. Because if double the amount of it dries in one day, one
-of double the thickness will dry in two days or thereabouts; thus
-the small addition of weight will be balanced by the smaller
-difference of time [18].
-
-The adversary says that _a_ which projects, slips down.
-
-And here the adversary says that _r_ slips and not _c_.
-
-HOW TO PROGNOSTICATE THE CAUSES OF CRACKS IN ANY SORT OF WALL.
-
-The part of the wall which does not slip is that in which the
-obliquity projects and overhangs the portion which has parted from
-it and slipped down.
-
-ON THE SITUATION OF FOUNDATIONS AND IN WHAT PLACES THEY ARE A CAUSE
-OF RUIN.
-
-When the crevice in the wall is wider at the top than at the bottom,
-it is a manifest sign, that the cause of the fissure in the wall is
-remote from the perpendicular line through the crevice.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-5 refer to Pl. CV, No. 2. Line 9 _alle due
-anteciedete_, see on the same page.
-
-Lines 16-18. The translation of this is doubtful, and the meaning in
-any case very obscure.
-
-Lines 19-23 are on the right hand margin close to the two sketches
-on Pl. CII, No. 3.]
-
-772.
-
-OF CRACKS IN WALLS, WHICH ARE WIDE AT THE BOTTOM AND NARROW AT THE
-TOP AND OF THEIR CAUSES.
-
-That wall which does not dry uniformly in an equal time, always
-cracks.
-
-A wall though of equal thickness will not dry with equal quickness
-if it is not everywhere in contact with the same medium. Thus, if
-one side of a wall were in contact with a damp slope and the other
-were in contact with the air, then this latter side would remain of
-the same size as before; that side which dries in the air will
-shrink or diminish and the side which is kept damp will not dry. And
-the dry portion will break away readily from the damp portion
-because the damp part not shrinking in the same proportion does not
-cohere and follow the movement of the part which dries continuously.
-
-OF ARCHED CRACKS, WIDE AT THE TOP, AND NARROW BELOW.
-
-Arched cracks, wide at the top and narrow below are found in
-walled-up doors, which shrink more in their height than in their
-breadth, and in proportion as their height is greater than their
-width, and as the joints of the mortar are more numerous in the
-height than in the width.
-
-The crack diminishes less in _r o_ than in _m n_, in proportion as
-there is less material between _r_ and _o_ than between _n_ and _m_.
-
-Any crack made in a concave wall is wide below and narrow at the
-top; and this originates, as is here shown at _b c d_, in the side
-figure.
-
-1. That which gets wet increases in proportion to the moisture it
-imbibes.
-
-2. And a wet object shrinks, while drying, in proportion to the
-amount of moisture which evaporates from it.
-
-[Footnote: The text of this passage is reproduced in facsimile on
-Pl. CVI to the left. L. 36-40 are written inside the sketch No. 2.
-L. 41-46 are partly written over the sketch No. 3 to which they
-refer.]
-
-773.
-
-OF THE CAUSES OF FISSURES IN [THE WALLS OF] PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
-BUILDINGS.
-
-The walls give way in cracks, some of which are more or less
-vertical and others are oblique. The cracks which are in a vertical
-direction are caused by the joining of new walls, with old walls,
-whether straight or with indentations fitting on to those of the old
-wall; for, as these indentations cannot bear the too great weight of
-the wall added on to them, it is inevitable that they should break,
-and give way to the settling of the new wall, which will shrink one
-braccia in every ten, more or less, according to the greater or
-smaller quantity of mortar used between the stones of the masonry,
-and whether this mortar is more or less liquid. And observe, that
-the walls should always be built first and then faced with the
-stones intended to face them. For, if you do not proceed thus, since
-the wall settles more than the stone facing, the projections left on
-the sides of the wall must inevitably give way; because the stones
-used for facing the wall being larger than those over which they are
-laid, they will necessarily have less mortar laid between the
-joints, and consequently they settle less; and this cannot happen if
-the facing is added after the wall is dry.
-
-_a b_ the new wall, _c_ the old wall, which has already settled; and
-the part _a b_ settles afterwards, although _a_, being founded on
-_c_, the old wall, cannot possibly break, having a stable foundation
-on the old wall. But only the remainder _b_ of the new wall will
-break away, because it is built from top to bottom of the building;
-and the remainder of the new wall will overhang the gap above the
-wall that has sunk.
-
-774.
-
-A new tower founded partly on old masonry.
-
-775.
-
-OF STONES WHICH DISJOIN THEMSELVES FROM THEIR MORTAR.
-
-Stones laid in regular courses from bottom to top and built up with
-an equal quantity of mortar settle equally throughout, when the
-moisture that made the mortar soft evaporates.
-
-By what is said above it is proved that the small extent of the new
-wall between _A_ and _n_ will settle but little, in proportion to
-the extent of the same wall between _c_ and _d_. The proportion will
-in fact be that of the thinness of the mortar in relation to the
-number of courses or to the quantity of mortar laid between the
-stones above the different levels of the old wall.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CV, No. 1. The top of the tower is wanting in
-this reproduction, and with it the letter _n_ which, in the
-original, stands above the letter _A_ over the top of the tower,
-while _c_ stands perpendicularly over _d_.]
-
-776.
-
-This wall will break under the arch _e f_, because the seven whole
-square bricks are not sufficient to sustain the spring of the arch
-placed on them. And these seven bricks will give way in their middle
-exactly as appears in _a b_. The reason is, that the brick _a_ has
-above it only the weight _a k_, whilst the last brick under the arch
-has above it the weight _c d x a_.
-
-_c d_ seems to press on the arch towards the abutment at the point
-_p_ but the weight _p o_ opposes resistence to it, whence the whole
-pressure is transmitted to the root of the arch. Therefore the foot
-of the arch acts like 7 6, which is more than double of _x z_.
-
-II.
-
-ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
-
-777.
-
-ON FISSURES IN NICHES.
-
-An arch constructed on a semicircle and bearing weights on the two
-opposite thirds of its curve will give way at five points of the
-curve. To prove this let the weights be at _n m_ which will break
-the arch _a_, _b_, _f_. I say that, by the foregoing, as the
-extremities _c_ and _a_ are equally pressed upon by the thrust _n_,
-it follows, by the 5th, that the arch will give way at the point
-which is furthest from the two forces acting on them and that is the
-middle _e_. The same is to be understood of the opposite curve, _d g
-b_; hence the weights _n m_ must sink, but they cannot sink by the
-7th, without coming closer together, and they cannot come together
-unless the extremities of the arch between them come closer, and if
-these draw together the crown of the arch must break; and thus the
-arch will give way in two places as was at first said &c.
-
-I ask, given a weight at _a_ what counteracts it in the direction
-_n_ _f_ and by what weight must the weight at _f_ be counteracted.
-
-778.
-
-ON THE SHRINKING OF DAMP BODIES OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS AND WIDTH.
-
-The window _a_ is the cause of the crack at _b_; and this crack is
-increased by the pressure of _n_ and _m_ which sink or penetrate
-into the soil in which foundations are built more than the lighter
-portion at _b_. Besides, the old foundation under _b_ has already
-settled, and this the piers _n_ and _m_ have not yet done. Hence the
-part _b_ does not settle down perpendicularly; on the contrary, it
-is thrown outwards obliquely, and it cannot on the contrary be
-thrown inwards, because a portion like this, separated from the main
-wall, is larger outside than inside and the main wall, where it is
-broken, is of the same shape and is also larger outside than inside;
-therefore, if this separate portion were to fall inwards the larger
-would have to pass through the smaller--which is impossible. Hence
-it is evident that the portion of the semicircular wall when
-disunited from the main wall will be thrust outwards, and not
-inwards as the adversary says.
-
-When a dome or a half-dome is crushed from above by an excess of
-weight the vault will give way, forming a crack which diminishes
-towards the top and is wide below, narrow on the inner side and wide
-outside; as is the case with the outer husk of a pomegranate,
-divided into many parts lengthwise; for the more it is pressed in
-the direction of its length, that part of the joints will open most,
-which is most distant from the cause of the pressure; and for that
-reason the arches of the vaults of any apse should never be more
-loaded than the arches of the principal building. Because that which
-weighs most, presses most on the parts below, and they sink into the
-foundations; but this cannot happen to lighter structures like the
-said apses.
-
-[Footnote: The figure on Pl. CV, No. 4 belongs to the first
-paragraph of this passage, lines 1-14; fig. 5 is sketched by the
-side of lines l5--and following. The sketch below of a pomegranate
-refers to line 22. The drawing fig. 6 is, in the original, over line
-37 and fig. 7 over line 54.]
-
-Which of these two cubes will shrink the more uniformly: the cube
-_A_ resting on the pavement, or the cube _b_ suspended in the air,
-when both cubes are equal in weight and bulk, and of clay mixed with
-equal quantities of water?
-
-The cube placed on the pavement diminishes more in height than in
-breadth, which the cube above, hanging in the air, cannot do. Thus
-it is proved. The cube shown above is better shown here below.
-
-The final result of the two cylinders of damp clay that is _a_ and
-_b_ will be the pyramidal figures below _c_ and _d_. This is proved
-thus: The cylinder _a_ resting on block of stone being made of clay
-mixed with a great deal of water will sink by its weight, which
-presses on its base, and in proportion as it settles and spreads all
-the parts will be somewhat nearer to the base because that is
-charged with the whole weight.
-
-III.
-
-ON THE NATURE OF THE ARCH.
-
-779.
-
-WHAT IS AN ARCH?
-
-The arch is nothing else than a force originated by two weaknesses,
-for the arch in buildings is composed of two segments of a circle,
-each of which being very weak in itself tends to fall; but as each
-opposes this tendency in the other, the two weaknesses combine to
-form one strength.
-
-OF THE KIND OF PRESSURE IN ARCHES.
-
-As the arch is a composite force it remains in equilibrium because
-the thrust is equal from both sides; and if one of the segments
-weighs more than the other the stability is lost, because the
-greater pressure will outweigh the lesser.
-
-OF DISTRIBUTING THE PRESSURE ABOVE AN ARCH.
-
-Next to giving the segments of the circle equal weight it is
-necessary to load them equally, or you will fall into the same
-defect as before.
-
-WHERE AN ARCH BREAKS.
-
-An arch breaks at the part which lies below half way from the
-centre.
-
-SECOND RUPTURE OF THE ARCH.
-
-If the excess of weight be placed in the middle of the arch at the
-point _a_, that weight tends to fall towards _b_, and the arch
-breaks at 2/3 of its height at _c e_; and _g e_ is as many times
-stronger than _e a_, as _m o_ goes into _m n_.
-
-ON ANOTHER CAUSE OF RUIN.
-
-The arch will likewise give way under a transversal thrust, for when
-the charge is not thrown directly on the foot of the arch, the arch
-lasts but a short time.
-
-780.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH.
-
-The way to give stability to the arch is to fill the spandrils with
-good masonry up to the level of its summit.
-
-ON THE LOADING OF ROUND ARCHES.
-
-ON THE PROPER MANNER OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH.
-
-ON THE EVIL EFFECTS OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH DIRECTLY ABOVE ITS
-CROWN.
-
-ON THE DAMAGE DONE TO THE POINTED ARCH BY THROWING THE PRESSURE ON
-THE FLANKS.
-
-An arch of small curve is safe in itself, but if it be heavily
-charged, it is necessary to strengthen the flanks well. An arch of a
-very large curve is weak in itself, and stronger if it be charged,
-and will do little harm to its abutments, and its places of giving
-way are _o p_.
-
-[Footnote: Inside the large figure on the righi is the note: _Da
-pesare la forza dell' archo_.]
-
-781.
-
-ON THE REMEDY FOR EARTHQUAKES.
-
-The arch which throws its pressure perpendicularly on the abutments
-will fulfil its function whatever be its direction, upside down,
-sideways or upright.
-
-The arch will not break if the chord of the outer arch does not
-touch the inner arch. This is manifest by experience, because
-whenever the chord _a o n_ of the outer arch _n r a_ approaches the
-inner arch _x b y_ the arch will be weak, and it will be weaker in
-proportion as the inner arch passes beyond that chord. When an arch
-is loaded only on one side the thrust will press on the top of the
-other side and be transmitted to the spring of the arch on that
-side; and it will break at a point half way between its two
-extremes, where it is farthest from the chord.
-
-782.
-
-A continuous body which has been forcibly bent into an arch, thrusts
-in the direction of the straight line, which it tends to recover.
-
-783.
-
-In an arch judiciously weighted the thrust is oblique, so that the
-triangle _c n b_ has no weight upon it.
-
-784.
-
-I here ask what weight will be needed to counterpoise and resist the
-tendency of each of these arches to give way?
-
-[Footnote: The two lower sketches are taken from the MS. S. K. M.
-III, 10a; they have there no explanatory text.]
-
-785.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH IN ARCHITECTURE.
-
-The stability of the arch built by an architect resides in the tie
-and in the flanks.
-
-ON THE POSITION OF THE TIE IN THE ABOVE NAMED ARCH.
-
-The position of the tie is of the same importance at the beginning
-of the arch and at the top of the perpendicular pier on which it
-rests. This is proved by the 2nd "of supports" which says: that part
-of a support has least resistance which is farthest from its solid
-attachment; hence, as the top of the pier is farthest from the
-middle of its true foundation and the same being the case at the
-opposite extremities of the arch which are the points farthest from
-the middle, which is really its [upper] attachment, we have
-concluded that the tie _a b_ requires to be in such a position as
-that its opposite ends are between the four above-mentioned
-extremes.
-
-The adversary says that this arch must be more than half a circle,
-and that then it will not need a tie, because then the ends will not
-thrust outwards but inwards, as is seen in the excess at _a c_, _b
-d_. To this it must be answered that this would be a very poor
-device, for three reasons. The first refers to the strength of the
-arch, since it is proved that the circular parallel being composed
-of two semicircles will only break where these semicircles cross
-each other, as is seen in the figure _n m;_ besides this it follows
-that there is a wider space between the extremes of the semicircle
-than between the plane of the walls; the third reason is that the
-weight placed to counterbalance the strength of the arch diminishes
-in proportion as the piers of the arch are wider than the space
-between the piers. Fourthly in proportion as the parts at _c a b d_
-turn outwards, the piers are weaker to support the arch above them.
-The 5th is that all the material and weight of the arch which are in
-excess of the semicircle are useless and indeed mischievous; and
-here it is to be noted that the weight placed above the arch will be
-more likely to break the arch at _a b_, where the curve of the
-excess begins that is added to the semicircle, than if the pier were
-straight up to its junction with the semicircle [spring of the
-arch].
-
-AN ARCH LOADED OVER THE CROWN WILL GIVE WAY AT THE LEFT HAND AND
-RIGHT HAND QUARTERS.
-
-This is proved by the 7th of this which says: The opposite ends of
-the support are equally pressed upon by the weight suspended to
-them; hence the weight shown at _f_ is felt at _b c_, that is half
-at each extremity; and by the third which says: in a support of
-equal strength [throughout] that portion will give way soonest which
-is farthest from its attachment; whence it follows that _d_ being
-equally distant from _f, e_ .....
-
-If the centering of the arch does not settle as the arch settles,
-the mortar, as it dries, will shrink and detach itself from the
-bricks between which it was laid to keep them together; and as it
-thus leaves them disjoined the vault will remain loosely built, and
-the rains will soon destroy it.
-
-786.
-
-ON THE STRENGTH AND NATURE OF ARCHES, AND WHERE THEY ARE STRONG OR
-WEAK; AND THE SAME AS TO COLUMNS.
-
-That part of the arch which is nearer to the horizontal offers least
-resistance to the weight placed on it.
-
-When the triangle _a z n_, by settling, drives backwards the 2/3 of
-each 1/2 circle that is _a s_ and in the same way _z m_, the reason
-is that _a_ is perpendicularly over _b_ and so likewise _z_ is above
-_f_.
-
-Either half of an arch, if overweighted, will break at 2/3 of its
-height, the point which corresponds to the perpendicular line above
-the middle of its bases, as is seen at _a b_; and this happens
-because the weight tends to fall past the point _r_.--And if,
-against its nature it should tend to fall towards the point _s_ the
-arch _n s_ would break precisely in its middle. If the arch _n s_
-were of a single piece of timber, if the weight placed at _n_ should
-tend to fall in the line _n m_, the arch would break in the middle
-of the arch _e m_, otherwise it will break at one third from the top
-at the point a because from _a_ to _n_ the arch is nearer to the
-horizontal than from _a_ to _o_ and from _o_ to _s_, in proportion
-as _p t_ is greater than _t n_, _a o_ will be stronger than _a n_
-and likewise in proportion as _s o_ is stronger than _o a_, _r p_
-will be greater than _p t_.
-
-The arch which is doubled to four times of its thickness will bear
-four times the weight that the single arch could carry, and more in
-proportion as the diameter of its thickness goes a smaller number of
-times into its length. That is to say that if the thickness of the
-single arch goes ten times into its length, the thickness of the
-doubled arch will go five times into its length. Hence as the
-thickness of the double arch goes only half as many times into its
-length as that of the single arch does, it is reasonable that it
-should carry half as much more weight as it would have to carry if
-it were in direct proportion to the single arch. Hence as this
-double arch has 4 times the thickness of the single arch, it would
-seem that it ought to bear 4 times the weight; but by the above rule
-it is shown that it will bear exactly 8 times as much.
-
-THAT PIER, WHICH is CHARGED MOST UNEQUALLY, WILL SOONEST GIVE WAY.
-
-The column _c b_, being charged with an equal weight, [on each side]
-will be most durable, and the other two outward columns require on
-the part outside of their centre as much pressure as there is inside
-of their centre, that is, from the centre of the column, towards the
-middle of the arch.
-
-Arches which depend on chains for their support will not be very
-durable.
-
-THAT ARCH WILL BE OF LONGER DURATION WHICH HAS A GOOD ABUTMENT
-OPPOSED TO ITS THRUST.
-
-The arch itself tends to fall. If the arch be 30 braccia and the
-interval between the walls which carry it be 20, we know that 30
-cannot pass through the 20 unless 20 becomes likewise 30. Hence the
-arch being crushed by the excess of weight, and the walls offering
-insufficient resistance, part, and afford room between them, for the
-fall of the arch.
-
-But if you do not wish to strengthen the arch with an iron tie you
-must give it such abutments as can resist the thrust; and you can do
-this thus: fill up the spandrels _m n_ with stones, and direct the
-lines of the joints between them to the centre of the circle of the
-arch, and the reason why this makes the arch durable is this. We
-know very well that if the arch is loaded with an excess of weight
-above its quarter as _a b_, the wall _f g_ will be thrust outwards
-because the arch would yield in that direction; if the other quarter
-_b c_ were loaded, the wall _f g_ would be thrust inwards, if it
-were not for the line of stones _x y_ which resists this.
-
-787.
-
-PLAN.
-
-Here it is shown how the arches made in the side of the octagon
-thrust the piers of the angles outwards, as is shown by the line _h
-c_ and by the line _t d_ which thrust out the pier _m_; that is they
-tend to force it away from the centre of such an octagon.
-
-788.
-
-An Experiment to show that a weight placed on an arch does not
-discharge itself entirely on its columns; on the contrary the
-greater the weight placed on the arches, the less the arch transmits
-the weight to the columns. The experiment is the following. Let a
-man be placed on a steel yard in the middle of the shaft of a well,
-then let him spread out his hands and feet between the walls of the
-well, and you will see him weigh much less on the steel yard; give
-him a weight on the shoulders, you will see by experiment, that the
-greater the weight you give him the greater effort he will make in
-spreading his arms and legs, and in pressing against the wall and
-the less weight will be thrown on the steel yard.
-
-IV.
-
-ON FOUNDATIONS, THE NATURE OF THE GROUND AND SUPPORTS.
-
-789.
-
-The first and most important thing is stability.
-
-As to the foundations of the component parts of temples and other
-public buildings, the depths of the foundations must bear the same
-proportions to each other as the weight of material which is to be
-placed upon them.
-
-Every part of the depth of earth in a given space is composed of
-layers, and each layer is composed of heavier or lighter materials,
-the lowest being the heaviest. And this can be proved, because these
-layers have been formed by the sediment from water carried down to
-the sea, by the current of rivers which flow into it. The heaviest
-part of this sediment was that which was first thrown down, and so
-on by degrees; and this is the action of water when it becomes
-stagnant, having first brought down the mud whence it first flowed.
-And such layers of soil are seen in the banks of rivers, where their
-constant flow has cut through them and divided one slope from the
-other to a great depth; where in gravelly strata the waters have run
-off, the materials have, in consequence, dried and been converted
-into hard stone, and this happened most in what was the finest mud;
-whence we conclude that every portion of the surface of the earth
-was once at the centre of the earth, and _vice_versa_ &c.
-
-790.
-
-The heaviest part of the foundations of buildings settles most, and
-leaves the lighter part above it separated from it.
-
-And the soil which is most pressed, if it be porous yields most.
-
-You should always make the foundations project equally beyond the
-weight of the walls and piers, as shown at _m a b_. If you do as
-many do, that is to say if you make a foundation of equal width from
-the bottom up to the surface of the ground, and charge it above with
-unequal weights, as shown at _b e_ and at _e o_, at the part of the
-foundation at _b e_, the pier of the angle will weigh most and
-thrust its foundation downwards, which the wall at _e o_ will not
-do; since it does not cover the whole of its foundation, and
-therefore thrusts less heavily and settles less. Hence, the pier _b
-e_ in settling cracks and parts from the wall _e o_. This may be
-seen in most buildings which are cracked round the piers.
-
-791.
-
-The window _a_ is well placed under the window _c_, and the window
-_b_ is badly placed under the pier _d_, because this latter is
-without support and foundation; mind therefore never to make a break
-under the piers between the windows.
-
-792.
-
-OF THE SUPPORTS.
-
-A pillar of which the thickness is increased will gain more than its
-due strength, in direct proportion to what its loses in relative
-height.
-
-EXAMPLE.
-
-If a pillar should be nine times as high as it is broad--that is to
-say, if it is one braccio thick, according to rule it should be nine
-braccia high--then, if you place 100 such pillars together in a mass
-this will be ten braccia broad and 9 high; and if the first pillar
-could carry 10000 pounds the second being only about as high as it
-is wide, and thus lacking 8 parts of its proper length, it, that is
-to say, each pillar thus united, will bear eight times more than
-when disconnected; that is to say, that if at first it would carry
-ten thousand pounds, it would now carry 90 thousand.
-
-V.
-
-ON THE RESISTANCE OF BEAMS.
-
-793.
-
-That angle will offer the greatest resistance which is most acute,
-and the most obtuse will be the weakest.
-
-[Footnote: The three smaller sketches accompany the text in the
-original, but the larger one is not directly connected with it. It
-is to be found on fol. 89a of the same Manuscript and there we read
-in a note, written underneath, _coverchio della perdicha del
-castello_ (roof of the flagstaff of the castle),--Compare also Pl.
-XCIII, No. 1.]
-
-794.
-
-If the beams and the weight _o_ are 100 pounds, how much weight will
-be wanted at _ae_ to resist such a weight, that it may not fall
-down?
-
-795.
-
-ON THE LENGTH OF BEAMS.
-
-That beam which is more than 20 times as long as its greatest
-thickness will be of brief duration and will break in half; and
-remember, that the part built into the wall should be steeped in hot
-pitch and filleted with oak boards likewise so steeped. Each beam
-must pass through its walls and be secured beyond the walls with
-sufficient chaining, because in consequence of earthquakes the beams
-are often seen to come out of the walls and bring down the walls and
-floors; whilst if they are chained they will hold the walls strongly
-together and the walls will hold the floors. Again I remind you
-never to put plaster over timber. Since by expansion and shrinking
-of the timber produced by damp and dryness such floors often crack,
-and once cracked their divisions gradually produce dust and an ugly
-effect. Again remember not to lay a floor on beams supported on
-arches; for, in time the floor which is made on beams settles
-somewhat in the middle while that part of the floor which rests on
-the arches remains in its place; hence, floors laid over two kinds
-of supports look, in time, as if they were made in hills [Footnote:
-19 M. RAVAISSON, in his edition of MS. A gives a very different
-rendering of this passage translating it thus: _Les planchers qui
-sont soutenus par deux differentes natures de supports paraissent
-avec le temps faits en voute a cholli_.]
-
-Remarks on the style of Leonardo's architecture.
-
-A few remarks may here be added on the style of Leonardo's
-architectural studies. However incomplete, however small in scale,
-they allow us to establish a certain number of facts and
-probabilities, well worthy of consideration.
-
-When Leonardo began his studies the great name of Brunellesco was
-still the inspiration of all Florence, and we cannot doubt that
-Leonardo was open to it, since we find among his sketches the plan
-of the church of Santo Spirito[Footnote 1: See Pl. XCIV, No. 2. Then
-only in course of erection after the designs of Brunellesco, though
-he was already dead; finished in 1481.] and a lateral view of San
-Lorenzo (Pl. XCIV No. 1), a plan almost identical with the chapel
-Degli Angeli, only begun by him (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) while among
-Leonardo's designs for domes several clearly betray the influence of
-Brunellesco's Cupola and the lantern of Santa Maria del
-Fiore[Footnote 2: A small sketch of the tower of the Palazzo della
-Signoria (MS. C.A. 309) proves that he also studied mediaeval
-monuments.]
-
-The beginning of the second period of modern Italian architecture
-falls during the first twenty years of Leonardo's life. However the
-new impetus given by Leon Battista Alberti either was not generally
-understood by his contemporaries, or those who appreciated it, had
-no opportunity of showing that they did so. It was only when taken
-up by Bramante and developed by him to the highest rank of modern
-architecture that this new influence was generally felt. Now the
-peculiar feature of Leonardo's sketches is that, like the works of
-Bramante, they appear to be the development and continuation of
-Alberti's.
-
-_But a question here occurs which is difficult to answer. Did
-Leonardo, till he quitted Florence, follow the direction given by
-the dominant school of Brunellesco, which would then have given rise
-to his "First manner", or had he, even before he left Florence, felt
-Alberti's influence--either through his works (Palazzo Ruccellai,
-and the front of Santa Maria Novella) or through personal
-intercourse? Or was it not till he went to Milan that Alberti's work
-began to impress him through Bramante, who probably had known
-Alberti at Mantua about 1470 and who not only carried out Alberti's
-views and ideas, but, by his designs for St. Peter's at Rome, proved
-himself the greatest of modern architects. When Leonardo went to
-Milan Bramante had already been living there for many years. One of
-his earliest works in Milan was the church of Santa Maria presso San
-Satiro, Via del Falcone[Footnote 1: Evidence of this I intend to
-give later on in a Life of Bramante, which I have in preparation.].
-
-Now we find among Leonardos studies of Cupolas on Plates LXXXIV and
-LXXXV and in Pl. LXXX several sketches which seem to me to have been
-suggested by Bramante's dome of this church.
-
-The MSS. B and Ash. II contain the plans of S. Sepolcro, the
-pavilion in the garden of the duke of Milan, and two churches,
-evidently inspired by the church of San Lorenzo at Milan.
-
-MS. B. contains besides two notes relating to Pavia, one of them a
-design for the sacristy of the Cathedral at Pavia, which cannot be
-supposed to be dated later than 1492, and it has probably some
-relation to Leonardo's call to Pavia June 21, 1490[Footnote 2: The
-sketch of the plan of Brunellesco's church of Santo Spirito at
-Florence, which occurs in the same Manuscript, may have been done
-from memory.]. These and other considerations justify us in
-concluding, that Leonardo made his studies of cupolas at Milan,
-probably between the years 1487 and 1492 in anticipation of the
-erection of one of the grandest churches of Italy, the Cathedral of
-Pavia. This may explain the decidedly Lombardo-Bramantesque tendency
-in the style of these studies, among which only a few remind us of
-the forms of the cupolas of S. Maria del Fiore and of the Baptistery
-of Florence. Thus, although when compared with Bramante's work,
-several of these sketches plainly reveal that master's influence, we
-find, among the sketches of domes, some, which show already
-Bramante's classic style, of which the Tempietto of San Pietro in
-Montorio, his first building executed at Rome, is the foremost
-example[Footnote 3: It may be mentioned here, that in 1494 Bramante
-made a similar design for the lantern of the Cupola of the Church of
-Santa Maria delle Grazie.].
-
-On Plate LXXXIV is a sketch of the plan of a similar circular
-building; and the Mausoleum on Pl. XCVIII, no less than one of the
-pedestals for the statue of Francesco Sforza (Pl. LXV), is of the
-same type.
-
-The drawings Pl. LXXXIV No. 2, Pl. LXXXVI No. 1 and 2 and the ground
-flour ("flour" sic but should be "floor" ?) of the building in the
-drawing Pl. XCI No. 2, with the interesting decoration by gigantic
-statues in large niches, are also, I believe, more in the style
-Bramante adopted at Rome, than in the Lombard style. Are we to
-conclude from this that Leonardo on his part influenced Bramante in
-the sense of simplifying his style and rendering it more congenial
-to antique art? The answer to this important question seems at first
-difficult to give, for we are here in presence of Bramante, the
-greatest of modern architects, and with Leonardo, the man comparable
-with no other. We have no knowledge of any buildings erected by
-Leonardo, and unless we admit personal intercourse--which seems
-probable, but of which there is no proof--, it would be difficult to
-understand how Leonardo could have affected Bramante's style. The
-converse is more easily to be admitted, since Bramante, as we have
-proved elsewhere, drew and built simultaneously in different
-manners, and though in Lombardy there is no building by him in his
-classic style, the use of brick for building, in that part of Italy,
-may easily account for it._
-
-_Bramante's name is incidentally mentioned in Leonardo's manuscripts
-in two passages (Nos. 1414 and 1448). On each occasion it is only a
-slight passing allusion, and the nature of the context gives us no
-due information as to any close connection between the two artists._
-
-_It might be supposed, on the ground of Leonardo's relations with
-the East given in sections XVII and XXI of this volume, that some
-evidence of oriental influence might be detected in his
-architectural drawings. I do not however think that any such traces
-can be pointed out with certainty unless perhaps the drawing for a
-Mausoleum, Pl. XC VIII._
-
-_Among several studies for the construction of cupolas above a Greek
-cross there are some in which the forms are decidedly monotonous.
-These, it is clear, were not designed as models of taste; they must
-be regarded as the results of certain investigations into the laws
-of proportion, harmony and contrast._
-
-_The designs for churches, on the plan of a Latin cross are
-evidently intended to depart as little as possible from the form of
-a Greek cross; and they also show a preference for a nave surrounded
-with outer porticos._
-
-_The architectural forms preferred by Leonardo are pilasters coupled
-(Pl. LXXXII No. 1; or grouped (Pl. LXXX No. 5 and XCIV No. 4), often
-combined with niches. We often meet with orders superposed, one in
-each story, or two small orders on one story, in combination with
-one great order (Pl. XCVI No. 2)._
-
-The drum (tamburo) of these cupolas is generally octagonal, as in
-the cathedral of Florence, and with similar round windows in its
-sides. In Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 it is circular like the model actually
-carried out by Michael Angelo at St. Peter's.
-
-The cupola itself is either hidden under a pyramidal roof, as in the
-Baptistery of Florence, San Lorenzo of Milan and most of the Lombard
-churches (Pl. XCI No. 1 and Pl. XCII No. 1); but it more generally
-suggests the curve of Sta Maria del Fiore (Pl. LXXXVIII No. 5; Pl.
-XC No. 2; Pl. LXXXIX, M; Pl XC No. 4, Pl. XCVI No. 2). In other
-cases (Pl. LXXX No. 4; Pl. LXXXIX; Pl. XC No. 2) it shows the sides
-of the octagon crowned by semicircular pediments, as in
-Brunellesco's lantern of the Cathedral and in the model for the
-Cathedral of Pavia.
-
-Finally, in some sketches the cupola is either semicircular, or as
-in Pl. LXXXVII No. 2, shows the beautiful line, adopted sixty years
-later by Michael Angelo for the existing dome of St. Peter's.
-
-It is worth noticing that for all these domes Leonardo is not
-satisfied to decorate the exterior merely with ascending ribs or
-mouldings, but employs also a system of horizontal parallels to
-complete the architectural system. Not the least interesting are the
-designs for the tiburio (cupola) of the Milan Cathedral. They show
-some of the forms, just mentioned, adapted to the peculiar gothic
-style of that monument.
-
-The few examples of interiors of churches recall the style employed
-in Lombardy by Bramante, for instance in S. Maria di Canepanuova at
-Pavia, or by Dolcebuono in the Monastero Maggiore at Milan (see Pl.
-CI No. 1 [C. A. 181b; 546b]; Pl. LXXXIV No. 10).
-
-The few indications concerning palaces seem to prove that Leonardo
-followed Alberti's example of decorating the walls with pilasters
-and a flat rustica, either in stone or by graffitti (Pl. CII No. 1
-and Pl. LXXXV No. 14).
-
-By pointing out the analogies between Leonardo's architecture and
-that of other masters we in no way pretend to depreciate his
-individual and original inventive power. These are at all events
-beyond dispute. The project for the Mausoleum (Pl. XCVIII) would
-alone suffice to rank him among the greatest architects who ever
-lived. The peculiar shape of the tower (Pl. LXXX), of the churches
-for preaching (Pl. XCVII No. 1 and pages 56 and 57, Fig. 1-4), his
-curious plan for a city with high and low level streets (Pl. LXXVII
-and LXXVIII No. 2 and No. 3), his Loggia with fountains (Pl. LXXXII
-No. 4) reveal an originality, a power and facility of invention for
-almost any given problem, which are quite wonderful.
-
-_In addition to all these qualities he propably stood alone in his
-day in one department of architectural study,--his investigations,
-namely, as to the resistance of vaults, foundations, walls and
-arches._
-
-_As an application of these studies the plan of a semicircular vault
-(Pl. CIII No. 2) may be mentioned here, disposed so as to produce no
-thrust on the columns on which it rests:_ volta i botte e non
-ispignie ifori le colone. _Above the geometrical patterns on the
-same sheet, close to a circle inscribed in a square is the note:_ la
-ragio d'una volta cioe il terzo del diamitro della sua ... del
-tedesco in domo.
-
-_There are few data by which to judge of Leonardo's style in the
-treatment of detail. On Pl. LXXXV No. 10 and Pl. CIII No. 3, we find
-some details of pillars; on Pl. CI No. 3 slender pillars designed
-for a fountain and on Pl. CIII No. 1 MS. B, is a pen and ink drawing
-of a vase which also seems intended for a fountain. Three handles
-seem to have been intended to connect the upper parts with the base.
-There can be no doubt that Leonardo, like Bramante, but unlike
-Michael Angelo, brought infinite delicacy of motive and execution to
-bear on the details of his work._
-
-_XIV._
-
-_Anatomy, Zoology and Physiology._
-
-_Leonardo's eminent place in the history of medicine, as a pioneer
-in the sciences of Anatomy and Physiology, will never be appreciated
-till it is possible to publish the mass of manuscripts in which he
-largely treated of these two branches of learning. In the present
-work I must necessarily limit myself to giving the reader a general
-view of these labours, by publishing his introductory notes to the
-various books on anatomical subjects. I have added some extracts,
-and such observations as are scattered incidentally through these
-treatises, as serving to throw a light on Leonardo's scientific
-attitude, besides having an interest for a wider circle than that of
-specialists only._
-
-_VASARI expressly mentions Leonardo's anatomical studies, having had
-occasion to examine the manuscript books which refer to them.
-According to him Leonardo studied Anatomy in the companionship of
-Marc Antonio della Torre_ "aiutato e scambievolmente
-aiutando."_--This learned Anatomist taught the science in the
-universities first of Padua and then of Pavia, and at Pavia he and
-Leonardo may have worked and studied together. We have no clue to
-any exact dates, but in the year 1506 Marc Antonio della Torre seems
-to have not yet left Padua. He was scarcely thirty years old when he
-died in 1512, and his writings on anatomy have not only never been
-published, but no manuscript copy of them is known to exist._
-
-_This is not the place to enlarge on the connection between Leonardo
-and Marc Antonio della Torre. I may however observe that I have not
-been able to discover in Leonardo's manuscripts on anatomy any
-mention of his younger contemporary. The few quotations which occur
-from writers on medicine--either of antiquity or of the middle ages
-are printed in Section XXII. Here and there in the manuscripts
-mention is made of an anonymous "adversary"_ (avversario) _whose
-views are opposed and refuted by Leonardo, but there is no ground
-for supposing that Marc Antonio della Torre should have been this
-"adversary"._
-
-_Only a very small selection from the mass of anatomical drawings
-left by Leonardo have been published here in facsimile, but to form
-any adequate idea of their scientific merit they should be compared
-with the coarse and inadequate figures given in the published books
-of the early part of the XVI. century.
-
-William Hunter, the great surgeon--a competent judge--who had an
-opportunity in the time of George III. of seeing the originals in
-the King's Library, has thus recorded his opinion: "I expected to
-see little more than such designs in Anatomy as might be useful to a
-painter in his own profession. But I saw, and indeed with
-astonishment, that Leonardo had been a general and deep student.
-When I consider what pains he has taken upon every part of the body,
-the superiority of his universal genius, his particular excellence
-in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attention with which such a man
-would examine and see objects which he has to draw, I am fully
-persuaded that Leonardo was the best Anatomist, at that time, in the
-world ... Leonardo was certainly the first man, we know of, who
-introduced the practice of making anatomical drawings" (Two
-introductory letters. London 1784, pages 37 and 39).
-
-The illustrious German Naturalist Johan Friedrich Blumenback
-esteemed them no less highly; he was one of the privileged few who,
-after Hunter, had the chance of seeing these Manuscripts. He writes:
-_Der Scharfblick dieses grossen Forschers und Darstellers der Natur
-hat schon auf Dinge geachtet, die noch Jahrhunderte nachher
-unbemerkt geblieben sind_" (see _Blumenbach's medicinische
-Bibliothek_, Vol. 3, St. 4, 1795. page 728).
-
-These opinions were founded on the drawings alone. Up to the present
-day hardly anything has been made known of the text, and, for the
-reasons I have given, it is my intention to reproduce here no more
-than a selection of extracts which I have made from the originals at
-Windsor Castle and elsewhere. In the Bibliography of the
-Manuscripts, at the end of this volume a short review is given of
-the valuable contents of these Anatomical note books which are at
-present almost all in the possession of her Majesty the Queen of
-England. It is, I believe, possible to assign the date with
-approximate accuracy to almost all the fragments, and I am thus led
-to conclude that the greater part of Leonardo's anatomical
-investigations were carried out after the death of della Torre.
-
-Merely in reading the introductory notes to his various books on
-Anatomy which are here printed it is impossible to resist the
-impression that the Master's anatomical studies bear to a very great
-extent the stamp of originality and independent thought.
-
-I.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-796.
-
-A general introduction
-
-I wish to work miracles;--it may be that I shall possess less than
-other men of more peaceful lives, or than those who want to grow
-rich in a day. I may live for a long time in great poverty, as
-always happens, and to all eternity will happen, to alchemists, the
-would-be creators of gold and silver, and to engineers who would
-have dead water stir itself into life and perpetual motion, and to
-those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter.
-
-[Footnote 23: The following seems to be directed against students of
-painting and young artists rather than against medical men and
-anatomists.]
-
-And you, who say that it would be better to watch an anatomist at
-work than to see these drawings, you would be right, if it were
-possible to observe all the things which are demonstrated in such
-drawings in a single figure, in which you, with all your cleverness,
-will not see nor obtain knowledge of more than some few veins, to
-obtain a true and perfect knowledge of which I have dissected more
-than ten human bodies, destroying all the other members, and
-removing the very minutest particles of the flesh by which these
-veins are surrounded, without causing them to bleed, excepting the
-insensible bleeding of the capillary veins; and as one single body
-would not last so long, since it was necessary to proceed with
-several bodies by degrees, until I came to an end and had a complete
-knowledge; this I repeated twice, to learn the differences [59].
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-59 and 60-89 are written in two parallel columns.
-When we here find Leonardo putting himself in the same category as
-the Alchemists and Necromancers, whom he elsewhere mocks at so
-bitterly, it is evidently meant ironically. In the same way
-Leonardo, in the introduction to the Books on Perspective sets
-himself with transparent satire on a level with other writers on the
-subject.]
-
-And if you should have a love for such things you might be prevented
-by loathing, and if that did not prevent you, you might be deterred
-by the fear of living in the night hours in the company of those
-corpses, quartered and flayed and horrible to see. And if this did
-not prevent you, perhaps you might not be able to draw so well as is
-necessary for such a demonstration; or, if you had the skill in
-drawing, it might not be combined with knowledge of perspective; and
-if it were so, you might not understand the methods of geometrical
-demonstration and the method of the calculation of forces and of the
-strength of the muscles; patience also may be wanting, so that you
-lack perseverance. As to whether all these things were found in me
-or not [Footnote 84: Leonardo frequently, and perhaps habitually,
-wrote in note books of a very small size and only moderately thick;
-in most of those which have been preserved undivided, each contains
-less than fifty leaves. Thus a considerable number of such volumes
-must have gone to make up a volume of the bulk of the '_Codex
-Atlanticus_' which now contains nearly 1200 detached leaves. In the
-passage under consideration, which was evidently written at a late
-period of his life, Leonardo speaks of his Manuscript note-books as
-numbering 12O; but we should hardly be justified in concluding from
-this passage that the greater part of his Manuscripts were now
-missing (see _Prolegomena_, Vol. I, pp. 5-7).], the hundred and
-twenty books composed by me will give verdict Yes or No. In these I
-have been hindered neither by avarice nor negligence, but simply by
-want of time. Farewell [89].
-
-Plans and suggestions for the arrangement of materials (797-802).
-
-797.
-
-OF THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-This work must begin with the conception of man, and describe the
-nature of the womb and how the foetus lives in it, up to what stage
-it resides there, and in what way it quickens into life and feeds.
-Also its growth and what interval there is between one stage of
-growth and another. What it is that forces it out from the body of
-the mother, and for what reasons it sometimes comes out of the
-mother's womb before the due time.
-
-Then I will describe which are the members, which, after the boy is
-born, grow more than the others, and determine the proportions of a
-boy of one year.
-
-Then describe the fully grown man and woman, with their proportions,
-and the nature of their complexions, colour, and physiognomy.
-
-Then how they are composed of veins, tendons, muscles and bones.
-This I shall do at the end of the book. Then, in four drawings,
-represent four universal conditions of men. That is, Mirth, with
-various acts of laughter, and describe the cause of laughter.
-Weeping in various aspects with its causes. Contention, with various
-acts of killing; flight, fear, ferocity, boldness, murder and every
-thing pertaining to such cases. Then represent Labour, with pulling,
-thrusting, carrying, stopping, supporting and such like things.
-
-Further I would describe attitudes and movements. Then perspective,
-concerning the functions and effects of the eye; and of
-hearing--here I will speak of music--, and treat of the other
-senses.
-
-And then describe the nature of the senses.
-
-This mechanism of man we will demonstrate in ... figures; of which
-the three first will show the ramification of the bones; that is:
-first one to show their height and position and shape: the second
-will be seen in profile and will show the depth of the whole and of
-the parts, and their position. The third figure will be a
-demonstration of the bones of the backparts. Then I will make three
-other figures from the same point of view, with the bones sawn
-across, in which will be shown their thickness and hollowness. Three
-other figures of the bones complete, and of the nerves which rise
-from the nape of the neck, and in what limbs they ramify. And three
-others of the bones and veins, and where they ramify. Then three
-figures with the muscles and three with the skin, and their proper
-proportions; and three of woman, to illustrate the womb and the
-menstrual veins which go to the breasts.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning of the word _nervo_ varies in different
-passages, being sometimes used for _muscolo_ (muscle).]
-
-798.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-This depicting of mine of the human body will be as clear to you as
-if you had the natural man before you; and the reason is that if you
-wish thoroughly to know the parts of man, anatomically, you--or your
-eye--require to see it from different aspects, considering it from
-below and from above and from its sides, turning it about and
-seeking the origin of each member; and in this way the natural
-anatomy is sufficient for your comprehension. But you must
-understand that this amount of knowledge will not continue to
-satisfy you; seeing the very great confusion that must result from
-the combination of tissues, with veins, arteries, nerves, sinews,
-muscles, bones, and blood which, of itself, tinges every part the
-same colour. And the veins, which discharge this blood, are not
-discerned by reason of their smallness. Moreover integrity of the
-tissues, in the process of the investigating the parts within them,
-is inevitably destroyed, and their transparent substance being
-tinged with blood does not allow you to recognise the parts covered
-by them, from the similarity of their blood-stained hue; and you
-cannot know everything of the one without confusing and destroying
-the other. Hence, some further anatomy drawings become necessary. Of
-which you want three to give full knowledge of the veins and
-arteries, everything else being destroyed with the greatest care.
-And three others to display the tissues; and three for the sinews
-and muscles and ligaments; and three for the bones and cartilages;
-and three for the anatomy of the bones, which have to be sawn to
-show which are hollow and which are not, which have marrow and which
-are spongy, and which are thick from the outside inwards, and which
-are thin. And some are extremely thin in some parts and thick in
-others, and in some parts hollow or filled up with bone, or full of
-marrow, or spongy. And all these conditions are sometimes found in
-one and the same bone, and in some bones none of them. And three you
-must have for the woman, in which there is much that is mysterious
-by reason of the womb and the foetus. Therefore by my drawings every
-part will be known to you, and all by means of demonstrations from
-three different points of view of each part; for when you have seen
-a limb from the front, with any muscles, sinews, or veins which take
-their rise from the opposite side, the same limb will be shown to
-you in a side view or from behind, exactly as if you had that same
-limb in your hand and were turning it from side to side until you
-had acquired a full comprehension of all you wished to know. In the
-same way there will be put before you three or four demonstrations
-of each limb, from various points of view, so that you will be left
-with a true and complete knowledge of all you wish to learn of the
-human figure[Footnote 35: Compare Pl. CVII. The original drawing at
-Windsor is 28 1/2 X 19 1/2 centimetres. The upper figures are
-slightly washed with Indian ink. On the back of this drawing is the
-text No. 1140.].
-
-Thus, in twelve entire figures, you will have set before you the
-cosmography of this lesser world on the same plan as, before me, was
-adopted by Ptolemy in his cosmography; and so I will afterwards
-divide them into limbs as he divided the whole world into provinces;
-then I will speak of the function of each part in every direction,
-putting before your eyes a description of the whole form and
-substance of man, as regards his movements from place to place, by
-means of his different parts. And thus, if it please our great
-Author, I may demonstrate the nature of men, and their customs in
-the way I describe his figure.
-
-And remember that the anatomy of the nerves will not give the
-position of their ramifications, nor show you which muscles they
-branch into, by means of bodies dissected in running water or in
-lime water; though indeed their origin and starting point may be
-seen without such water as well as with it. But their ramifications,
-when under running water, cling and unite--just like flat or hemp
-carded for spinning--all into a skein, in a way which makes it
-impossible to trace in which muscles or by what ramification the
-nerves are distributed among those muscles.
-
-799.
-
-THE ARRANGEMENT OF ANATOMY
-
-First draw the bones, let us say, of the arm, and put in the motor
-muscle from the shoulder to the elbow with all its lines. Then
-proceed in the same way from the elbow to the wrist. Then from the
-wrist to the hand and from the hand to the fingers.
-
-And in the arm you will put the motors of the fingers which open,
-and these you will show separately in their demonstration. In the
-second demonstration you will clothe these muscles with the
-secondary motors of the fingers and so proceed by degrees to avoid
-confusion. But first lay on the bones those muscles which lie close
-to the said bones, without confusion of other muscles; and with
-these you may put the nerves and veins which supply their
-nourishment, after having first drawn the tree of veins and nerves
-over the simple bones.
-
-800.
-
-Begin the anatomy at the head and finish at the sole of the foot.
-
-801.
-
-3 men complete, 3 with bones and nerves, 3 with the bones only. Here
-we have 12 demonstrations of entire figures.
-
-802.
-
-When you have finished building up the man, you will make the statue
-with all its superficial measurements.
-
-[Footnote: _Cresciere l'omo_. The meaning of this expression appears
-to be different here and in the passage C.A. 157a, 468a (see No.
-526, Note 1. 2). Here it can hardly mean anything else than
-modelling, since the sculptor forms the figure by degrees, by adding
-wet clay and the figure consequently increases or grows. _Tu farai
-la statua_ would then mean, you must work out the figure in marble.
-If this interpretation is the correct one, this passage would have
-no right to find a place in the series on anatomical studies. I may
-say that it was originally inserted in this connection under the
-impression that _di cresciere_ should be read _descrivere_.]
-
-Plans for the representation of muscles by drawings (803-809).
-
-803.
-
-You must show all the motions of the bones with their joints to
-follow the demonstration of the first three figures of the bones,
-and this should be done in the first book.
-
-804.
-
-Remember that to be certain of the point of origin of any muscle,
-you must pull the sinew from which the muscle springs in such a way
-as to see that muscle move, and where it is attached to the
-ligaments of the bones.
-
-NOTE.
-
-You will never get any thing but confusion in demonstrating the
-muscles and their positions, origin, and termination, unless you
-first make a demonstration of thin muscles after the manner of linen
-threads; and thus you can represent them, one over another as nature
-has placed them; and thus, too, you can name them according to the
-limb they serve; for instance the motor of the point of the great
-toe, of its middle bone, of its first bone, &c. And when you have
-the knowledge you will draw, by the side of this, the true form and
-size and position of each muscle. But remember to give the threads
-which explain the situation of the muscles in the position which
-corresponds to the central line of each muscle; and so these threads
-will demonstrate the form of the leg and their distance in a plain
-and clear manner.
-
-I have removed the skin from a man who was so shrunk by illness that
-the muscles were worn down and remained in a state like thin
-membrane, in such a way that the sinews instead of merging in
-muscles ended in wide membrane; and where the bones were covered by
-the skin they had very little over their natural size.
-
-[Footnote: The photograph No. 41 of Grosvenor Gallery Publications:
-a drawing of the muscles of the foot, includes a complete facsimile
-of the text of this passage.]
-
-805.
-
-Which nerve causes the motion of the eye so that the motion of one
-eye moves the other?
-
-Of frowning the brows, of raising the brows, of lowering the
-brows,--of closing the eyes, of opening the eyes,--of raising the
-nostrils, of opening the lips, with the teeth shut, of pouting with
-the lips, of smiling, of astonishment.--
-
-Describe the beginning of man when it is caused in the womb and why
-an eight months child does not live. What sneezing is. What yawning
-is. Falling sickness, spasms, paralysis, shivering with cold,
-sweating, fatigue, hunger, sleepiness, thirst, lust.
-
-Of the nerve which is the cause of movement from the shoulder to the
-elbow, of the movement from the elbow to the hand, from the joint of
-the hand to the springing of the fingers. From the springing of the
-fingers to the middle joints, and from the middle joints to the
-last.
-
-Of the nerve which causes the movement of the thigh, and from the
-knee to the foot, and from the joint of the foot to the toes, and
-then to the middle of the toes and of the rotary motion of the leg.
-
-806.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-Which nerves or sinews of the hand are those which close and part
-the fingers and toes latteraly?
-
-807.
-
-Remove by degrees all the parts of the front of a man in making your
-dissection, till you come to the bones. Description of the parts of
-the bust and of their motions.
-
-808.
-
-Give the anatomy of the leg up to the hip, in all views and in every
-action and in every state; veins, arteries, nerves, sinews and
-muscles, skin and bones; then the bones in sections to show the
-thickness of the bones.
-
-[Footnote: A straightened leg in profile is sketched by the side of
-this text.]
-
-On corpulency and leanness (809-811).
-
-809.
-
-Make the rule and give the measurement of each muscle, and give the
-reasons of all their functions, and in which way they work and what
-makes them work &c.
-
-[4] First draw the spine of the back; then clothe it by degrees, one
-after the other, with each of its muscles and put in the nerves and
-arteries and veins to each muscle by itself; and besides these note
-the vertebrae to which they are attached; which of the intestines
-come in contact with them; and which bones and other organs &c.
-
-The most prominent parts of lean people are most prominent in the
-muscular, and equally so in fat persons. But concerning the
-difference in the forms of the muscles in fat persons as compared
-with muscular persons, it shall be described below.
-
-[Footnote: The two drawings given on Pl. CVIII no. 1 come between
-lines 3 and 4. A good and very early copy of this drawing without
-the written text exists in the collection of drawings belonging to
-Christ's College Oxford, where it is attributed to Leonardo.]
-
-810.
-
-Describe which muscles disappear in growing fat, and which become
-visible in growing lean.
-
-And observe that that part which on the surface of a fat person is
-most concave, when he grows lean becomes more prominent.
-
-Where the muscles separate one from another you must give profiles
-and where they coalesce ...
-
-811.
-
-OF THE HUMAN FIGURE.
-
-Which is the part in man, which, as he grows fatter, never gains
-flesh?
-
-Or what part which as a man grows lean never falls away with a too
-perceptible diminution? And among the parts which grow fat which is
-that which grows fattest?
-
-Among those which grow lean which is that which grows leanest?
-
-In very strong men which are the muscles which are thickest and most
-prominent?
-
-In your anatomy you must represent all the stages of the limbs from
-man's creation to his death, and then till the death of the bone;
-and which part of him is first decayed and which is preserved the
-longest.
-
-And in the same way of extreme leanness and extreme fatness.
-
-The divisions of the head (812. 813).
-
-812.
-
-ANATOMY.
-
-There are eleven elementary tissues:-- Cartilage, bones, nerves,
-veins, arteries, fascia, ligament and sinews, skin, muscle and fat.
-
-OF THE HEAD.
-
-The divisions of the head are 10, viz. 5 external and 5 internal,
-the external are the hair, skin, muscle, fascia and the skull; the
-internal are the dura mater, the pia mater, [which enclose] the
-brain. The pia mater and the dura mater come again underneath and
-enclose the brain; then the rete mirabile, and the occipital bone,
-which supports the brain from which the nerves spring.
-
-813.
-
-_a_. hair
-
-_n_. skin
-
-_c_. muscle
-
-_m_. fascia
-
-_o_. skull _i.e._ bone
-
-_b_. dura mater
-
-_d_. pia mater
-
-_f_. brain
-
-_r_. pia mater, below
-
-_t_. dura mater
-
-_l_. rete mirablile
-
-_s_. the occipitul bone.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 3.]
-
-Physiological problems (814. 815).
-
-814.
-
-Of the cause of breathing, of the cause of the motion of the heart,
-of the cause of vomiting, of the cause of the descent of food from
-the stomach, of the cause of emptying the intestines.
-
-Of the cause of the movement of the superfluous matter through the
-intestines.
-
-Of the cause of swallowing, of the cause of coughing, of the cause
-of yawning, of the cause of sneezing, of the cause of limbs getting
-asleep.
-
-Of the cause of losing sensibility in any limb.
-
-Of the cause of tickling.
-
-Of the cause of lust and other appetites of the body, of the cause
-of urine and also of all the natural excretions of the body.
-
-[Footnote: By the side of this text stands the pen and ink drawing
-reproduced on Pl. CVIII, No. 4; a skull with indications of the
-veins in the fleshy covering.]
-
-815.
-
-The tears come from the heart and not from the brain.
-
-Define all the parts, of which the body is composed, beginning with
-the skin with its outer cuticle which is often chapped by the
-influence of the sun.
-
-II.
-
-ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
-
-The divisions of the animal kingdom (816. 817).
-
-816.
-
-_Man_. The description of man, which includes that of such creatures
-as are of almost the same species, as Apes, Monkeys and the like,
-which are many,
-
-_The Lion_ and its kindred, as Panthers. [Footnote 3: _Leonza_--wild
-cat? "_Secondo alcuni, lo stesso che Leonessa; e secondo altri con
-piu certezza, lo stesso che Pantera_" FANFANI, _Vocabolario_ page
-858.] Wildcats (?) Tigers, Leopards, Wolfs, Lynxes, Spanish cats,
-common cats and the like.
-
-_The Horse_ and its kindred, as Mule, Ass and the like, with incisor
-teeth above and below.
-
-_The Bull_ and its allies with horns and without upper incisors as
-the Buffalo, Stag Fallow Deer, Wild Goat, Swine, Goat, wild Goats
-Muskdeers, Chamois, Giraffe.
-
-817.
-
-Describe the various forms of the intestines of the human species,
-of apes and such like. Then, in what way the leonine species differ,
-and then the bovine, and finally birds; and arrange this description
-after the manner of a disquisition.
-
-Miscellaneous notes on the study of Zoology (818-821).
-
-818.
-
-Procure the placenta of a calf when it is born and observe the form
-of the cotyledons, if their cotyledons are male or female.
-
-819.
-
-Describe the tongue of the woodpecker and the jaw of the crocodile.
-
-820.
-
-Of the flight of the 4th kind of butterflies that consume winged
-ants. Of the three principal positions of the wings of birds in
-downward flight.
-
-[Footnote: A passing allusion is all I can here permit myself to
-Leonardo's elaborate researches into the flight of birds. Compare
-the observations on this subject in the Introduction to section
-XVIII and in the Bibliography of Manuscripts at the end of the
-work.]
-
-821.
-
-Of the way in which the tail of a fish acts in propelling the fish;
-as in the eel, snake and leech.
-
-[Footnote: A sketch of a fish, swimming upwards is in the original,
-inserted above this text.--Compare No. 1114.]
-
-Comparative study of the structure of bones and of the action of
-muscles (822-826).
-
-822.
-
-OF THE PALM OF THE HAND.
-
-Then I will discourse of the hands of each animal to show in what
-they vary; as in the bear, which has the ligatures of the sinews of
-the toes joined above the instep.
-
-823.
-
-A second demonstration inserted between anatomy and [the treatise
-on] the living being.
-
-You will represent here for a comparison, the legs of a frog, which
-have a great resemblance to the legs of man, both in the bones and
-in the muscles. Then, in continuation, the hind legs of the hare,
-which are very muscular, with strong active muscles, because they
-are not encumbered with fat.
-
-[Footnote: This text is written by the side of a drawing in black
-chalk of a nude male figure, but there is no connection between the
-sketch and the text.]
-
-824.
-
-Here I make a note to demonstrate the difference there is between
-man and the horse and in the same way with other animals. And first
-I will begin with the bones, and then will go on to all the muscles
-which spring from the bones without tendons and end in them in the
-same way, and then go on to those which start with a single tendon
-at one end.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 2.]
-
-825.
-
-Note on the bendings of joints and in what way the flesh grows upon
-them in their flexions or extensions; and of this most important
-study write a separate treatise: in the description of the movements
-of animals with four feet; among which is man, who likewise in his
-infancy crawls on all fours.
-
-826.
-
-OF THE WAY OF WALKING IN MAN.
-
-The walking of man is always after the universal manner of walking
-in animals with 4 legs, inasmuch as just as they move their feet
-crosswise after the manner of a horse in trotting, so man moves his
-4 limbs crosswise; that is, if he puts forward his right foot in
-walking he puts forward, with it, his left arm and vice versa,
-invariably.
-
-III.
-
-PHYSIOLOGY.
-
-Comparative study of the organs of sense in men and animals.
-
-827.
-
-I have found that in the composition of the human body as compared
-with the bodies of animals the organs of sense are duller and
-coarser. Thus it is composed of less ingenious instruments, and of
-spaces less capacious for receiving the faculties of sense. I have
-seen in the Lion tribe that the sense of smell is connected with
-part of the substance of the brain which comes down the nostrils,
-which form a spacious receptacle for the sense of smell, which
-enters by a great number of cartilaginous vesicles with several
-passages leading up to where the brain, as before said, comes down.
-
-The eyes in the Lion tribe have a large part of the head for their
-sockets and the optic nerves communicate at once with the brain; but
-the contrary is to be seen in man, for the sockets of the eyes are
-but a small part of the head, and the optic nerves are very fine and
-long and weak, and by the weakness of their action we see by day but
-badly at night, while these animals can see as well at night as by
-day. The proof that they can see is that they prowl for prey at
-night and sleep by day, as nocturnal birds do also.
-
-Advantages in the structure of the eye in certain animals (828-831).
-
-828.
-
-Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday,
-and larger in the morning than at midday.
-
-This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday
-than at any other time.
-
-In proportion as the eye or the pupil of the owl is larger in
-proportion to the animal than that of man, so much the more light
-can it see at night than man can; hence at midday it can see nothing
-if its pupil does not diminish; and, in the same way, at night
-things look larger to it than by day.
-
-829.
-
-OF THE EYES IN ANIMALS.
-
-The eyes of all animals have their pupils adapted to dilate and
-diminish of their own accord in proportion to the greater or less
-light of the sun or other luminary. But in birds the variation is
-much greater; and particularly in nocturnal birds, such as horned
-owls, and in the eyes of one species of owl; in these the pupil
-dilates in such away as to occupy nearly the whole eye, or
-diminishes to the size of a grain of millet, and always preserves
-the circular form. But in the Lion tribe, as panthers, pards,
-ounces, tigers, lynxes, Spanish cats and other similar animals the
-pupil diminishes from the perfect circle to the figure of a pointed
-oval such as is shown in the margin. But man having a weaker sight
-than any other animal is less hurt by a very strong light and his
-pupil increases but little in dark places; but in the eyes of these
-nocturnal animals, the horned owl--a bird which is the largest of
-all nocturnal birds--the power of vision increases so much that in
-the faintest nocturnal light (which we call darkness) it sees with
-much more distinctness than we do in the splendour of noon day, at
-which time these birds remain hidden in dark holes; or if indeed
-they are compelled to come out into the open air lighted up by the
-sun, they contract their pupils so much that their power of sight
-diminishes together with the quantity of light admitted.
-
-Study the anatomy of various eyes and see which are the muscles
-which open and close the said pupils of the eyes of animals.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 24, lines 8 and fol.]
-
-830.
-
-_a b n_ is the membrane which closes the eye from below, upwards,
-with an opaque film, _c n b_ encloses the eye in front and behind
-with a transparent membrane.
-
-It closes from below, upwards, because it [the eye] comes downwards.
-
-When the eye of a bird closes with its two lids, the first to close
-is the nictitating membrane which closes from the lacrymal duct over
-to the outer corner of the eye; and the outer lid closes from below
-upwards, and these two intersecting motions begin first from the
-lacrymatory duct, because we have already seen that in front and
-below birds are protected and use only the upper portion of the eye
-from fear of birds of prey which come down from above and behind;
-and they uncover first the membrane from the outer corner, because
-if the enemy comes from behind, they have the power of escaping to
-the front; and again the muscle called the nictitating membrane is
-transparent, because, if the eye had not such a screen, they could
-not keep it open against the wind which strikes against the eye in
-the rush of their rapid flight. And the pupil of the eye dilates and
-contracts as it sees a less or greater light, that is to say intense
-brilliancy.
-
-831.
-
-If at night your eye is placed between the light and the eye of a
-cat, it will see the eye look like fire.
-
-Remarks on the organs of speech
-
-(832. 833).
-
-832.
-
-_a  e  i  o  u
-ba be bi bo bu
-ca ce ci co cu
-da de di do du
-fa fe fi fo fu
-ga ge gi go gu
-la le li lo lu
-ma me mi mo mu
-na ne ni no nu
-pa pe pi po pu
-qa qe qi qo qu
-ra re ri ro ru
-sa se si so su
-ta te ti to tu_
-
-The tongue is found to have 24 muscles which correspond to the six
-muscles which compose the portion of the tongue which moves in the
-mouth.
-
-And when _a o u_ are spoken with a clear and rapid pronunciation, it
-is necessary, in order to pronounce continuously, without any pause
-between, that the opening of the lips should close by degrees; that
-is, they are wide apart in saying _a_, closer in saying _o_, and
-much closer still to pronounce _u_.
-
-It may be shown how all the vowels are pronounced with the farthest
-portion of the false palate which is above the epiglottis.
-
-833.
-
-If you draw in breath by the nose and send it out by the mouth you
-will hear the sound made by the division that is the membrane in
-[Footnote 5: The text here breaks off.]...
-
-On the conditions of sight (834. 835).
-
-834.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF SIGHT.
-
-I say that sight is exercised by all animals, by the medium of
-light; and if any one adduces, as against this, the sight of
-nocturnal animals, I must say that this in the same way is subject
-to the very same natural laws. For it will easily be understood that
-the senses which receive the images of things do not project from
-themselves any visual virtue [Footnote 4: Compare No. 68.]. On the
-contrary the atmospheric medium which exists between the object and
-the sense incorporates in itself the figure of things, and by its
-contact with the sense transmits the object to it. If the
-object--whether by sound or by odour--presents its spiritual force
-to the ear or the nose, then light is not required and does not act.
-The forms of objects do not send their images into the air if they
-are not illuminated [8]; and the eye being thus constituted cannot
-receive that from the air, which the air does not possess, although
-it touches its surface. If you choose to say that there are many
-animals that prey at night, I answer that when the little light
-which suffices the nature of their eyes is wanting, they direct
-themselves by their strong sense of hearing and of smell, which are
-not impeded by the darkness, and in which they are very far superior
-to man. If you make a cat leap, by daylight, among a quantity of
-jars and crocks you will see them remain unbroken, but if you do the
-same at night, many will be broken. Night birds do not fly about
-unless the moon shines full or in part; rather do they feed between
-sun-down and the total darkness of the night.
-
-[Footnote 8: See No. 58-67.]
-
-No body can be apprehended without light and shade, and light and
-shade are caused by light.
-
-835.
-
-WHY MEN ADVANCED IN AGE SEE BETTER AT A DISTANCE.
-
-Sight is better from a distance than near in those men who are
-advancing in age, because the same object transmits a smaller
-impression of itself to the eye when it is distant than when it is
-near.
-
-The seat of the common sense.
-
-836.
-
-The Common Sense, is that which judges of things offered to it by
-the other senses. The ancient speculators have concluded that that
-part of man which constitutes his judgment is caused by a central
-organ to which the other five senses refer everything by means of
-impressibility; and to this centre they have given the name Common
-Sense. And they say that this Sense is situated in the centre of the
-head between Sensation and Memory. And this name of Common Sense is
-given to it solely because it is the common judge of all the other
-five senses _i.e._ Seeing, Hearing, Touch, Taste and Smell. This
-Common Sense is acted upon by means of Sensation which is placed as
-a medium between it and the senses. Sensation is acted upon by means
-of the images of things presented to it by the external instruments,
-that is to say the senses which are the medium between external
-things and Sensation. In the same way the senses are acted upon by
-objects. Surrounding things transmit their images to the senses and
-the senses transfer them to the Sensation. Sensation sends them to
-the Common Sense, and by it they are stamped upon the memory and are
-there more or less retained according to the importance or force of
-the impression. That sense is most rapid in its function which is
-nearest to the sensitive medium and the eye, being the highest is
-the chief of the others. Of this then only we will speak, and the
-others we will leave in order not to make our matter too long.
-Experience tells us that the eye apprehends ten different natures of
-things, that is: Light and Darkness, one being the cause of the
-perception of the nine others, and the other its absence:-- Colour
-and substance, form and place, distance and nearness, motion and
-stillness [Footnote 15: Compare No. 23.].
-
-On the origin of the soul.
-
-837.
-
-Though human ingenuity may make various inventions which, by the
-help of various machines answering the same end, it will never
-devise any inventions more beautiful, nor more simple, nor more to
-the purpose than Nature does; because in her inventions nothing is
-wanting, and nothing is superfluous, and she needs no counterpoise
-when she makes limbs proper for motion in the bodies of animals. But
-she puts into them the soul of the body, which forms them that is
-the soul of the mother which first constructs in the womb the form
-of the man and in due time awakens the soul that is to inhabit it.
-And this at first lies dormant and under the tutelage of the soul of
-the mother, who nourishes and vivifies it by the umbilical vein,
-with all its spiritual parts, and this happens because this
-umbilicus is joined to the placenta and the cotyledons, by which the
-child is attached to the mother. And these are the reason why a
-wish, a strong craving or a fright or any other mental suffering in
-the mother, has more influence on the child than on the mother; for
-there are many cases when the child loses its life from them, &c.
-
-This discourse is not in its place here, but will be wanted for the
-one on the composition of animated bodies--and the rest of the
-definition of the soul I leave to the imaginations of friars, those
-fathers of the people who know all secrets by inspiration.
-
-[Footnote 57: _lettere incoronate_. By this term Leonardo probably
-understands not the Bible only, but the works of the early Fathers,
-and all the books recognised as sacred by the Roman Church.] I leave
-alone the sacred books; for they are supreme truth.
-
-On the relations of the soul to the organs of sense.
-
-838.
-
-HOW THE FIVE SENSES ARE THE MINISTERS OF THE SOUL.
-
-The soul seems to reside in the judgment, and the judgment would
-seem to be seated in that part where all the senses meet; and this
-is called the Common Sense and is not all-pervading throughout the
-body, as many have thought. Rather is it entirely in one part.
-Because, if it were all-pervading and the same in every part, there
-would have been no need to make the instruments of the senses meet
-in one centre and in one single spot; on the contrary it would have
-sufficed that the eye should fulfil the function of its sensation on
-its surface only, and not transmit the image of the things seen, to
-the sense, by means of the optic nerves, so that the soul--for the
-reason given above-- may perceive it in the surface of the eye. In
-the same way as to the sense of hearing, it would have sufficed if
-the voice had merely sounded in the porous cavity of the indurated
-portion of the temporal bone which lies within the ear, without
-making any farther transit from this bone to the common sense, where
-the voice confers with and discourses to the common judgment. The
-sense of smell, again, is compelled by necessity to refer itself to
-that same judgment. Feeling passes through the perforated cords and
-is conveyed to this common sense. These cords diverge with infinite
-ramifications into the skin which encloses the members of the body
-and the viscera. The perforated cords convey volition and sensation
-to the subordinate limbs. These cords and the nerves direct the
-motions of the muscles and sinews, between which they are placed;
-these obey, and this obedience takes effect by reducing their
-thickness; for in swelling, their length is reduced, and the nerves
-shrink which are interwoven among the particles of the limbs; being
-extended to the tips of the fingers, they transmit to the sense the
-object which they touch.
-
-The nerves with their muscles obey the tendons as soldiers obey the
-officers, and the tendons obey the Common [central] Sense as the
-officers obey the general. [27] Thus the joint of the bones obeys
-the nerve, and the nerve the muscle, and the muscle the tendon and
-the tendon the Common Sense. And the Common Sense is the seat of the
-soul [28], and memory is its ammunition, and the impressibility is
-its referendary since the sense waits on the soul and not the soul
-on the sense. And where the sense that ministers to the soul is not
-at the service of the soul, all the functions of that sense are also
-wanting in that man's life, as is seen in those born mute and blind.
-
-[Footnote: The peculiar use of the words _nervo_, _muscolo_,
-_corda_, _senso comune_, which are here literally rendered by nerve,
-muscle cord or tendon and Common Sense may be understood from lines
-27 and 28.]
-
-On involuntary muscular action.
-
-839.
-
-HOW THE NERVES SOMETIMES ACT OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT ANY COMMANDS FROM
-THE OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL.
-
-This is most plainly seen; for you will see palsied and shivering
-persons move, and their trembling limbs, as their head and hands,
-quake without leave from their soul and their soul with all its
-power cannot prevent their members from trembling. The same thing
-happens in falling sickness, or in parts that have been cut off, as
-in the tails of lizards. The idea or imagination is the helm and
-guiding-rein of the senses, because the thing conceived of moves the
-sense. Pre-imagining, is imagining the things that are to be.
-Post-imagining, is imagining the things that are past.
-
-Miscellaneous physiological observations (840-842).
-
-840.
-
-There are four Powers: memory and intellect, desire and
-covetousness. The two first are mental and the others sensual. The
-three senses: sight, hearing and smell cannot well be prevented;
-touch and taste not at all. Smell is connected with taste in dogs
-and other gluttonous animals.
-
-841.
-
-I reveal to men the origin of the first, or perhaps second cause of
-their existence.
-
-842.
-
-Lust is the cause of generation.
-
-Appetite is the support of life. Fear or timidity is the
-prolongation of life and preservation of its instruments.
-
-The laws of nutrition and the support of life (843-848).
-
-843.
-
-HOW THE BODY OF ANIMALS IS CONSTANTLY DYING AND BEING RENEWED.
-
-The body of any thing whatever that takes nourishment constantly
-dies and is constantly renewed; because nourishment can only enter
-into places where the former nourishment has expired, and if it has
-expired it no longer has life. And if you do not supply nourishment
-equal to the nourishment which is gone, life will fail in vigour,
-and if you take away this nourishment, the life is entirely
-destroyed. But if you restore as much is destroyed day by day, then
-as much of the life is renewed as is consumed, just as the flame of
-the candle is fed by the nourishment afforded by the liquid of this
-candle, which flame continually with a rapid supply restores to it
-from below as much as is consumed in dying above: and from a
-brilliant light is converted in dying into murky smoke; and this
-death is continuous, as the smoke is continuous; and the continuance
-of the smoke is equal to the continuance of the nourishment, and in
-the same instant all the flame is dead and all regenerated,
-simultaneously with the movement of its own nourishment.
-
-844.
-
-King of the animals--as thou hast described him--I should rather say
-king of the beasts, thou being the greatest--because thou hast
-spared slaying them, in order that they may give thee their children
-for the benefit of the gullet, of which thou hast attempted to make
-a sepulchre for all animals; and I would say still more, if it were
-allowed me to speak the entire truth [5]. But we do not go outside
-human matters in telling of one supreme wickedness, which does not
-happen among the animals of the earth, inasmuch as among them are
-found none who eat their own kind, unless through want of sense (few
-indeed among them, and those being mothers, as with men, albeit they
-be not many in number); and this happens only among the rapacious
-animals, as with the leonine species, and leopards, panthers lynxes,
-cats and the like, who sometimes eat their children; but thou,
-besides thy children devourest father, mother, brothers and friends;
-nor is this enough for thee, but thou goest to the chase on the
-islands of others, taking other men and these half-naked, the ...
-and the ... thou fattenest, and chasest them down thy own
-throat[18]; now does not nature produce enough simples, for thee to
-satisfy thyself? and if thou art not content with simples, canst
-thou not by the mixture of them make infinite compounds, as Platina
-wrote[Footnote 21: _Come scrisse il Platina_ (Bartolomeo Sacchi, a
-famous humanist). The Italian edition of his treatise _De arte
-coquinaria_, was published under the title _De la honestra
-voluptate, e valetudine, Venezia_ 1487.], and other authors on
-feeding?
-
-[Footnote: We are led to believe that Leonardo himself was a
-vegetarian from the following interesting passage in the first of
-Andrea Corsali's letters to Giuliano de'Medici: _Alcuni gentili
-chiamati Guzzarati non si cibano di cosa, alcuna che tenga sangue,
-ne fra essi loro consentono che si noccia ad alcuna cosa animata,
-come il nostro Leonardo da Vinci_.
-
-5-18. Amerigo Vespucci, with whom Leonardo was personally
-acquainted, writes in his second letter to Pietro Soderini, about
-the inhabitants of the Canary Islands after having stayed there in
-1503: "_Hanno una scelerata liberta di viuere; ... si cibano di
-carne humana, di maniera che il padre magia il figliuolo, et
-all'incontro il figliuolo il padre secondo che a caso e per sorte
-auiene. Io viddi un certo huomo sceleratissimo che si vantaua, et si
-teneua a non piccola gloria di hauer mangiato piu di trecento
-huomini. Viddi anche vna certa citta, nella quale io dimorai forse
-ventisette giorni, doue le carni humane, hauendole salate, eran
-appicate alli traui, si come noi alli traui di cucina_ _appicchiamo
-le carni di cinghali secche al sole o al fumo, et massimamente
-salsiccie, et altre simil cose: anzi si marauigliauano gradem ete
-che noi non magiaissimo della carne de nemici, le quali dicono
-muouere appetito, et essere di marauiglioso sapore, et le lodano
-come cibi soaui et delicati (Lettere due di Amerigo Vespucci
-Fiorentino drizzate al magnifico Pietro Soderini, Gonfaloniere della
-eccelsa Republica di Firenze_; various editions).]
-
-845.
-
-Our life is made by the death of others.
-
-In dead matter insensible life remains, which, reunited to the
-stomachs of living beings, resumes life, both sensual and
-intellectual.
-
-846.
-
-Here nature appears with many animals to have been rather a cruel
-stepmother than a mother, and with others not a stepmother, but a
-most tender mother.
-
-847.
-
-Man and animals are really the passage and the conduit of food, the
-sepulchre of animals and resting place of the dead, one causing the
-death of the other, making themselves the covering for the
-corruption of other dead [bodies].
-
-On the circulation of the blood (848-850).
-
-848.
-
-Death in old men, when not from fever, is caused by the veins which
-go from the spleen to the valve of the liver, and which thicken so
-much in the walls that they become closed up and leave no passage
-for the blood that nourishes it.
-
-[6]The incessant current of the blood through the veins makes these
-veins thicken and become callous, so that at last they close up and
-prevent the passage of the blood.
-
-849.
-
-The waters return with constant motion from the lowest depths of the
-sea to the utmost height of the mountains, not obeying the nature of
-heavier bodies; and in this they resemble the blood of animated
-beings which always moves from the sea of the heart and flows
-towards the top of the head; and here it may burst a vein, as may be
-seen when a vein bursts in the nose; all the blood rises from below
-to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes out from the
-burst vein in the earth, it obeys the law of other bodies that are
-heavier than the air since it always seeks low places.
-
-[Footnote: From this passage it is quite plain that Leonardo had not
-merely a general suspicion of the circulation of the blood but a
-very clear conception of it. Leonardo's studies on the muscles of
-the heart are to be found in the MS. W. An. III. but no information
-about them has hitherto been made public. The limits of my plan in
-this work exclude all purely anatomical writings, therefore only a
-very brief excerpt from this note book can be given here. WILLIAM
-HARVEY (born 1578 and Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge from 1615)
-is always considered to have been the discoverer of the circulation
-of the blood. He studied medicine at Padua in 1598, and in 1628
-brought out his memorable and important work: _De motu cordis et
-sanguinis_.]
-
-850.
-
-That the blood which returns when the heart opens again is not the
-same as that which closes the valves of the heart.
-
-Some notes on medicine (851-855).
-
-851.
-
-Make them give you the definition and remedies for the case ... and
-you will see that men are selected to be doctors for diseases they
-do not know.
-
-852.
-
-A remedy for scratches taught me by the Herald to the King of
-France. 4 ounces of virgin wax, 4 ounces of colophony, 2 ounces of
-incense. Keep each thing separate; and melt the wax, and then put in
-the incense and then the colophony, make a mixture of it and put it
-on the sore place.
-
-853.
-
-Medicine is the restoration of discordant elements; sickness is the
-discord of the elements infused into the living body.
-
-854.
-
-Those who are annoyed by sickness at sea should drink extract of
-wormwood.
-
-855.
-
-To keep in health, this rule is wise: Eat only when you want and
-relish food. Chew thoroughly that it may do you good. Have it well
-cooked, unspiced and undisguised. He who takes medicine is ill
-advised.
-
-[Footnote: This appears to be a sketch for a poem.]
-
-856.
-
-I teach you to preserve your health; and in this you will succed
-better in proportion as you shun physicians, because their medicines
-are the work of alchemists.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is written on the back of the drawing Pl.
-CVIII. Compare also No. 1184.]
-
-_XV_.
-
-_Astronomy_.
-
-_Ever since the publication by Venturi in_ 1797 _and Libri in_ 1840
-_of some few passages of Leonardo's astronomical notes, scientific
-astronomers have frequently expressed the opinion, that they must
-have been based on very important discoveries, and that the great
-painter also deserved a conspicuous place in the history of this
-science. In the passages here printed, a connected view is given of
-his astronomical studies as they lie scattered through the
-manuscripts, which have come down to us. Unlike his other purely
-scientific labours, Leonardo devotes here a good deal of attention
-to the opinions of the ancients, though he does not follow the
-practice universal in his day of relying on them as authorities; he
-only quotes them, as we shall see, in order to refute their
-arguments. His researches throughout have the stamp of independent
-thought. There is nothing in these writings to lead us to suppose
-that they were merely an epitome of the general learning common to
-the astronomers of the period. As early as in the XIVth century
-there were chairs of astronomy in the universities of Padua and
-Bologna, but so late as during the entire XVIth century Astronomy
-and Astrology were still closely allied._
-
-_It is impossible now to decide whether Leonardo, when living in
-Florence, became acquainted in his youth with the doctrines of Paolo
-Toscanelli the great astronomer and mathematician (died_ 1482_), of
-whose influence and teaching but little is now known, beyond the
-fact that he advised and encouraged Columbus to carry out his
-project of sailing round the world. His name is nowhere mentioned by
-Leonardo, and from the dates of the manuscripts from which the texts
-on astronomy are taken, it seems highly probable that Leonardo
-devoted his attention to astronomical studies less in his youth than
-in his later years. It was evidently his purpose to treat of
-Astronomy in a connected form and in a separate work (see the
-beginning of Nos._ 866 _and_ 892_; compare also No._ 1167_). It is
-quite in accordance with his general scientific thoroughness that he
-should propose to write a special treatise on Optics as an
-introduction to Astronomy (see Nos._ 867 _and_ 877_). Some of the
-chapters belonging to this Section bear the title "Prospettiva"
-_(see Nos._ 869 _and_ 870_), this being the term universally applied
-at the time to Optics as well as Perspective (see Vol. I, p._ 10,
-_note to No._ 13, _l._ 10_)_.
-
-_At the beginning of the XVIth century the Ptolemaic theory of the
-universe was still universally accepted as the true one, and
-Leonardo conceives of the earth as fixed, with the moon and sun
-revolving round it, as they are represented in the diagram to No._
-897. _He does not go into any theory of the motions of the planets;
-with regard to these and the fixed stars he only investigates the
-phenomena of their luminosity. The spherical form of the earth he
-takes for granted as an axiom from the first, and he anticipates
-Newton by pointing out the universality of Gravitation not merely in
-the earth, but even in the moon. Although his acute research into
-the nature of the moon's light and the spots on the moon did not
-bring to light many results of lasting importance beyond making it
-evident that they were a refutation of the errors of his
-contemporaries, they contain various explanations of facts which
-modern science need not modify in any essential point, and
-discoveries which history has hitherto assigned to a very much later
-date_.
-
-_The ingenious theory by which he tries to explain the nature of
-what is known as earth shine, the reflection of the sun's rays by
-the earth towards the moon, saying that it is a peculiar refraction,
-originating in the innumerable curved surfaces of the waves of the
-sea may be regarded as absurd; but it must not be forgotten that he
-had no means of detecting the fundamental error on which he based
-it, namely: the assumption that the moon was at a relatively short
-distance from the earth. So long as the motion of the earth round
-the sun remained unknown, it was of course impossible to form any
-estimate of the moon's distance from the earth by a calculation of
-its parallax_.
-
-_Before the discovery of the telescope accurate astronomical
-observations were only possible to a very limited extent. It would
-appear however from certain passages in the notes here printed for
-the first time, that Leonardo was in a position to study the spots
-in the moon more closely than he could have done with the unaided
-eye. So far as can be gathered from the mysterious language in which
-the description of his instrument is wrapped, he made use of
-magnifying glasses; these do not however seem to have been
-constructed like a telescope--telescopes were first made about_
-1600. _As LIBRI pointed out_ (Histoire des Sciences mathematiques
-III, 101) _Fracastoro of Verona_ (1473-1553) _succeeded in
-magnifying the moon's face by an arrangement of lenses (compare No._
-910, _note), and this gives probability to Leonardo's invention at a
-not much earlier date._
-
-I.
-
-THE EARTH AS A PLANET.
-
-The earth's place in the universe (857. 858).
-
-857.
-
-The equator, the line of the horizon, the ecliptic, the meridian:
-
-These lines are those which in all their parts are equidistant from
-the centre of the globe.
-
-858.
-
-The earth is not in the centre of the Sun's orbit nor at the centre
-of the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements, and
-united with them. And any one standing on the moon, when it and the
-sun are both beneath us, would see this our earth and the element of
-water upon it just as we see the moon, and the earth would light it
-as it lights us.
-
-The fundamental laws of the solar system (859-864).
-
-859.
-
-Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical
-motion, and the grand-child of spiritual motion, and the mother and
-origin of gravity. Gravity is limited to the elements of water and
-earth; but this force is unlimited, and by it infinite worlds might
-be moved if instruments could be made by which the force could be
-generated.
-
-Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance are the
-four external powers on which all actions of mortals depend.
-
-Force has its origin in spiritual motion; and this motion, flowing
-through the limbs of sentient animals, enlarges their muscles. Being
-enlarged by this current the muscles are shrunk in length and
-contract the tendons which are connected with them, and this is the
-cause of the force of the limbs in man.
-
-The quality and quantity of the force of a man are able to give
-birth to other forces, which will be proportionally greater as the
-motions produced by them last longer.
-
-[Footnote: Only part of this passage belongs, strictly speaking, to
-this section. The principle laid down in the second paragraph is
-more directly connected with the notes given in the preceding
-section on Physiology.]
-
-860.
-
-Why does not the weight _o_ remain in its place? It does not remain
-because it has no resistance. Where will it move to? It will move
-towards the centre [of gravity]. And why by no other line? Because a
-weight which has no support falls by the shortest road to the lowest
-point which is the centre of the world. And why does the weight know
-how to find it by so short a line? Because it is not independant and
-does not move about in various directions.
-
-[Footnote: This text and the sketch belonging to it, are reproduced
-on Pl. CXXI.]
-
-861.
-
-Let the earth turn on which side it may the surface of the waters
-will never move from its spherical form, but will always remain
-equidistant from the centre of the globe.
-
-Granting that the earth might be removed from the centre of the
-globe, what would happen to the water?
-
-It would remain in a sphere round that centre equally thick, but the
-sphere would have a smaller diameter than when it enclosed the
-earth.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 896, lines 48-64; and No. 936.]
-
-862.
-
-Supposing the earth at our antipodes which supports the ocean were
-to rise and stand uncovered, far out of the sea, but remaining
-almost level, by what means afterwards, in the course of time, would
-mountains and vallies be formed?
-
-And the rocks with their various strata?
-
-863.
-
-Each man is always in the middle of the surface of the earth and
-under the zenith of his own hemisphere, and over the centre of the
-earth.
-
-864.
-
-Mem.: That I must first show the distance of the sun from the earth;
-and, by means of a ray passing through a small hole into a dark
-chamber, detect its real size; and besides this, by means of the
-aqueous sphere calculate the size of the globe ...
-
-Here it will be shown, that when the sun is in the meridian of our
-hemisphere [Footnote 10: _Antipodi orientali cogli occidentali_. The
-word _Antipodes_ does not here bear its literal sense, but--as we
-may infer from the simultaneous reference to inhabitants of the
-North and South-- is used as meaning men living at a distance of 90
-degrees from the zenith of the rational horizon of each observer.],
-the antipodes to the East and to the West, alike, and at the same
-time, see the sun mirrored in their waters; and the same is equally
-true of the arctic and antarctic poles, if indeed they are
-inhabited.
-
-How to prove that the earth is a planet (865-867).
-
-865.
-
-That the earth is a star.
-
-866.
-
-In your discourse you must prove that the earth is a star much like
-the moon, and the glory of our universe; and then you must treat of
-the size of various stars, according to the authors.
-
-867.
-
-THE METHOD OF PROVING THAT THE EARTH IS A STAR.
-
-First describe the eye; then show how the twinkling of a star is
-really in the eye and why one star should twinkle more than another,
-and how the rays from the stars originate in the eye; and add, that
-if the twinkling of the stars were really in the stars --as it seems
-to be--that this twinkling appears to be an extension as great as
-the diameter of the body of the star; therefore, the star being
-larger than the earth, this motion effected in an instant would be a
-rapid doubling of the size of the star. Then prove that the surface
-of the air where it lies contiguous to fire, and the surface of the
-fire where it ends are those into which the solar rays penetrate,
-and transmit the images of the heavenly bodies, large when they
-rise, and small, when they are on the meridian. Let _a_ be the earth
-and _n d m_ the surface of the air in contact with the sphere of
-fire; _h f g_ is the orbit of the moon or, if you please, of the
-sun; then I say that when the sun appears on the horizon _g_, its
-rays are seen passing through the surface of the air at a slanting
-angle, that is _o m_; this is not the case at _d k_. And so it
-passes through a greater mass of air; all of _e m_ is a denser
-atmosphere.
-
-868.
-
-Beyond the sun and us there is darkness and so the air appears blue.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 301.]
-
-869.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-It is possible to find means by which the eye shall not see remote
-objects as much diminished as in natural perspective, which
-diminishes them by reason of the convexity of the eye which
-necessarily intersects, at its surface, the pyramid of every image
-conveyed to the eye at a right angle on its spherical surface. But
-by the method I here teach in the margin [9] these pyramids are
-intersected at right angles close to the surface of the pupil. The
-convex pupil of the eye can take in the whole of our hemisphere,
-while this will show only a single star; but where many small stars
-transmit their images to the surface of the pupil those stars are
-extremely small; here only one star is seen but it will be large.
-And so the moon will be seen larger and its spots of a more defined
-form [Footnote 20 and fol.: Telescopes were not in use till a century
-later. Compare No. 910 and page 136.]. You must place close to the
-eye a glass filled with the water of which mention is made in number
-4 of Book 113 "On natural substances" [Footnote 23: _libro_ 113.
-This is perhaps the number of a book in some library catalogue. But
-it may refer, on the other hand, to one of the 120 Books mentioned
-in No. 796. l. 84.]; for this water makes objects which are enclosed
-in balls of crystalline glass appear free from the glass.
-
-OF THE EYE.
-
-Among the smaller objects presented to the pupil of the eye, that
-which is closest to it, will be least appreciable to the eye. And at
-the same time, the experiments here made with the power of sight,
-show that it is not reduced to speck if the &c. [32][Footnote 32:
-Compare with this the passage in Vol. I, No. 52, written about
-twenty years earlier.].
-
-Read in the margin.
-
-[34]Those objects are seen largest which come to the eye at the
-largest angles.
-
-But the images of the objects conveyed to the pupil of the eye are
-distributed to the pupil exactly as they are distributed in the air:
-and the proof of this is in what follows; that when we look at the
-starry sky, without gazing more fixedly at one star than another,
-the sky appears all strewn with stars; and their proportions to the
-eye are the same as in the sky and likewise the spaces between them
-[61].
-
-[Footnote: 9. 32. _in margine:_ lines 34-61 are, in the original,
-written on the margin and above them is the diagram to which
-Leonardo seems to refer here.]
-
-870.
-
-PERSPECTIVE.
-
-Among objects moved from the eye at equal distance, that undergoes
-least diminution which at first was most remote.
-
-When various objects are removed at equal distances farther from
-their original position, that which was at first the farthest from
-the eye will diminish least. And the proportion of the diminution
-will be in proportion to the relative distance of the objects from
-the eye before they were removed.
-
-That is to say in the object _t_ and the object _e_ the proportion
-of their distances from the eye _a_ is quintuple. I remove each from
-its place and set it farther from the eye by one of the 5 parts into
-which the proposition is divided. Hence it happens that the nearest
-to the eye has doubled the distance and according to the last
-proposition but one of this, is diminished by the half of its whole
-size; and the body _e_, by the same motion, is diminished 1/5 of its
-whole size. Therefore, by that same last proposition but one, that
-which is said in this last proposition is true; and this I say of
-the motions of the celestial bodies which are more distant by 3500
-miles when setting than when overhead, and yet do not increase or
-diminish in any sensible degree.
-
-871.
-
-_a b_ is the aperture through which the sun passes, and if you could
-measure the size of the solar rays at _n m_, you could accurately
-trace the real lines of the convergence of the solar rays, the
-mirror being at _a b_, and then show the reflected rays at equal
-angles to _n m_; but, as you want to have them at _n m_, take them
-at the. inner side of the aperture at cd, where they maybe measured
-at the spot where the solar rays fall. Then place your mirror at the
-distance _a b_, making the rays _d b_, _c a_ fall and then be
-reflected at equal angles towards _c d_; and this is the best
-method, but you must use this mirror always in the same month, and
-the same day, and hour and instant, and this will be better than at
-no fixed time because when the sun is at a certain distance it
-produces a certain pyramid of rays.
-
-872.
-
-_a_, the side of the body in light and shade _b_, faces the whole
-portion of the hemisphere bed _e f_, and does not face any part of
-the darkness of the earth. And the same occurs at the point _o_;
-therefore the space a _o_ is throughout of one and the same
-brightness, and s faces only four degrees of the hemisphere _d e f g
-h_, and also the whole of the earth _s h_, which will render it
-darker; and how much must be demonstrated by calculation. [Footnote:
-This passage, which has perhaps a doubtful right to its place in
-this connection, stands in the Manuscript between those given in
-Vol. I as No. 117 and No. 427.]
-
-873.
-
-THE REASON OF THE INCREASED SIZE OF THE SUN IN THE WEST.
-
-Some mathematicians explain that the sun looks larger as it sets,
-because the eye always sees it through a denser atmosphere, alleging
-that objects seen through mist or through water appear larger. To
-these I reply: No; because objects seen through a mist are similar
-in colour to those at a distance; but not being similarly diminished
-they appear larger. Again, nothing increases in size in smooth
-water; and the proof of this may be seen by throwing a light on a
-board placed half under water. But the reason why the sun looks
-larger is that every luminous body appears larger in proportion as
-it is more remote. [Footnote: Lines 5 and 6 are thus rendered by M.
-RAVAISSON in his edition of MS. A. "_De meme, aucune chose ne croit
-dans l'eau plane, et tu en feras l'experience_ en calquant un ais
-sous l'eau."--Compare the diagrams in Vol. I, p. 114.]
-
-On the luminosity of the Earth in the universal space (874-878).
-
-874.
-
-In my book I propose to show, how the ocean and the other seas must,
-by means of the sun, make our world shine with the appearance of a
-moon, and to the remoter worlds it looks like a star; and this I
-shall prove.
-
-Show, first that every light at a distance from the eye throws out
-rays which appear to increase the size of the luminous body; and
-from this it follows that 2 ...[Footnote 10: Here the text breaks
-off; lines 11 and fol. are written in the margin.].
-
-[11]The moon is cold and moist. Water is cold and moist. Thus our
-seas must appear to the moon as the moon does to us.
-
-875.
-
-The waves in water magnify the image of an object reflected in it.
-
-Let _a_ be the sun, and _n m_ the ruffled water, _b_ the image of
-the sun when the water is smooth. Let _f_ be the eye which sees the
-image in all the waves included within the base of the triangle _c e
-f_. Now the sun reflected in the unruffled surface occupied the
-space _c d_, while in the ruffled surface it covers all the watery
-space _c e_ (as is proved in the 4th of my "Perspective") [Footnote
-9: _Nel quarto della mia prospettiva_. If this reference is to the
-diagrams accompanying the text--as is usual with Leonardo--and not
-to some particular work, the largest of the diagrams here given must
-be meant. It is the lowest and actually the fifth, but he would have
-called it the fourth, for the text here given is preceded on the
-same page of the manuscript by a passage on whirlpools, with the
-diagram belonging to it also reproduced here. The words _della mia
-prospettiva_ may therefore indicate that the diagram to the
-preceding chapter treating on a heterogeneal subject is to be
-excluded. It is a further difficulty that this diagram belongs
-properly to lines 9-10 and not to the preceding sentence. The
-reflection of the sun in water is also discussed in the Theoretical
-part of the Book on Painting; see Vol. I, No. 206, 207.] and it will
-cover more of the water in proportion as the reflected image is
-remote from the eye [10].
-
-[Footnote: In the original sketch, inside the circle in the first
-diagram, is written _Sole_ (sun), and to the right of it _luna_
-(moon). Thus either of these heavenly bodies may be supposed to fill
-that space. Within the lower circle is written _simulacro_ (image).
-In the two next diagrams at the spot here marked _L_ the word _Luna_
-is written, and in the last _sole_ is written in the top circle at
-_a_.]
-
-The image of the sun will be more brightly shown in small waves than
-in large ones--and this is because the reflections or images of the
-sun are more numerous in the small waves than in large ones, and the
-more numerous reflections of its radiance give a larger light than
-the fewer.
-
-Waves which intersect like the scales of a fir cone reflect the
-image of the sun with the greatest splendour; and this is the case
-because the images are as many as the ridges of the waves on which
-the sun shines, and the shadows between these waves are small and
-not very dark; and the radiance of so many reflections together
-becomes united in the image which is transmitted to the eye, so that
-these shadows are imperceptible.
-
-That reflection of the sun will cover most space on the surface of
-the water which is most remote from the eye which sees it.
-
-Let _a_ be the sun, _p q_ the reflection of the sun; _a b_ is the
-surface of the water, in which the sun is mirrored, and _r_ the eye
-which sees this reflection on the surface of the water occupying the
-space _o m_. _c_ is the eye at a greater distance from the surface
-of the water and also from the reflection; hence this reflection
-covers a larger space of water, by the distance between _n_ and _o_.
-
-876.
-
-It is impossible that the side of a spherical mirror, illuminated by
-the sun, should reflect its radiance unless this mirror were
-undulating or filled with bubbles.
-
-You see here the sun which lights up the moon, a spherical mirror,
-and all of its surface, which faces the sun is rendered radiant.
-
-Whence it may be concluded that what shines in the moon is water
-like that of our seas, and in waves as that is; and that portion
-which does not shine consists of islands and terra firma.
-
-This diagram, of several spherical bodies interposed between the eye
-and the sun, is given to show that, just as the reflection of the
-sun is seen in each of these bodies, in the same way that image may
-be seen in each curve of the waves of the sea; and as in these many
-spheres many reflections of the sun are seen, so in many waves there
-are many images, each of which at a great distance is much magnified
-to the eye. And, as this happens with each wave, the spaces
-interposed between the waves are concealed; and, for this reason, it
-looks as though the many suns mirrored in the many waves were but
-one continuous sun; and the shadows,, mixed up with the luminous
-images, render this radiance less brilliant than that of the sun
-mirrored in these waves.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, at letter _A_ in the diagram "_Sole_"
-(the sun) is written, and at _o_ "_occhio_" (the eye).]
-
-877.
-
-This will have before it the treatise on light and shade.
-
-The edges in the moon will be most strongly lighted and reflect most
-light, because, there, nothing will be visible but the tops of the
-waves of the water [Footnote 5: I have thought it unnecessary to
-reproduce the detailed explanation of the theory of reflection on
-waves contained in the passage which follows this.].
-
-878.
-
-The sun will appear larger in moving water or on waves than in still
-water; an example is the light reflected on the strings of a
-monochord.
-
-II.
-
-THE SUN.
-
-The question of the true and of the apparent size of the sun
-(879-884).
-
-879.
-
-IN PRAISE OF THE SUN.
-
-If you look at the stars, cutting off the rays (as may be done by
-looking through a very small hole made with the extreme point of a
-very fine needle, placed so as almost to touch the eye), you will
-see those stars so minute that it would seem as though nothing could
-be smaller; it is in fact their great distance which is the reason
-of their diminution, for many of them are very many times larger
-than the star which is the earth with water. Now reflect what this
-our star must look like at such a distance, and then consider how
-many stars might be added--both in longitude and latitude--between
-those stars which are scattered over the darkened sky. But I cannot
-forbear to condemn many of the ancients, who said that the sun was
-no larger than it appears; among these was Epicurus, and I believe
-that he founded his reason on the effects of a light placed in our
-atmosphere equidistant from the centre of the earth. Any one looking
-at it never sees it diminished in size at whatever distance; and the
-rea-
-
-[Footnote 879-882: What Leonardo says of Epicurus-- who according to
-LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, and MADLER, _Geschichte der
-Himmelskunde_, did not devote much attention to the study of
-celestial phenomena--, he probably derived from Book X of Diogenes
-Laertius, whose _Vitae Philosophorum_ was not printed in Greek till
-1533, but the Latin translation appeared in 1475.]
-
-880.
-
-sons of its size and power I shall reserve for Book 4. But I wonder
-greatly that Socrates
-
-[Footnote 2: _Socrates;_ I have little light to throw on this
-reference. Plato's Socrates himself declares on more than one
-occasion that in his youth he had turned his mind to the study of
-celestial phenomena (METEWPA) but not in his later years (see G. C.
-LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, page 109; MADLER,
-_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, page 41). Here and there in Plato's
-writings we find incidental notes on the sun and other heavenly
-bodies. Leonardo may very well have known of these, since the Latin
-version by Ficinus was printed as early as 1491; indeed an undated
-edition exists which may very likely have appeared between 1480--90.
-
-There is but one passage in Plato, Epinomis (p. 983) where he speaks
-of the physical properties of the sun and says that it is larger
-than the earth.
-
-Aristotle who goes very fully into the subject says the same. A
-complete edition of Aristotele's works was first printed in Venice
-1495-98, but a Latin version of the Books _De Coelo et Mundo_ and
-_De Physica_ had been printed in Venice as early as in 1483 (H.
-MULLER-STRUBING).]
-
-should have depreciated that solar body, saying that it was of the
-nature of incandescent stone, and the one who opposed him as to that
-error was not far wrong. But I only wish I had words to serve me to
-blame those who are fain to extol the worship of men more than that
-of the sun; for in the whole universe there is nowhere to be seen a
-body of greater magnitude and power than the sun. Its light gives
-light to all the celestial bodies which are distributed throughout
-the universe; and from it descends all vital force, for the heat
-that is in living beings comes from the soul [vital spark]; and
-there is no other centre of heat and light in the universe as will
-be shown in Book 4; and certainly those who have chosen to worship
-men as gods--as Jove, Saturn, Mars and the like--have fallen into
-the gravest error, seeing that even if a man were as large as our
-earth, he would look no bigger than a little star which appears but
-as a speck in the universe; and seeing again that these men are
-mortal, and putrid and corrupt in their sepulchres.
-
-Marcellus [Footnote 23: I have no means of identifying _Marcello_
-who is named in the margin. It may be Nonius Marcellus, an obscure
-Roman Grammarian of uncertain date (between the IInd and Vth
-centuries A. C.) the author of the treatise _De compendiosa doctrina
-per litteras ad filium_ in which he treats _de rebus omnibus et
-quibusdam aliis_. This was much read in the middle ages. The _editto
-princeps_ is dated 1470 (H. MULLER-STRUBING).] and many others
-praise the sun.
-
-881.
-
-Epicurus perhaps saw the shadows cast by columns on the walls in
-front of them equal in diameter to the columns from which the
-shadows were cast; and the breadth of the shadows being parallel
-from beginning to end, he thought he might infer that the sun also
-was directly opposite to this parallel and that consequently its
-breadth was not greater than that of the column; not perceiving that
-the diminution in the shadow was insensibly slight by reason of the
-remoteness of the sun. If the sun were smaller than the earth, the
-stars on a great portion of our hemisphere would have no light,
-which is evidence against Epicurus who says the sun is only as large
-as it appears.
-
-[Footnote: In the original the writing is across the diagram.]
-
-882.
-
-Epicurus says the sun is the size it looks. Hence as it looks about
-a foot across we must consider that to be its size; it would follow
-that when the moon eclipses the sun, the sun ought not to appear the
-larger, as it does. Then, the moon being smaller than the sun, the
-moon must be less than a foot, and consequently when our world
-eclipses the moon, it must be less than a foot by a finger's
-breadth; inasmuch as if the sun is a foot across, and our earth
-casts a conical shadow on the moon, it is inevitable that the
-luminous cause of the cone of shadow must be larger than the opaque
-body which casts the cone of shadow.
-
-883.
-
-To measure how many times the diameter of the sun will go into its
-course in 24 hours.
-
-Make a circle and place it to face the south, after the manner of a
-sundial, and place a rod in the middle in such a way as that its
-length points to the centre of this circle, and mark the shadow cast
-in the sunshine by this rod on the circumference of the circle, and
-this shadow will be--let us say-- as broad as from _a_ to _n_. Now
-measure how many times this shadow will go into this circumference
-of a circle, and that will give you the number of times that the
-solar body will go into its orbit in 24 hours. Thus you may see
-whether Epicurus was [right in] saying that the sun was only as
-large as it looked; for, as the apparent diameter of the sun is
-about a foot, and as that sun would go a thousand times into the
-length of its course in 24 hours, it would have gone a thousand
-feet, that is 300 braccia, which is the sixth of a mile. Whence it
-would follow that the course of the sun during the day would be the
-sixth part of a mile and that this venerable snail, the sun will
-have travelled 25 braccia an hour.
-
-884.
-
-Posidonius composed books on the size of the sun. [Footnote:
-Poseidonius of Apamea, commonly called the Rhodian, because he
-taught in Rhodes, was a Stoic philosopher, a contemporary and friend
-of Cicero's, and the author of numerous works on natural science,
-among them.
-
-Strabo quotes no doubt from one of his works, when he says that
-Poseidonius explained how it was that the sun looked larger when it
-was rising or setting than during the rest of its course (III, p.
-135). Kleomedes, a later Greek Naturalist also mentions this
-observation of Poseidonius' without naming the title of his work;
-however, as Kleomedes' Cyclia Theorica was not printed till 1535,
-Leonardo must have derived his quotation from Strabo. He probably
-wrote this note in 1508, and as the original Greek was first printed
-in Venice in 1516, we must suppose him to quote here from the
-translation by Guarinus Veronensis, which was printed as early as
-1471, also at Venice (H. MULLER-STRUBING).]
-
-Of the nature of Sunlight.
-
-885.
-
-OF THE PROOF THAT THE SUN IS HOT BY NATURE AND NOT BY VIRTUE.
-
-Of the nature of Sunlight.
-
-That the heat of the sun resides in its nature and not in its virtue
-[or mode of action] is abundantly proved by the radiance of the
-solar body on which the human eye cannot dwell and besides this no
-less manifestly by the rays reflected from a concave mirror,
-which--when they strike the eye with such splendour that the eye
-cannot bear them--have a brilliancy equal to the sun in its own
-place. And that this is true I prove by the fact that if the mirror
-has its concavity formed exactly as is requisite for the collecting
-and reflecting of these rays, no created being could endure the
-heat that strikes from the reflected rays of such a mirror. And if
-you argue that the mirror itself is cold and yet send forth hot
-rays, I should reply that those rays come really from the sun and
-that it is the ray of the concave mirror after having passed through
-the window.
-
-Considerations as to the size of the sun (886-891).
-
-886.
-
-The sun does not move. [Footnote: This sentence occurs incidentally
-among mathematical notes, and is written in unusually large
-letters.]
-
-887.
-
-PROOF THAT THE NEARER YOU ARE TO THE SOURCE OF THE SOLAR RAYS, THE
-LARGER WILL THE REFLECTION OF THE SUN FROM THE SEA APPEAR TO YOU.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 4 and fol. Compare Vol. I, Nos. 130, 131.] If it is
-from the centre that the sun employs its radiance to intensify the
-power of its whole mass, it is evident that the farther its rays
-extend, the more widely they will be divided; and this being so,
-you, whose eye is near the water that mirrors the sun, see but a
-small portion of the rays of the sun strike the surface of the
-water, and reflecting the form of the sun. But if you were near to
-the sun--as would be the case when the sun is on the meridian and
-the sea to the westward--you would see the sun, mirrored in the sea,
-of a very great size; because, as you are nearer to the sun, your
-eye taking in the rays nearer to the point of radiation takes more
-of them in, and a great splendour is the result. And in this way it
-can be proved that the moon must have seas which reflect the sun,
-and that the parts which do not shine are land.
-
-888.
-
-Take the measure of the sun at the solstice in mid-June.
-
-889.
-
-WHY THE SUN APPEARS LARGER WHEN SETTING THAN AT NOON, WHEN IT IS
-NEAR TO US.
-
-Every object seen through a curved medium seems to be of larger size
-than it is.
-
-[Footnote: At A is written _sole_ (the sun), at B _terra_ (the
-earth).]
-
-890.
-
-Because the eye is small it can only see the image of the sun as of
-a small size. If the eye were as large as the sun it would see the
-image of the sun in water of the same size as the real body of the
-sun, so long as the water is smooth.
-
-891.
-
-A METHOD OF SEEING THE SUN ECLIPSED WITHOUT PAIN TO THE EYE.
-
-Take a piece of paper and pierce holes in it with a needle, and look
-at the sun through these holes.
-
-III.
-
-THE MOON.
-
-On the luminousity of the moon (892-901).
-
-892.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-As I propose to treat of the nature of the moon, it is necessary
-that first I should describe the perspective of mirrors, whether
-plane, concave or convex; and first what is meant by a luminous ray,
-and how it is refracted by various kinds of media; then, when a
-reflected ray is most powerful, whether when the angle of incidence
-is acute, right, or obtuse, or from a convex, a plane, or a concave
-surface; or from an opaque or a transparent body. Besides this, how
-it is that the solar rays which fall on the waves of the sea, are
-seen by the eye of the same width at the angle nearest to the eye,
-as at the highest line of the waves on the horizon; but
-notwithstanding this the solar rays reflected from the waves of the
-sea assume the pyramidal form and consequently, at each degree of
-distance increase proportionally in size, although to our sight,
-they appear as parallel.
-
-1st. Nothing that has very little weight is opaque.
-
-2dly. Nothing that is excessively weighty can remain beneath that
-which is heavier.
-
-3dly. As to whether the moon is situated in the centre of its
-elements or not.
-
-And, if it has no proper place of its own, like the earth, in the
-midst of its elements, why does it not fall to the centre of our
-elements? [Footnote 26: The problem here propounded by Leonardo was
-not satisfactorily answered till Newton in 1682 formulated the law
-of universal attraction and gravitation. Compare No. 902, lines
-5-15.]
-
-And, if the moon is not in the centre of its own elements and yet
-does not fall, it must then be lighter than any other element.
-
-And, if the moon is lighter than the other elements why is it opaque
-and not transparent?
-
-When objects of various sizes, being placed at various distances,
-look of equal size, there must be the same relative proportion in
-the distances as in the magnitudes of the objects.
-
-[Footnote: In the diagram Leonardo wrote _sole_ at the place marked
-_A_.]
-
-893.
-
-OF THE MOON AND WHETHER IT IS POLISHED AND SPHERICAL.
-
-The image of the sun in the moon is powerfully luminous, and is only
-on a small portion of its surface. And the proof may be seen by
-taking a ball of burnished gold and placing it in the dark with a
-light at some distance from it; and then, although it will
-illuminate about half of the ball, the eye will perceive its
-reflection only in a small part of its surface, and all the rest of
-the surface reflects the darkness which surrounds it; so that it is
-only in that spot that the image of the light is seen, and all the
-rest remains invisible, the eye being at a distance from the ball.
-The same thing would happen on the surface of the moon if it were
-polished, lustrous and opaque, like all bodies with a reflecting
-surface.
-
-Show how, if you were standing on the moon or on a star, our earth
-would seem to reflect the sun as the moon does.
-
-And show that the image of the sun in the sea cannot appear one and
-undivided, as it appears in a perfectly plane mirror.
-
-894.
-
-How shadows are lost at great distances, as is shown by the shadow
-side of the moon which is never seen. [Footnote: Compare also Vol.
-I, Nos. 175-179.]
-
-895.
-
-Either the moon has intrinsic luminosity or not. If it has, why does
-it not shine without the aid of the sun? But if it has not any light
-in itself it must of necessity be a spherical mirror; and if it is a
-mirror, is it not proved in Perspective that the image of a luminous
-object will never be equal to the extent of surface of the
-reflecting body that it illuminates? And if it be thus [Footnote 13:
-At A, in the diagram, Leonardo wrote "_sole_" (the sun), and at B
-"_luna o noi terra_" (the moon or our earth). Compare also the text
-of No. 876.], as is here shown at _r s_ in the figure, whence comes
-so great an extent of radiance as that of the full moon as we see
-it, at the fifteenth day of the moon?
-
-896.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-The moon has no light in itself; but so much of it as faces the sun
-is illuminated, and of that illumined portion we see so much as
-faces the earth. And the moon's night receives just as much light as
-is lent it by our waters as they reflect the image of the sun, which
-is mirrored in all those waters which are on the side towards the
-sun. The outside or surface of the waters forming the seas of the
-moon and of the seas of our globe is always ruffled little or much,
-or more or less--and this roughness causes an extension of the
-numberless images of the sun which are repeated in the ridges and
-hollows, the sides and fronts of the innumerable waves; that is to
-say in as many different spots on each wave as our eyes find
-different positions to view them from. This could not happen, if the
-aqueous sphere which covers a great part of the moon were uniformly
-spherical, for then the images of the sun would be one to each
-spectator, and its reflections would be separate and independent and
-its radiance would always appear circular; as is plainly to be seen
-in the gilt balls placed on the tops of high buildings. But if those
-gilt balls were rugged or composed of several little balls, like
-mulberries, which are a black fruit composed of minute round
-globules, then each portion of these little balls, when seen in the
-sun, would display to the eye the lustre resulting from the
-reflection of the sun, and thus, in one and the same body many tiny
-suns would be seen; and these often combine at a long distance and
-appear as one. The lustre of the new moon is brighter and stronger,
-than when the moon is full; and the reason of this is that the angle
-of incidence is more obtuse in the new than in the full moon, in
-which the angles [of incidence and reflection] are highly acute. The
-waves of the moon therefore mirror the sun in the hollows of the
-waves as well as on the ridges, and the sides remain in shadow. But
-at the sides of the moon the hollows of the waves do not catch the
-sunlight, but only their crests; and thus the images are fewer and
-more mixed up with the shadows in the hollows; and this
-intermingling of the shaded and illuminated spots comes to the eye
-with a mitigated splendour, so that the edges will be darker,
-because the curves of the sides of the waves are insufficient to
-reflect to the eye the rays that fall upon them. Now the new moon
-naturally reflects the solar rays more directly towards the eye from
-the crests of the waves than from any other part, as is shown by the
-form of the moon, whose rays a strike the waves _b_ and are
-reflected in the line _b d_, the eye being situated at _d_. This
-cannot happen at the full moon, when the solar rays, being in the
-west, fall on the extreme waters of the moon to the East from _n_ to
-_m_, and are not reflected to the eye in the West, but are thrown
-back eastwards, with but slight deflection from the straight course
-of the solar ray; and thus the angle of incidence is very wide
-indeed.
-
-The moon is an opaque and solid body and if, on the contrary, it
-were transparent, it would not receive the light of the sun.
-
-The yellow or yolk of an egg remains in the middle of the albumen,
-without moving on either side; now it is either lighter or heavier
-than this albumen, or equal to it; if it is lighter, it ought to
-rise above all the albumen and stop in contact with the shell of the
-egg; and if it is heavier, it ought to sink, and if it is equal, it
-might just as well be at one of the ends, as in the middle or below
-[54].
-
-[Footnote 48-64: Compare No. 861.]
-
-The innumerable images of the solar rays reflected from the
-innumerable waves of the sea, as they fall upon those waves, are
-what cause us to see the very broad and continuous radiance on the
-surface of the sea.
-
-897.
-
-That the sun could not be mirrored in the body of the moon, which is
-a convex mirror, in such a way as that so much of its surface as is
-illuminated by the sun, should reflect the sun unless the moon had a
-surface adapted to reflect it--in waves and ridges, like the surface
-of the sea when its surface is moved by the wind.
-
-[Footnote: In the original diagrams _sole_ is written at the place
-marked _A; luna_ at _C,_ and _terra_ at the two spots marked _B_.]
-
-The waves in water multiply the image of the object reflected in it.
-
-These waves reflect light, each by its own line, as the surface of
-the fir cone does [Footnote 14: See the diagram p. 145.]
-
-These are 2 figures one different from the other; one with
-undulating water and the other with smooth water.
-
-It is impossible that at any distance the image of the sun cast on
-the surface of a spherical body should occupy the half of the
-sphere.
-
-Here you must prove that the earth produces all the same effects
-with regard to the moon, as the moon with regard to the earth.
-
-The moon, with its reflected light, does not shine like the sun,
-because the light of the moon is not a continuous reflection of that
-of the sun on its whole surface, but only on the crests and hollows
-of the waves of its waters; and thus the sun being confusedly
-reflected, from the admixture of the shadows that lie between the
-lustrous waves, its light is not pure and clear as the sun is.
-
-[Footnote 38: This refers to the small diagram placed between _B_
-and _B_.--]. The earth between the moon on the fifteenth day and the
-sun. [Footnote 39: See the diagram below the one referred to in the
-preceding note.] Here the sun is in the East and the moon on the
-fifteenth day in the West. [Footnote 40.41: Refers to the diagram
-below the others.] The moon on the fifteenth [day] between the earth
-and the sun. [41]Here it is the moon which has the sun to the West
-and the earth to the East.
-
-898.
-
-WHAT SORT OF THING THE MOON IS.
-
-The moon is not of itself luminous, but is highly fitted to
-assimilate the character of light after the manner of a mirror, or
-of water, or of any other reflecting body; and it grows larger in
-the East and in the West, like the sun and the other planets. And
-the reason is that every luminous body looks larger in proportion as
-it is remote. It is easy to understand that every planet and star is
-farther from us when in the West than when it is overhead, by about
-3500 miles, as is proved on the margin [Footnote 7: refers to the
-first diagram.--A = _sole_ (the sun), B = _terra_ (the earth), C =
-_luna_ (the moon).], and if you see the sun or moon mirrored in the
-water near to you, it looks to you of the same size in the water as
-in the sky. But if you recede to the distance of a mile, it will
-look 100 times larger; and if you see the sun reflected in the sea
-at sunset, its image would look to you more than 10 miles long;
-because that reflected image extends over more than 10 miles of sea.
-And if you could stand where the moon is, the sun would look to you,
-as if it were reflected from all the sea that it illuminates by day;
-and the land amid the water would appear just like the dark spots
-that are on the moon, which, when looked at from our earth, appears
-to men the same as our earth would appear to any men who might dwell
-in the moon.
-
-[Footnote: This text has already been published by LIBRI: _Histoire
-des Sciences,_ III, pp. 224, 225.]
-
-OF THE NATURE OF THE MOON.
-
-When the moon is entirely lighted up to our sight, we see its full
-daylight; and at that time, owing to the reflection of the solar
-rays which fall on it and are thrown off towards us, its ocean casts
-off less moisture towards us; and the less light it gives the more
-injurious it is.
-
-899.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-I say that as the moon has no light in itself and yet is luminous,
-it is inevitable but that its light is caused by some other body.
-
-900.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-All my opponent's arguments to say that there is no water in the
-moon. [Footnote: The objections are very minutely noted down in the
-manuscript, but they hardly seem to have a place here.]
-
-901.
-
-Answer to Maestro Andrea da Imola, who said that the solar rays
-reflected from a convex mirror are mingled and lost at a short
-distance; whereby it is altogether denied that the luminous side of
-the moon is of the nature of a mirror, and that consequently the
-light is not produced by the innumerable multitude of the waves of
-that sea, which I declared to be the portion of the moon which is
-illuminated by the solar rays.
-
-Let _o p_ be the body of the sun, _c n s_ the moon, and _b_ the eye
-which, above the base _c n_ of the cathetus _c n m_, sees the body
-of the sun reflected at equal angles _c n_; and the same again on
-moving the eye from _b_ to _a_. [Footnote: The large diagram on the
-margin of page 161 belongs to this chapter.]
-
-Explanation of the lumen cinereum in the moon.
-
-902.
-
-OF THE MOON.
-
-No solid body is less heavy than the atmosphere.
-
-[Footnote: 1. On the margin are the words _tola romantina,
-tola--ferro stagnato_ (tinned iron); _romantina_ is some special
-kind of sheet-iron no longer known by that name.]
-
-Having proved that the part of the moon that shines consists of
-water, which mirrors the body of the sun and reflects the radiance
-it receives from it; and that, if these waters were devoid of waves,
-it would appear small, but of a radiance almost like the sun; --[5]
-It must now be shown whether the moon is a heavy or a light body:
-for, if it were a heavy body--admitting that at every grade of
-distance from the earth greater levity must prevail, so that water
-is lighter than the earth, and air than water, and fire than air and
-so on successively--it would seem that if the moon had density as it
-really has, it would have weight, and having weight, that it could
-not be sustained in the space where it is, and consequently that it
-would fall towards the centre of the universe and become united to
-the earth; or if not the moon itself, at least its waters would fall
-away and be lost from it, and descend towards the centre, leaving
-the moon without any and so devoid of lustre. But as this does not
-happen, as might in reason be expected, it is a manifest sign that
-the moon is surrounded by its own elements: that is to say water,
-air and fire; and thus is, of itself and by itself, suspended in
-that part of space, as our earth with its element is in this part of
-space; and that heavy bodies act in the midst of its elements just
-as other heavy bodies do in ours [Footnote 15: This passage would
-certainly seem to establish Leonardo's claim to be regarded as the
-original discoverer of the cause of the ashy colour of the new moon
-(_lumen cinereum_). His observations however, having hitherto
-remained unknown to astronomers, Moestlin and Kepler have been
-credited with the discoveries which they made independently a
-century later.
-
-Some disconnected notes treat of the same subject in MS. C. A. 239b;
-718b and 719b; "_Perche la luna cinta della parte alluminata dal
-sole in ponente, tra maggior splendore in mezzo a tal cerchio, che
-quando essa eclissava il sole. Questo accade perche nell' eclissare
-il sole ella ombrava il nostro oceano, il qual caso non accade
-essendo in ponente, quando il sole alluma esso oceano_." The editors
-of the "_Saggio_" who first published this passage (page 12) add
-another short one about the seasons in the moon which I confess not
-to have seen in the original manuscript: "_La luna ha ogni mese un
-verno e una state, e ha maggiori freddi e maggiori caldi, e i suoi
-equinozii son piu freddi de' nostri._"]
-
-When the eye is in the East and sees the moon in the West near to
-the setting sun, it sees it with its shaded portion surrounded by
-luminous portions; and the lateral and upper portion of this light
-is derived from the sun, and the lower portion from the ocean in the
-West, which receives the solar rays and reflects them on the lower
-waters of the moon, and indeed affords the part of the moon that is
-in shadow as much radiance as the moon gives the earth at midnight.
-Therefore it is not totally dark, and hence some have believed that
-the moon must in parts have a light of its own besides that which is
-given it by the sun; and this light is due, as has been said, to the
-above- mentioned cause,--that our seas are illuminated by the sun.
-
-Again, it might be said that the circle of radiance shown by the
-moon when it and the sun are both in the West is wholly borrowed
-from the sun, when it, and the sun, and the eye are situated as is
-shown above.
-
-[Footnote 23. 24: The larger of the two diagrams reproduced above
-stands between these two lines, and the smaller one is sketched in
-the margin. At the spot marked _A_ Leonardo wrote _corpo solare_
-(solar body) in the larger diagram and _Sole_ (sun) in the smaller
-one. At _C luna_ (moon) is written and at _B terra_ (the earth).]
-
-Some might say that the air surrounding the moon as an element,
-catches the light of the sun as our atmosphere does, and that it is
-this which completes the luminous circle on the body of the moon.
-
-Some have thought that the moon has a light of its own, but this
-opinion is false, because they have founded it on that dim light
-seen between the hornes of the new moon, which looks dark where it
-is close to the bright part, while against the darkness of the
-background it looks so light that many have taken it to be a ring of
-new radiance completing the circle where the tips of the horns
-illuminated by the sun cease to shine [Footnote 34: See Pl. CVIII,
-No. 5.]. And this difference of background arises from the fact that
-the portion of that background which is conterminous with the bright
-part of the moon, by comparison with that brightness looks darker
-than it is; while at the upper part, where a portion of the luminous
-circle is to be seen of uniform width, the result is that the moon,
-being brighter there than the medium or background on which it is
-seen by comparison with that darkness it looks more luminous at that
-edge than it is. And that brightness at such a time itself is
-derived from our ocean and other inland-seas. These are, at that
-time, illuminated by the sun which is already setting in such a way
-as that the sea then fulfils the same function to the dark side of
-the moon as the moon at its fifteenth day does to us when the sun is
-set. And the small amount of light which the dark side of the moon
-receives bears the same proportion to the light of that side which
-is illuminated, as that... [Footnote 42: Here the text breaks off;
-lines 43-52 are written on the margin.].
-
-If you want to see how much brighter the shaded portion of the moon
-is than the background on which it is seen, conceal the luminous
-portion of the moon with your hand or with some other more distant
-object.
-
-On the spots in the moon (903-907).
-
-903.
-
-THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-Some have said that vapours rise from the moon, after the manner of
-clouds and are interposed between the moon and our eyes. But, if
-this were the case, these spots would never be permanent, either as
-to position or form; and, seeing the moon from various aspects, even
-if these spots did not move they would change in form, as objects do
-which are seen from different sides.
-
-904.
-
-OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-Others say that the moon is composed of more or less transparent
-parts; as though one part were something like alabaster and others
-like crystal or glass. It would follow from this that the sun
-casting its rays on the less transparent portions, the light would
-remain on the surface, and so the denser part would be illuminated,
-and the transparent portions would display the shadow of their
-darker depths; and this is their account of the structure and nature
-of the moon. And this opinion has found favour with many
-philosophers, and particularly with Aristotle, and yet it is a false
-view--for, in the various phases and frequent changes of the moon
-and sun to our eyes, we should see these spots vary, at one time
-looking dark and at another light: they would be dark when the sun
-is in the West and the moon in the middle of the sky; for then the
-transparent hollows would be in shadow as far as the tops of the
-edges of those transparent hollows, because the sun could not then
-fling his rays into the mouth of the hollows, which however, at full
-moon, would be seen in bright light, at which time the moon is in
-the East and faces the sun in the West; then the sun would
-illuminate even the lowest depths of these transparent places and
-thus, as there would be no shadows cast, the moon at these times
-would not show us the spots in question; and so it would be, now
-more and now less, according to the changes in the position of the
-sun to the moon, and of the moon to our eyes, as I have said above.
-
-905.
-
-OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON.
-
-It has been asserted, that the spots on the moon result from the
-moon being of varying thinness or density; but if this were so, when
-there is an eclipse of the moon the solar rays would pierce through
-the portions which were thin as is alleged [Footnote 3-5: _Eclissi_.
-This word, as it seems to me, here means eclipses of the sun; and
-the sense of the passage, as I understand it, is that by the
-foregoing hypothesis the moon, when it comes between the sun and the
-earth must appear as if pierced,--we may say like a sieve.]. But as
-we do not see this effect the opinion must be false.
-
-Others say that the surface of the moon is smooth and polished and
-that, like a mirror, it reflects in itself the image of our earth.
-This view is also false, inasmuch as the land, where it is not
-covered with water, presents various aspects and forms. Hence when
-the moon is in the East it would reflect different spots from those
-it would show when it is above us or in the West; now the spots on
-the moon, as they are seen at full moon, never vary in the course of
-its motion over our hemisphere. A second reason is that an object
-reflected in a convex body takes up but a small portion of that
-body, as is proved in perspective [Footnote 18: _come e provato_.
-This alludes to the accompanying diagram.]. The third reason is that
-when the moon is full, it only faces half the hemisphere of the
-illuminated earth, on which only the ocean and other waters reflect
-bright light, while the land makes spots on that brightness; thus
-half of our earth would be seen girt round with the brightness of
-the sea lighted up by the sun, and in the moon this reflection would
-be the smallest part of that moon. Fourthly, a radiant body cannot
-be reflected from another equally radiant; therefore the sea, since
-it borrows its brightness from the sun,--as the moon does--, could
-not cause the earth to be reflected in it, nor indeed could the body
-of the sun be seen reflected in it, nor indeed any star opposite to
-it.
-
-906.
-
-If you keep the details of the spots of the moon under observation
-you will often find great variation in them, and this I myself have
-proved by drawing them. And this is caused by the clouds that rise
-from the waters in the moon, which come between the sun and those
-waters, and by their shadow deprive these waters of the sun's rays.
-Thus those waters remain dark, not being able to reflect the solar
-body.
-
-907.
-
-How the spots on the moon must have varied from what they formerly
-were, by reason of the course of its waters.
-
-On the moon's halo.
-
-908.
-
-OF HALOS ROUND THE MOON.
-
-I have found, that the circles which at night seem to surround the
-moon, of various sizes, and degrees of density are caused by various
-gradations in the densities of the vapours which exist at different
-altitudes between the moon and our eyes. And of these halos the
-largest and least red is caused by the lowest of these vapours; the
-second, smaller one, is higher up, and looks redder because it is
-seen through two vapours. And so on, as they are higher they will
-appear smaller and redder, because, between the eye and them, there
-is thicker vapour. Whence it is proved that where they are seen to
-be reddest, the vapours are most dense.
-
-On instruments for observing the moon (909. 910).
-
-909.
-
-If you want to prove why the moon appears larger than it is, when it
-reaches the horizon; take a lens which is highly convex on one
-surface and concave on the opposite, and place the concave side next
-the eye, and look at the object beyond the convex surface; by this
-means you will have produced an exact imitation of the atmosphere
-included beneath the sphere of fire and outside that of water; for
-this atmosphere is concave on the side next the earth, and convex
-towards the fire.
-
-910.
-
-Construct glasses to see the moon magnified.
-
-[Footnote: See the Introduction, p. 136, Fracastoro says in his work
-Homocentres: "_Per dua specilla ocularla si quis perspiciat, alteri
-altero superposito, majora multo et propinquiora videbit
-omnia.--Quin imo quaedam specilla ocularia fiunt tantae densitatis,
-ut si per ea quis aut lunam, aut aliud siderum spectet, adeo
-propinqua illa iudicet, ut ne turres ipsas excedant_" (sect. II c. 8
-and sect. III, c. 23).]
-
-I.
-THE STARS.
-On the light of the stars (911-913).
-911.
-The stars are visible by night and not by day, because we are
-eneath the dense atmosphere, which is full of innumerable
-articles of moisture, each of which independently, when the
-ays of the sun fall upon it, reflects a radiance, and so these
-umberless bright particles conceal the stars; and if it were not
-or this atmosphere the sky would always display the stars against
-ts darkness.
-[Footnote: See No. 296, which also refers to starlight.]
-912.
-Whether the stars have their light from the sun or in themselves.
-Some say that they shine of themselves, alledging that if Venus
-nd Mercury had not a light of their own, when they come between
-ur eye and the sun they would darken so much of the sun as they
-ould cover from our eye. But this is false, for it is proved that
- dark object against a luminous body is enveloped and entirely
-oncealed by the lateral rays of the rest of that luminous body
-nd so remains invisible. As may be seen when the sun is seen
-hrough the boughs of trees bare of their leaves, at some distance
-he branches do not conceal any portion of the sun from our eye.
-he same thing happens with the above mentioned planets which,
-hough they have no light of their own, do not--as has been said--
-onceal any part of the sun from our eye
-[18].
-
-SECOND ARGUMENT.
-
-Some say that the stars appear most brilliant at night in proportion
-as they are higher up; and that if they had no light of their own,
-the shadow of the earth which comes between them and the sun, would
-darken them, since they would not face nor be faced by the solar
-body. But those persons have not considered that the conical shadow
-of the earth cannot reach many of the stars; and even as to those it
-does reach, the cone is so much diminished that it covers very
-little of the star's mass, and all the rest is illuminated by the
-sun.
-
-Footnote: From this and other remarks (see No. 902) it is clear
-hat Leonardo was familiar with the phenomena of Irradiation.]
-
-13.
-
-Why the planets appear larger in the East than they do overhead,
-whereas the contrary should be the case, as they are 3500 miles
-nearer to us when in mid sky than when on the horizon.
-
-All the degrees of the elements, through which the images of the
-celestial bodies pass to reach the eye, are equal curves and the
-angles by which the central line of those images passes through
-them, are unequal angles [Footnote 13: _inequali_, here and
-elsewhere does not mean unequal in the sense of not being equal to
-each other, but angles which are not right angles.]; and the
-distance is greater, as is shown by the excess of _a b_ beyond _a
-d_; and the enlargement of these celestial bodies on the horizon is
-shown by the 9th of the 7th.
-
-Observations on the stars.
-
-914.
-
-To see the real nature of the planets open the covering and note at
-the base [Footnote 4: _basa_. This probably alludes to some
-instrument, perhaps the Camera obscura.] one single planet, and the
-reflected movement of this base will show the nature of the said
-planet; but arrange that the base may face only one at the time.
-
-On history of astronomy.
-
-915.
-
-Cicero says in [his book] De Divinatione that Astrology has been
-practised five hundred seventy thousand years before the Trojan war.
-
-57000.
-
-[Footnote: The statement that CICERO, _De Divin._ ascribes the
-discovery of astrology to a period 57000 years before the Trojan war
-I believe to be quite erroneous. According to ERNESTI, _Clavis
-Ciceroniana,_ CH. G. SCHULZ (_Lexic. Cicer._) and the edition of _De
-Divin._ by GIESE the word Astrologia occurs only twice in CICERO:
-_De Divin. II_, 42. _Ad Chaldaeorum monstra veniamus, de quibus
-Eudoxus, Platonis auditor, in astrologia judicio doctissimorum
-hominum facile princeps, sic opinatur (id quod scriptum reliquit):
-Chaldaeis in praedictione et in notatione cujusque vitae ex natali
-die minime esse credendum._" He then quotes the condemnatory verdict
-of other philosophers as to the teaching of the Chaldaeans but says
-nothing as to the antiquity and origin of astronomy. CICERO further
-notes _De oratore_ I, 16 that Aratus was "_ignarus astrologiae_" but
-that is all. So far as I know the word occurs nowhere else in
-CICERO; and the word _Astronomia_ he does not seem to have used at
-all. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
-
-Of time and its divisions (916-918).
-
-916.
-
-Although time is included in the class of Continuous Quantities,
-being indivisible and immaterial, it does not come entirely under
-the head of Geometry, which represents its divisions by means of
-figures and bodies of infinite variety, such as are seen to be
-continuous in their visible and material properties. But only with
-its first principles does it agree, that is with the Point and the
-Line; the point may be compared to an instant of time, and the line
-may be likened to the length of a certain quantity of time, and just
-as a line begins and terminates in a point, so such a space of time.
-begins and terminates in an instant. And whereas a line is
-infinitely divisible, the divisibility of a space of time is of the
-same nature; and as the divisions of the line may bear a certain
-proportion to each other, so may the divisions of time.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is repeated word for word on page 190b of
-the same manuscript and this is accounted for by the text in Vol. I,
-No. 4. Compare also No. 1216.]
-
-917.
-
-Describe the nature of Time as distinguished from the Geometrical
-definitions.
-
-918.
-
-Divide an hour into 3000 parts, and this you can do with a clock by
-making the pendulum lighter or heavier.
-
-_XVI.
-
-Physical Geography.
-
-Leonardo's researches as to the structure of the earth and sea were
-made at a time, when the extended voyages of the Spaniards and
-Portuguese had also excited a special interest in geographical
-questions in Italy, and particularly in Tuscany. Still, it need
-scarcely surprise us to find that in deeper questions, as to the
-structure of the globe, the primitive state of the earth's surface,
-and the like, he was far in advance of his time.
-
-The number of passages which treat of such matters is relatively
-considerable; like almost all Leonardo's scientific notes they deal
-partly with theoretical and partly with practical questions. Some of
-his theoretical views of the motion of water were collected in a
-copied manuscript volume by an early transcriber, but without any
-acknowledgment of the source whence they were derived. This copy is
-now in the Library of the Barberini palace at Rome and was published
-under the title: "De moto e misura dell'acqua," by FRANCESCO
-CARDINALI, Bologna_ 1828. _In this work the texts are arranged under
-the following titles:_ Libr. I. Della spera dell'acqua; Libr. II.
-Del moto dell'acqua; Libr. III. Dell'onda dell'acqua; Libr. IV. Dei
-retrosi d'acqua; Libr. V. Dell'acqua cadente; Libr. VI. Delle
-rotture fatte dall'acqua; Libr. VII Delle cose portate dall'acqua;
-Libr. VIII. Dell'oncia dell'acqua e delle canne; Libr. IX. De molini
-e d'altri ordigni d'acqua.
-
-_The large number of isolated observations scattered through the
-manuscripts, accounts for our so frequently finding notes of new
-schemes for the arrangement of those relating to water and its
-motions, particularly in the Codex Atlanticus: I have printed
-several of these plans as an introduction to the Physical Geography,
-and I have actually arranged the texts in accordance with the clue
-afforded by one of them which is undoubtedly one of the latest notes
-referring to the subject (No._ 920_). The text given as No._ 930
-_which is also taken from a late note-book of Leonardo's, served as
-a basis for the arrangement of the first of the seven books--or
-sections--, bearing the title: Of the Nature of Water_ (Dell'acque
-in se).
-
-_As I have not made it any part of this undertaking to print the
-passages which refer to purely physical principles, it has also been
-necessary to exclude those practical researches which, in accordance
-with indications given in_ 920, _ought to come in as Books_ 13, 14
-_and_ 15. _I can only incidentally mention here that Leonardo--as it
-seems to me, especially in his youth--devoted a great deal of
-attention to the construction of mills. This is proved by a number
-of drawings of very careful and minute execution, which are to be
-found in the Codex Atlanticus. Nor was it possible to include his
-considerations on the regulation of rivers, the making of canals and
-so forth (No._ 920, _Books_ 10, 11 _and_ 12_); but those passages in
-which the structure of a canal is directly connected with notices of
-particular places will be found duly inserted under section XVII
-(Topographical notes). In Vol. I, No._ 5 _the text refers to
-canal-making in general._
-
-_On one point only can the collection of passages included under the
-general heading of Physical Geography claim to be complete. When
-comparing and sorting the materials for this work I took particular
-care not to exclude or omit any text in which a geographical name
-was mentioned even incidentally, since in all such researches the
-chief interest, as it appeared to me, attached to the question
-whether these acute observations on the various local
-characteristics of mountains, rivers or seas, had been made by
-Leonardo himself, and on the spot. It is self-evident that the few
-general and somewhat superficial observations on the Rhine and the
-Danube, on England and Flanders, must have been obtained from maps
-or from some informants, and in the case of Flanders Leonardo
-himself acknowledges this (see No._ 1008_). But that most of the
-other and more exact observations were made, on the spot, by
-Leonardo himself, may be safely assumed from their method and the
-style in which he writes of them; and we should bear it in mind that
-in all investigations, of whatever kind, experience is always spoken
-of as the only basis on which he relies. Incidentally, as in No._
-984, _he thinks it necessary to allude to the total absence of all
-recorded observations._
-
-I.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-Schemes for the arrangement of the materials (919-928).
-
-919.
-
-These books contain in the beginning: Of the nature of water itself
-in its motions; the others treat of the effects of its currents,
-which change the world in its centre and its shape.
-
-920.
-
-DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK.
-
-Book 1 of water in itself.
-
-Book 2 of the sea.
-
-Book 3 of subterranean rivers.
-
-Book 4 of rivers.
-
-Book 5 of the nature of the abyss.
-
-Book 6 of the obstacles.
-
-Book 7 of gravels.
-
-Book 8 of the surface of water.
-
-Book 9 of the things placed therein.
-
-Book 10 of the repairing of rivers.
-
-Book 11 of conduits.
-
-Book 12 of canals.
-
-Book 13 of machines turned by water.
-
-Book 14 of raising water.
-
-Book 15 of matters worn away by water.
-
-921.
-
-First you shall make a book treating of places occupied by fresh
-waters, and the second by salt waters, and the third, how by the
-disappearance of these, our parts of the world were made lighter and
-in consequence more remote from the centre of the world.
-
-922.
-
-First write of all water, in each of its motions; then describe all
-its bottoms and their various materials, always referring to the
-propositions concerning the said waters; and let the order be good,
-for otherwise the work will be confused.
-
-Describe all the forms taken by water from its greatest to its
-smallest wave, and their causes.
-
-923.
-
-Book 9, of accidental risings of water.
-
-924.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE BOOK.
-
-Place at the beginning what a river can effect.
-
-925.
-
-A book of driving back armies by the force of a flood made by
-releasing waters.
-
-A book showing how the waters safely bring down timber cut in the
-mountains.
-
-A book of boats driven against the impetus of rivers.
-
-A book of raising large bridges higher. Simply by the swelling of
-the waters.
-
-A book of guarding against the impetus of rivers so that towns may
-not be damaged by them.
-
-926.
-
-A book of the ordering of rivers so as to preserve their banks.
-
-A book of the mountains, which would stand forth and become land, if
-our hemisphere were to be uncovered by the water.
-
-A book of the earth carried down by the waters to fill up the great
-abyss of the seas.
-
-A book of the ways in which a tempest may of itself clear out filled
-up sea-ports.
-
-A book of the shores of rivers and of their permanency.
-
-A book of how to deal with rivers, so that they may keep their
-bottom scoured by their own flow near the cities they pass.
-
-A book of how to make or to repair the foundations for bridges over
-the rivers.
-
-A book of the repairs which ought to be made in walls and banks of
-rivers where the water strikes them.
-
-A book of the formation of hills of sand or gravel at great depths
-in water.
-
-927.
-
-Water gives the first impetus to its motion.
-
-A book of the levelling of waters by various means,
-
-A book of diverting rivers from places where they do mischief.
-
-A book of guiding rivers which occupy too much ground.
-
-A book of parting rivers into several branches and making them
-fordable.
-
-A book of the waters which with various currents pass through seas.
-
-A book of deepening the beds of rivers by means of currents of
-water.
-
-A book of controlling rivers so that the little beginnings of
-mischief, caused by them, may not increase.
-
-A book of the various movements of waters passing through channels
-of different forms.
-
-A book of preventing small rivers from diverting the larger one into
-which their waters run.
-
-A book of the lowest level which can be found in the current of the
-surface of rivers.
-
-A book of the origin of rivers which flow from the high tops of
-mountains.
-
-A book of the various motions of waters in their rivers.
-
-928.
-
-[1] Of inequality in the concavity of a ship. [Footnote 1: The first
-line of this passage was added subsequently, evidently as a
-correction of the following line.]
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the curve of the sides of ships.
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the position of the tiller.
-
-[1] A book of the inequality in the keel of ships.
-
-[2] A book of various forms of apertures by which water flows out.
-
-[3] A book of water contained in vessels with air, and of its
-movements.
-
-[4] A book of the motion of water through a syphon. [Footnote 7:
-_cicognole_, see No. 966, 11, 17.]
-
-[5] A book of the meetings and union of waters coming from different
-directions.
-
-[6] A book of the various forms of the banks through which rivers
-pass.
-
-[7] A book of the various forms of shoals formed under the sluices
-of rivers.
-
-[8] A book of the windings and meanderings of the currents of
-rivers.
-
-[9] A book of the various places whence the waters of rivers are
-derived.
-
-[10] A book of the configuration of the shores of rivers and of
-their permanency.
-
-[11] A book of the perpendicular fall of water on various objects.
-
-[12] Abook of the course of water when it is impeded in various
-places.
-
-[12] A book of the various forms of the obstacles which impede the
-course of waters.
-
-[13] A book of the concavity and globosity formed round various
-objects at the bottom.
-
-[14] Abook of conducting navigable canals above or beneath the
-rivers which intersect them.
-
-[15] A book of the soils which absorb water in canals and of
-repairing them.
-
-[16] Abook of creating currents for rivers, which quit their beds,
-[and] for rivers choked with soil.
-
-General introduction.
-
-929.
-
-THE BEGINNING OF THE TREATISE ON WATER.
-
-By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and
-certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is
-composed of earth, water, air and fire, his body resembles that of
-the earth; and as man has in him bones the supports and framework of
-his flesh, the world has its rocks the supports of the earth; as man
-has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in
-breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which
-likewise rises and falls every six hours, as if the world breathed;
-as in that pool of blood veins have their origin, which ramify all
-over the human body, so likewise the ocean sea fills the body of the
-earth with infinite springs of water. The body of the earth lacks
-sinews and this is, because the sinews are made expressely for
-movements and, the world being perpetually stable, no movement takes
-place, and no movement taking place, muscles are not necessary.
---But in all other points they are much alike.
-
-I.
-
-OF THE NATURE OF WATER.
-
-The arrangement of Book I.
-
-930.
-
-THE ORDER OF THE FIRST BOOK ON WATER.
-
-Define first what is meant by height and depth; also how the
-elements are situated one inside another. Then, what is meant by
-solid weight and by liquid weight; but first what weight and
-lightness are in themselves. Then describe why water moves, and why
-its motion ceases; then why it becomes slower or more rapid; besides
-this, how it always falls, being in contact with the air but lower
-than the air. And how water rises in the air by means of the heat of
-the sun, and then falls again in rain; again, why water springs
-forth from the tops of mountains; and if the water of any spring
-higher than the ocean can pour forth water higher than the surface
-of that ocean. And how all the water that returns to the ocean is
-higher than the sphere of waters. And how the waters of the
-equatorial seas are higher than the waters of the North, and higher
-beneath the body of the sun than in any part of the equatorial
-circle; for experiment shows that under the heat of a burning brand
-the water near the brand boils, and the water surrounding this
-ebullition always sinks with a circular eddy. And how the waters of
-the North are lower than the other seas, and more so as they become
-colder, until they are converted into ice.
-
-Definitions (931. 932).
-
-931.
-
-OF WHAT IS WATER.
-
-Among the four elements water is the second both in weight and in
-instability.
-
-932.
-
-THE BEGINNING OF THE BOOK ON WATER.
-
-Sea is the name given to that water which is wide and deep, in which
-the waters have not much motion.
-
-[Footnote: Only the beginning of this passage is here given, the
-remainder consists of definitions which have no direct bearing on
-the subject.]
-
-Of the surface of the water in relation to the globe (933-936).
-
-933.
-
-The centres of the sphere of water are two, one universal and common
-to all water, the other particular. The universal one is that which
-is common to all waters not in motion, which exist in great
-quantities. As canals, ditches, ponds, fountains, wells, dead
-rivers, lakes, stagnant pools and seas, which, although they are at
-various levels, have each in itself the limits of their superficies
-equally distant from the centre of the earth, such as lakes placed
-at the tops of high mountains; as the lake near Pietra Pana and the
-lake of the Sybil near Norcia; and all the lakes that give rise to
-great rivers, as the Ticino from Lago Maggiore, the Adda from the
-lake of Como, the Mincio from the lake of Garda, the Rhine from the
-lakes of Constance and of Chur, and from the lake of Lucerne, like
-the Tigris which passes through Asia Minor carrying with it the
-waters of three lakes, one above the other at different heights of
-which the highest is Munace, the middle one Pallas, and the lowest
-Triton; the Nile again flows from three very high lakes in Ethiopia.
-
-[Footnote 5: _Pietra Pana_, a mountain near Florence. If for Norcia,
-we may read Norchia, the remains of the Etruscan city near Viterbo,
-there can be no doubt that by '_Lago della Sibilla_'--a name not
-known elsewhere, so far as I can learn--Leonardo meant _Lago di
-Vico_ (Lacus Ciminus, Aen. 7).]
-
-934.
-
-OF THE CENTRE OF THE OCEAN.
-
-The centre of the sphere of waters is the true centre of the globe
-of our world, which is composed of water and earth, having the shape
-of a sphere. But, if you want to find the centre of the element of
-the earth, this is placed at a point equidistant from the surface of
-the ocean, and not equidistant from the surface of the earth; for it
-is evident that this globe of earth has nowhere any perfect
-rotundity, excepting in places where the sea is, or marshes or other
-still waters. And every part of the earth that rises above the water
-is farther from the centre.
-
-935.
-
-OF THE SEA WHICH CHANGES THE WEIGHT OF THE EARTH.
-
-The shells, oysters, and other similar animals, which originate in
-sea-mud, bear witness to the changes of the earth round the centre
-of our elements. This is proved thus: Great rivers always run
-turbid, being coloured by the earth, which is stirred by the
-friction of their waters at the bottom and on their shores; and this
-wearing disturbs the face of the strata made by the layers of
-shells, which lie on the surface of the marine mud, and which were
-produced there when the salt waters covered them; and these strata
-were covered over again from time to time, with mud of various
-thickness, or carried down to the sea by the rivers and floods of
-more or less extent; and thus these layers of mud became raised to
-such a height, that they came up from the bottom to the air. At the
-present time these bottoms are so high that they form hills or high
-mountains, and the rivers, which wear away the sides of these
-mountains, uncover the strata of these shells, and thus the softened
-side of the earth continually rises and the antipodes sink closer to
-the centre of the earth, and the ancient bottoms of the seas have
-become mountain ridges.
-
-936.
-
-Let the earth make whatever changes it may in its weight, the
-surface of the sphere of waters can never vary in its equal distance
-from the centre of the world.
-
-Of the proportion of the mass of water to that of the earth (937.
-938).
-
-937.
-
-WHETHER THE EARTH IS LESS THAN THE WATER.
-
-Some assert that it is true that the earth, which is not covered by
-water is much less than that covered by water. But considering the
-size of 7000 miles in diameter which is that of this earth, we may
-conclude the water to be of small depth.
-
-938.
-
-OF THE EARTH.
-
-The great elevations of the peaks of the mountains above the sphere
-of the water may have resulted from this that: a very large portion
-of the earth which was filled with water that is to say the vast
-cavern inside the earth may have fallen in a vast part of its vault
-towards the centre of the earth, being pierced by means of the
-course of the springs which continually wear away the place where
-they pass.
-
-Sinking in of countries like the Dead Sea in Syria, that is Sodom
-and Gomorrah.
-
-It is of necessity that there should be more water than land, and
-the visible portion of the sea does not show this; so that there
-must be a great deal of water inside the earth, besides that which
-rises into the lower air and which flows through rivers and springs.
-
-[Footnote: The small sketch below on the left, is placed in the
-original close to the text referring to the Dead Sea.]
-
-The theory of Plato.
-
-939.
-
-THE FIGURES OF THE ELEMENTS.
-
-Of the figures of the elements; and first as against those who deny
-the opinions of Plato, and who say that if the elements include one
-another in the forms attributed to them by Plato they would cause a
-vacuum one within the other. I say it is not true, and I here prove
-it, but first I desire to propound some conclusions. It is not
-necessary that the elements which include each other should be of
-corresponding magnitude in all the parts, of that which includes and
-of that which is included. We see that the sphere of the waters
-varies conspicuously in mass from the surface to the bottom, and
-that, far from investing the earth when that was in the form of a
-cube that is of 8 angles as Plato will have it, that it invests the
-earth which has innumerable angles of rock covered by the water and
-various prominences and concavities, and yet no vacuum is generated
-between the earth and water; again, the air invests the sphere of
-waters together with the mountains and valleys, which rise above
-that sphere, and no vacuum remains between the earth and the air, so
-that any one who says a vacuum is generated, speaks foolishly.
-
-But to Plato I would reply that the surface of the figures which
-according to him the elements would have, could not exist.
-
-That the flow of rivers proves the slope of the land.
-
-940.
-
-PROVES HOW THE EARTH IS NOT GLOBULAR AND NOT BEING GLOBULAR CANNOT
-HAVE A COMMON CENTRE.
-
-We see the Nile come from Southern regions and traverse various
-provinces, running towards the North for a distance of 3000 miles
-and flow into the Mediterranean by the shores of Egypt; and if we
-will give to this a fall of ten braccia a mile, as is usually
-allowed to the course of rivers in general, we shall find that the
-Nile must have its mouth ten miles lower than its source. Again, we
-see the Rhine, the Rhone and the Danube starting from the German
-parts, almost the centre of Europe, and having a course one to the
-East, the other to the North, and the last to Southern seas. And if
-you consider all this you will see that the plains of Europe in
-their aggregate are much higher than the high peaks of the maritime
-mountains; think then how much their tops must be above the sea
-shores.
-
-Theory of the elevation of water within the mountains.
-
-941.
-
-OF THE HEAT THAT IS IN THE WORLD.
-
-Where there is life there is heat, and where vital heat is, there is
-movement of vapour. This is proved, inasmuch as we see that the
-element of fire by its heat always draws to itself damp vapours and
-thick mists as opaque clouds, which it raises from seas as well as
-lakes and rivers and damp valleys; and these being drawn by degrees
-as far as the cold region, the first portion stops, because heat and
-moisture cannot exist with cold and dryness; and where the first
-portion stops the rest settle, and thus one portion after another
-being added, thick and dark clouds are formed. They are often wafted
-about and borne by the winds from one region to another, where by
-their density they become so heavy that they fall in thick rain; and
-if the heat of the sun is added to the power of the element of fire,
-the clouds are drawn up higher still and find a greater degree of
-cold, in which they form ice and fall in storms of hail. Now the
-same heat which holds up so great a weight of water as is seen to
-rain from the clouds, draws them from below upwards, from the foot
-of the mountains, and leads and holds them within the summits of the
-mountains, and these, finding some fissure, issue continuously and
-cause rivers.
-
-The relative height of the surface of the sea to that of the land
-(942-945).
-
-942.
-
-OF THE SEA, WHICH TO MANY FOOLS APPEARS TO BE HIGHER THAN THE EARTH
-WHICH FORMS ITS SHORE.
-
-_b d_ is a plain through which a river flows to the sea; this plain
-ends at the sea, and since in fact the dry land that is uncovered is
-not perfectly level--for, if it were, the river would have no
-motion--as the river does move, this place is a slope rather than a
-plain; hence this plain _d b_ so ends where the sphere of water
-begins that if it were extended in a continuous line to _b a_ it
-would go down beneath the sea, whence it follows that the sea _a c
-b_ looks higher than the dry land.
-
-Obviously no portions of dry land left uncovered by water can ever
-be lower than the surface of the watery sphere.
-
-943.
-
-OF CERTAIN PERSONS WHO SAY THE WATERS WERE HIGHER THAN THE DRY LAND.
-
-Certainly I wonder not a little at the common opinion which is
-contrary to truth, but held by the universal consent of the judgment
-of men. And this is that all are agreed that the surface of the sea
-is higher than the highest peaks of the mountains; and they allege
-many vain and childish reasons, against which I will allege only one
-simple and short reason; We see plainly that if we could remove the
-shores of the sea, it would invest the whole earth and make it a
-perfect sphere. Now, consider how much earth would be carried away
-to enable the waves of the sea to cover the world; therefore that
-which would be carried away must be higher than the sea-shore.
-
-944.
-
-THE OPINION OF SOME PERSONS WHO SAY THAT THE WATER OF SOME SEAS IS
-HIGHER THAN THE HIGHEST SUMMITS OF MOUNTAINS; AND NEVERTHELESS THE
-WATER WAS FORCED UP TO THESE SUMMITS.
-
-Water would not move from place to place if it were not that it
-seeks the lowest level and by a natural consequence it never can
-return to a height like that of the place where it first on issuing
-from the mountain came to light. And that portion of the sea which,
-in your vain imagining, you say was so high that it flowed over the
-summits of the high mountains, for so many centuries would be
-swallowed up and poured out again through the issue from these
-mountains. You can well imagine that all the time that Tigris and
-Euphrates
-
-945.
-
-have flowed from the summits of the mountains of Armenia, it must be
-believed that all the water of the ocean has passed very many times
-through these mouths. And do you not believe that the Nile must have
-sent more water into the sea than at present exists of all the
-element of water? Undoubtedly, yes. And if all this water had fallen
-away from this body of the earth, this terrestrial machine would
-long since have been without water. Whence we may conclude that the
-water goes from the rivers to the sea, and from the sea to the
-rivers, thus constantly circulating and returning, and that all the
-sea and the rivers have passed through the mouth of the Nile an
-infinite number of times [Footnote: _Moti Armeni, Ermini_ in the
-original, in M. RAVAISSON'S transcript _"monti ernini [le loro
-ruine?]"_. He renders this _"Le Tigre et l'Euphrate se sont deverses
-par les sommets des montagnes [avec leurs eaux destructives?] on
-pent cro're" &c. Leonardo always writes _Ermini, Erminia_, for
-_Armeni, Armenia_ (Arabic: _Irminiah_). M. RAVAISSON also deviates
-from the original in his translation of the following passage: "_Or
-tu ne crois pas que le Nil ait mis plus d'eau dans la mer qu'il n'y
-en a a present dans tout l'element de l'eau. Il est certain que si
-cette eau etait tombee_" &c.]
-
-II.
-
-ON THE OCEAN.
-
-Refutation of Pliny's theory as to the saltness of the sea (946.
-947).
-
-946.
-
-WHY WATER IS SALT.
-
-Pliny says in his second book, chapter 103, that the water of the
-sea is salt because the heat of the sun dries up the moisture and
-drinks it up; and this gives to the wide stretching sea the savour
-of salt. But this cannot be admitted, because if the saltness of the
-sea were caused by the heat of the sun, there can be no doubt that
-lakes, pools and marshes would be so much the more salt, as their
-waters have less motion and are of less depth; but experience shows
-us, on the contrary, that these lakes have their waters quite free
-from salt. Again it is stated by Pliny in the same chapter that this
-saltness might originate, because all the sweet and subtle portions
-which the heat attracts easily being taken away, the more bitter and
-coarser part will remain, and thus the water on the surface is
-fresher than at the bottom [Footnote 22: Compare No. 948.]; but this
-is contradicted by the same reason given above, which is, that the
-same thing would happen in marshes and other waters, which are dried
-up by the heat. Again, it has been said that the saltness of the sea
-is the sweat of the earth; to this it may be answered that all the
-springs of water which penetrate through the earth, would then be
-salt. But the conclusion is, that the saltness of the sea must
-proceed from the many springs of water which, as they penetrate into
-the earth, find mines of salt and these they dissolve in part, and
-carry with them to the ocean and the other seas, whence the clouds,
-the begetters of rivers, never carry it up. And the sea would be
-salter in our times than ever it was at any time; and if the
-adversary were to say that in infinite time the sea would dry up or
-congeal into salt, to this I answer that this salt is restored to
-the earth by the setting free of that part of the earth which rises
-out of the sea with the salt it has acquired, and the rivers return
-it to the earth under the sea.
-
-[Footnote: See PLINY, Hist. Nat. II, CIII [C]. _Itaque Solis ardore
-siccatur liquor: et hoc esse masculum sidus accepimus, torrens
-cuncta sorbensque._ (cp. CIV.) _Sic mari late patenti saporem
-incoqui salis, aut quia exhausto inde dulci tenuique, quod facillime
-trahat vis ignea, omne asperius crassiusque linquatur: ideo summa
-aequorum aqua dulciorem profundam; hanc esse veriorem causam, quam
-quod mare terrae sudor sit aeternus: aut quia plurimum ex arido
-misceatur illi vapore: aut quia terrae natura sicut medicatas aquas
-inficiat_ ... (cp. CV): _altissimum mare XV. stadiorum Fabianus
-tradit. Alii n Ponto coadverso Coraxorum gentis (vocant B Ponti)
-trecentis fere a continenti stadiis immensam altitudinem maris
-tradunt, vadis nunquam repertis._ (cp. CVI [CIII]) _Mirabilius id
-faciunt aquae dulces, juxta mare, ut fistulis emicantes. Nam nec
-aquarum natura a miraculis cessat. Dulces mari invehuntur, leviores
-haud dubie. Ideo et marinae, quarum natura gravior, magis invecta
-sustinent. Quaedam vero et dulces inter se supermeant alias._]
-
-947.
-
-For the third and last reason we will say that salt is in all
-created things; and this we learn from water passed over the ashes
-and cinders of burnt things; and the urine of every animal, and the
-superfluities issuing from their bodies, and the earth into which
-all things are converted by corruption.
-
-But,--to put it better,--given that the world is everlasting, it
-must be admitted that its population will also be eternal; hence the
-human species has eternally been and would be consumers of salt; and
-if all the mass of the earth were to be turned into salt, it would
-not suffice for all human food [Footnote 27: That is, on the
-supposition that salt, once consumed, disappears for ever.]; whence
-we are forced to admit, either that the species of salt must be
-everlasting like the world, or that it dies and is born again like
-the men who devour it. But as experience teaches us that it does not
-die, as is evident by fire, which does not consume it, and by water
-which becomes salt in proportion to the quantity dissolved in
-it,--and when it is evaporated the salt always remains in the
-original quantity--it must pass through the bodies of men either in
-the urine or the sweat or other excretions where it is found again;
-and as much salt is thus got rid of as is carried every year into
-towns; therefore salt is dug in places where there is urine.-- Sea
-hogs and sea winds are salt.
-
-We will say that the rains which penetrate the earth are what is
-under the foundations of cities with their inhabitants, and are what
-restore through the internal passages of the earth the saltness
-taken from the sea; and that the change in the place of the sea,
-which has been over all the mountains, caused it to be left there in
-the mines found in those mountains, &c.
-
-The characteristics of sea water (948. 949).
-
-948.
-
-The waters of the salt sea are fresh at the greatest depths.
-
-949.
-
-THAT THE OCEAN DOES NOT PENETRATE UNDER THE EARTH.
-
-The ocean does not penetrate under the earth, and this we learn from
-the many and various springs of fresh water which, in many parts of
-the ocean make their way up from the bottom to the surface. The same
-thing is farther proved by wells dug beyond the distance of a mile
-from the said ocean, which fill with fresh water; and this happens
-because the fresh water is lighter than salt water and consequently
-more penetrating.
-
-Which weighs most, water when frozen or when not frozen?
-
-FRESH WATER PENETRATES MORE AGAINST SALT WATER THAN SALT WATER
-AGAINST FRESH WATER.
-
-That fresh water penetrates more against salt water, than salt water
-against fresh is proved by a thin cloth dry and old, hanging with
-the two opposite ends equally low in the two different waters, the
-surfaces of which are at an equal level; and it will then be seen
-how much higher the fresh water will rise in this piece of linen
-than the salt; by so much is the fresh lighter than the salt.
-
-On the formation of Gulfs (950. 951).
-
-950.
-
-All inland seas and the gulfs of those seas, are made by rivers
-which flow into the sea.
-
-951.
-
-HERE THE REASON IS GIVEN OF THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY THE WATERS IN
-THE ABOVE MENTIONED PLACE.
-
-All the lakes and all the gulfs of the sea and all inland seas are
-due to rivers which distribute their waters into them, and from
-impediments in their downfall into the Mediterranean --which divides
-Africa from Europe and Europe from Asia by means of the Nile and the
-Don which pour their waters into it. It is asked what impediment is
-great enough to stop the course of the waters which do not reach the
-ocean.
-
-On the encroachments of the sea on the land and vice versa
-(952-954).
-
-952.
-
-OF WAVES.
-
-A wave of the sea always breaks in front of its base, and that
-portion of the crest will then be lowest which before was highest.
-
-[Footnote: The page of FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO'S _Trattato_, on which
-Leonardo has written this remark, contains some notes on the
-construction of dams, harbours &c.]
-
-953.
-
-That the shores of the sea constantly acquire more soil towards the
-middle of the sea; that the rocks and promontories of the sea are
-constantly being ruined and worn away; that the Mediterranean seas
-will in time discover their bottom to the air, and all that will be
-left will be the channel of the greatest river that enters it; and
-this will run to the ocean and pour its waters into that with those
-of all the rivers that are its tributaries.
-
-954.
-
-How the river Po, in a short time might dry up the Adriatic sea in
-the same way as it has dried up a large part of Lombardy.
-
-The ebb and flow of the tide (955-960).
-
-955.
-
-Where there is a larger quantity of water, there is a greater flow
-and ebb, but the contrary in narrow waters.
-
-Look whether the sea is at its greatest flow when the moon is half
-way over our hemisphere [on the meridian].
-
-956.
-
-Whether the flow and ebb are caused by the moon or the sun, or are
-the breathing of this terrestrial machine. That the flow and ebb are
-different in different countries and seas.
-
-[Footnote: 1. Allusion may here be made to the mythological
-explanation of the ebb and flow given in the Edda. Utgardloki says
-to Thor (Gylfaginning 48): "When thou wert drinking out of the horn,
-and it seemed to thee that it was slow in emptying a wonder befell,
-which I should not have believed possible: the other end of the horn
-lay in the sea, which thou sawest not; but when thou shalt go to the
-sea, thou shalt see how much thou hast drunk out of it. And that men
-now call the ebb tide."
-
-Several passages in various manuscripts treat of the ebb and flow.
-In collecting them I have been guided by the rule only to transcribe
-those which named some particular spot.]
-
-957.
-
-Book 9 of the meeting of rivers and their flow and ebb. The cause is
-the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of Gibraltar.
-And again it is caused by whirlpools.
-
-958.
-
-OF THE FLOW AND EBB.
-
-All seas have their flow and ebb in the same period, but they seem
-to vary because the days do not begin at the same time throughout
-the universe; in such wise as that when it is midday in our
-hemisphere, it is midnight in the opposite hemisphere; and at the
-Eastern boundary of the two hemispheres the night begins which
-follows on the day, and at the Western boundary of these hemispheres
-begins the day, which follows the night from the opposite side.
-Hence it is to be inferred that the above mentioned swelling and
-diminution in the height of the seas, although they take place in
-one and the same space of time, are seen to vary from the above
-mentioned causes. The waters are then withdrawn into the fissures
-which start from the depths of the sea and which ramify inside the
-body of the earth, corresponding to the sources of rivers, which are
-constantly taking from the bottom of the sea the water which has
-flowed into it. A sea of water is incessantly being drawn off from
-the surface of the sea. And if you should think that the moon,
-rising at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean sea must there begin
-to attract to herself the waters of the sea, it would follow that we
-must at once see the effect of it at the Eastern end of that sea.
-Again, as the Mediterranean sea is about the eighth part of the
-circumference of the aqueous sphere, being 3000 miles long, while
-the flow and ebb only occur 4 times in 24 hours, these results would
-not agree with the time of 24 hours, unless this Mediterranean sea
-were six thousand miles in length; because if such a superabundance
-of water had to pass through the straits of Gibraltar in running
-behind the moon, the rush of the water through that strait would be
-so great, and would rise to such a height, that beyond the straits
-it would for many miles rush so violently into the ocean as to cause
-floods and tremendous seething, so that it would be impossible to
-pass through. This agitated ocean would afterwards return the waters
-it had received with equal fury to the place they had come from, so
-that no one ever could pass through those straits. Now experience
-shows that at every hour they are passed in safety, but when the
-wind sets in the same direction as the current, the strong ebb
-increases [Footnote 23: In attempting to get out of the
-Mediterranean, vessels are sometimes detained for a considerable
-time; not merely by the causes mentioned by Leonardo but by the
-constant current flowing eastwards through the middle of the straits
-of Gibraltar.]. The sea does not raise the water that has issued
-from the straits, but it checks them and this retards the tide; then
-it makes up with furious haste for the time it has lost until the
-end of the ebb movement.
-
-959.
-
-That the flow and ebb are not general; for on the shore at Genoa
-there is none, at Venice two braccia, between England and Flanders
-18 braccia. That in the straits of Sicily the current is very strong
-because all the waters from the rivers that flow into the Adriatic
-pass there.
-
-[Footnote: A few more recent data may be given here to facilitate
-comparison. In the Adriatic the tide rises 2 and 1/2 feet, at
-Terracina 1 1/4. In the English channel between Calais and Kent it
-rises from 18 to 20 feet. In the straits of Messina it rises no more
-than 2 1/2 feet, and that only in stormy weather, but the current is
-all the stronger. When Leonardo accounts for this by the southward
-flow of all the Italian rivers along the coasts, the explanation is
-at least based on a correct observation; namely that a steady
-current flows southwards along the coast of Calabria and another
-northwards, along the shores of Sicily; he seems to infer, from the
-direction of the fust, that the tide in the Adriatic is caused by
-it.]
-
-960.
-
-In the West, near to Flanders, the sea rises and decreases every 6
-hours about 20 braccia, and 22 when the moon is in its favour; but
-20 braccia is the general rule, and this rule, as it is evident,
-cannot have the moon for its cause. This variation in the increase
-and decrease of the sea every 6 hours may arise from the damming up
-of the waters, which are poured into the Mediterranean by the
-quantity of rivers from Africa, Asia and Europe, which flow into
-that sea, and the waters which are given to it by those rivers; it
-pours them to the ocean through the straits of Gibraltar, between
-Abila and Calpe [Footnote 5: _Abila_, Lat. _Abyla_, Gr. , now
-Sierra _Ximiera_ near Ceuta; _Calpe_, Lat. _Calpe_. Gr., now
-Gibraltar. Leonardo here uses the ancient names of the rocks, which
-were known as the Pillars of Hercules.]. That ocean extends to the
-island of England and others farther North, and it becomes dammed up
-and kept high in various gulfs. These, being seas of which the
-surface is remote from the centre of the earth, have acquired a
-weight, which as it is greater than the force of the incoming waters
-which cause it, gives this water an impetus in the contrary
-direction to that in which it came and it is borne back to meet the
-waters coming out of the straits; and this it does most against the
-straits of Gibraltar; these, so long as this goes on, remain dammed
-up and all the water which is poured out meanwhile by the
-aforementioned rivers, is pent up [in the Mediterranean]; and this
-might be assigned as the cause of its flow and ebb, as is shown in
-the 21st of the 4th of my theory.
-
-III.
-
-SUBTERRANEAN WATER COURSES.
-
-Theory of the circulation of the waters (961. 962).
-
-961.
-
-Very large rivers flow under ground.
-
-962.
-
-This is meant to represent the earth cut through in the middle,
-showing the depths of the sea and of the earth; the waters start
-from the bottom of the seas, and ramifying through the earth they
-rise to the summits of the mountains, flowing back by the rivers and
-returning to the sea.
-
-Observations in support of the hypothesis (963-969).
-
-963.
-
-The waters circulate with constant motion from the utmost depths of
-the sea to the highest summits of the mountains, not obeying the
-nature of heavy matter; and in this case it acts as does the blood
-of animals which is always moving from the sea of the heart and
-flows to the top of their heads; and here it is that veins burst--as
-one may see when a vein bursts in the nose, that all the blood from
-below rises to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes
-out of a burst vein in the earth it obeys the nature of other things
-heavier than the air, whence it always seeks the lowest places. [7]
-These waters traverse the body of the earth with infinite
-ramifications.
-
-[Footnote: The greater part of this passage has been given as No.
-849 in the section on Anatomy.]
-
-964.
-
-The same cause which stirs the humours in every species of animal
-body and by which every injury is repaired, also moves the waters
-from the utmost depth of the sea to the greatest heights.
-
-965.
-
-It is the property of water that it constitutes the vital human of
-this arid earth; and the cause which moves it through its ramified
-veins, against the natural course of heavy matters, is the same
-property which moves the humours in every species of animal body.
-But that which crowns our wonder in contemplating it is, that it
-rises from the utmost depths of the sea to the highest tops of the
-mountains, and flowing from the opened veins returns to the low
-seas; then once more, and with extreme swiftness, it mounts again
-and returns by the same descent, thus rising from the inside to the
-outside, and going round from the lowest to the highest, from whence
-it rushes down in a natural course. Thus by these two movements
-combined in a constant circulation, it travels through the veins of
-the earth.
-
-966.
-
-WHETHER WATER RISES FROM THE SEA TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-The water of the ocean cannot make its way from the bases to the
-tops of the mountains which bound it, but only so much rises as the
-dryness of the mountain attracts. And if, on the contrary, the rain,
-which penetrates from the summit of the mountain to the base, which
-is the boundary of the sea, descends and softens the slope opposite
-to the said mountain and constantly draws the water, like a syphon
-[Footnote 11: Cicognola, Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.] which
-pours through its longest side, it must be this which draws up the
-water of the sea; thus if _s n_ were the surface of the sea, and the
-rain descends from the top of the mountain _a_ to _n_ on one side,
-and on the other sides it descends from _a_ to _m_, without a doubt
-this would occur after the manner of distilling through felt, or as
-happens through the tubes called syphons [Footnote 17: Cicognola,
-Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.]. And at all times the water
-which has softened the mountain, by the great rain which runs down
-the two opposite sides, would constantly attract the rain _a n_, on
-its longest side together with the water from the sea, if that side
-of the mountain _a m_ were longer than the other _a n_; but this
-cannot be, because no part of the earth which is not submerged by
-the ocean can be lower than that ocean.
-
-967.
-
-OF SPRINGS OF WATER ON THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-It is quite evident that the whole surface of the ocean--when there
-is no storm--is at an equal distance from the centre of the earth,
-and that the tops of the mountains are farther from this centre in
-proportion as they rise above the surface of that sea; therefore if
-the body of the earth were not like that of man, it would be
-impossible that the waters of the sea--being so much lower than the
-mountains--could by their nature rise up to the summits of these
-mountains. Hence it is to be believed that the same cause which
-keeps the blood at the top of the head in man keeps the water at the
-summits of the mountains.
-
-[Footnote: This conception of the rising of the blood, which has
-given rise to the comparison, was recognised as erroneous by
-Leonardo himself at a later period. It must be remembered that the
-MS. A, from which these passages are taken, was written about twenty
-years earlier than the MS. Leic. (Nos. 963 and 849) and twenty-five
-years before the MS. W. An. IV.
-
-There is, in the original a sketch with No. 968 which is not
-reproduced. It represents a hill of the same shape as that shown at
-No. 982. There are veins, or branched streams, on the side of the
-hill, like those on the skull Pl. CVIII, No. 4]
-
-968.
-
-IN CONFIRMATION OF WHY THE WATER GOES TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS.
-
-I say that just as the natural heat of the blood in the veins keeps
-it in the head of man,--for when the man is dead the cold blood
-sinks to the lower parts--and when the sun is hot on the head of a
-man the blood increases and rises so much, with other humours, that
-by pressure in the veins pains in the head are often caused; in the
-same way veins ramify through the body of the earth, and by the
-natural heat which is distributed throughout the containing body,
-the water is raised through the veins to the tops of mountains. And
-this water, which passes through a closed conduit inside the body of
-the mountain like a dead thing, cannot come forth from its low place
-unless it is warmed by the vital heat of the spring time. Again, the
-heat of the element of fire and, by day, the heat of the sun, have
-power to draw forth the moisture of the low parts of the mountains
-and to draw them up, in the same way as it draws the clouds and
-collects their moisture from the bed of the sea.
-
-969.
-
-That many springs of salt water are found at great distances from
-the sea; this might happen because such springs pass through some
-mine of salt, like that in Hungary where salt is hewn out of vast
-caverns, just as stone is hewn.
-
-[Footnote: The great mine of Wieliczka in Galicia, out of which a
-million cwt. of rock-salt are annually dug out, extends for 3000
-metres from West to East, and 1150 metres from North to South.]
-
-IV.
-
-OF RIVERS.
-
-On the way in which the sources of rivers are fed.
-
-970.
-
-OF THE ORIGIN OF RIVERS.
-
-The body of the earth, like the bodies of animals, is intersected
-with ramifications of waters which are all in connection and are
-constituted to give nutriment and life to the earth and to its
-creatures. These come from the depth of the sea and, after many
-revolutions, have to return to it by the rivers created by the
-bursting of these springs; and if you chose to say that the rains of
-the winter or the melting of the snows in summer were the cause of
-the birth of rivers, I could mention the rivers which originate in
-the torrid countries of Africa, where it never rains--and still less
-snows--because the intense heat always melts into air all the clouds
-which are borne thither by the winds. And if you chose to say that
-such rivers, as increase in July and August, come from the snows
-which melt in May and June from the sun's approach to the snows on
-the mountains of Scythia [Footnote 9: Scythia means here, as in
-Ancient Geography, the whole of the Northern part of Asia as far as
-India.], and that such meltings come down into certain valleys and
-form lakes, into which they enter by springs and subterranean caves
-to issue forth again at the sources of the Nile, this is false;
-because Scythia is lower than the sources of the Nile, and, besides,
-Scythia is only 400 miles from the Black sea and the sources of the
-Nile are 3000 miles distant from the sea of Egypt into which its
-waters flow.
-
-The tide in estuaries.
-
-971.
-
-Book 9, of the meeting of rivers and of their ebb and flow. The
-cause is the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of
-Gibraltar; and again it is caused by whirlpools.
-
-[3] If two rivers meet together to form a straight line, and then
-below two right angles take their course together, the flow and ebb
-will happen now in one river and now in the other above their
-confluence, and principally if the outlet for their united volume is
-no swifter than when they were separate. Here occur 4 instances.
-
-[Footnote: The first two lines of this passage have already been
-given as No. 957. In the margin, near line 3 of this passage, the
-text given as No. 919 is written.]
-
-On the alterations, caused in the courses of rivers by their
-confluence (972-974).
-
-972.
-
-When a smaller river pours its waters into a larger one, and that
-larger one flows from the opposite direction, the course of the
-smaller river will bend up against the approach of the larger river;
-and this happens because, when the larger river fills up all its bed
-with water, it makes an eddy in front of the mouth of the other
-river, and so carries the water poured in by the smaller river with
-its own. When the smaller river pours its waters into the larger
-one, which runs across the current at the mouth of the smaller
-river, its waters will bend with the downward movement of the larger
-river. [Footnote: In the original sketches the word _Arno_ is
-written at the spot here marked _A_, at _R. Rifredi_, and at _M.
-Mugnone_.]
-
-973.
-
-When the fulness of rivers is diminished, then the acute angles
-formed at the junction of their branches become shorter at the sides
-and wider at the point; like the current _a n_ and the current _d
-n_, which unite in _n_ when the river is at its greatest fulness. I
-say, that when it is in this condition if, before the fullest time,
-_d n_ was lower than _a n_, at the time of fulness _d n_ will be
-full of sand and mud. When the water _d n_ falls, it will carry away
-the mud and remain with a lower bottom, and the channel _a n_
-finding itself the higher, will fling its waters into the lower, _d
-n_, and will wash away all the point of the sand-spit _b n c_, and
-thus the angle _a c d_ will remain larger than the angle _a n d_ and
-the sides shorter, as I said before.
-
-[Footnote: Above the first sketch we find, in the original, this
-note: "_Sopra il pote rubaconte alla torricella_"; and by the
-second, which represents a pier of a bridge, "_Sotto l'ospedal del
-ceppo._"]
-
-974.
-
-WATER.
-
-OF THE MOVEMENT OF A SUDDEN RUSH MADE BY A RIVER IN ITS BED
-PREVIOUSLY DRY.
-
-In proportion as the current of the water given forth by the
-draining of the lake is slow or rapid in the dry river bed, so will
-this river be wider or narrower, or shallower or deeper in one place
-than another, according to this proposition: the flow and ebb of the
-sea which enters the Mediterranean from the ocean, and of the rivers
-which meet and struggle with it, will raise their waters more or
-less in proportion as the sea is wider or narrower.
-
-[Footnote: In the margin is a sketch of a river which winds so as to
-form islands.]
-
-Whirlpools.
-
-975.
-
-Whirlpools, that is to say caverns; that is to say places left by
-precipitated waters.
-
-On the alterations in the channels of rivers.
-
-976.
-
-OF THE VIBRATION OF THE EARTH.
-
-The subterranean channels of waters, like those which exist between
-the air and the earth, are those which unceasingly wear away and
-deepen the beds of their currents.
-
-The origin of the sand in rivers (977. 978).
-
-977.
-
-A river that flows from mountains deposits a great quantity of large
-stones in its bed, which still have some of their angles and sides,
-and in the course of its flow it carries down smaller stones with
-the angles more worn; that is to say the large stones become
-smaller. And farther on it deposits coarse gravel and then smaller,
-and as it proceeds this becomes coarse sand and then finer, and
-going on thus the water, turbid with sand and gravel, joins the sea;
-and the sand settles on the sea-shores, being cast up by the salt
-waves; and there results the sand of so fine a nature as to seem
-almost like water, and it will not stop on the shores of the sea but
-returns by reason of its lightness, because it was originally formed
-of rotten leaves and other very light things. Still, being
-almost--as was said--of the nature of water itself, it afterwards,
-when the weather is calm, settles and becomes solid at the bottom of
-the sea, where by its fineness it becomes compact and by its
-smoothness resists the waves which glide over it; and in this shells
-are found; and this is white earth, fit for pottery.
-
-978.
-
-All the torrents of water flowing from the mountains to the sea
-carry with them the stones from the hills to the sea, and by the
-influx of the sea-water towards the mountains; these stones were
-thrown back towards the mountains, and as the waters rose and
-retired, the stones were tossed about by it and in rolling, their
-angles hit together; then as the parts, which least resisted the
-blows, were worn off, the stones ceased to be angular and became
-round in form, as may be seen on the banks of the Elsa. And those
-remained larger which were less removed from their native spot; and
-they became smaller, the farther they were carried from that place,
-so that in the process they were converted into small pebbles and
-then into sand and at last into mud. After the sea had receded from
-the mountains the brine left by the sea with other humours of the
-earth made a concretion of these pebbles and this sand, so that the
-pebbles were converted into rock and the sand into tufa. And of this
-we see an example in the Adda where it issues from the mountains of
-Como and in the Ticino, the Adige and the Oglio coming from the
-German Alps, and in the Arno at Monte Albano [Footnote 13: At the
-foot of _Monte Albano_ lies Vinci, the birth place of Leonardo.
-Opposite, on the other bank of the Arno, is _Monte Lupo_.], near
-Monte Lupo and Capraia where the rocks, which are very large, are
-all of conglomerated pebbles of various kinds and colours.
-
-V.
-
-ON MOUNTAINS.
-
-The formation of mountains (979-983).
-
-979.
-
-Mountains are made by the currents of rivers.
-
-Mountains are destroyed by the currents of rivers.
-
-[Footnote: Compare 789.]
-
-980.
-
-That the Northern bases of some Alps are not yet petrified. And this
-is plainly to be seen where the rivers, which cut through them, flow
-towards the North; where they cut through the strata in the living
-stone in the higher parts of the mountains; and, where they join the
-plains, these strata are all of potter's clay; as is to be seen in
-the valley of Lamona where the river Lamona, as it issues from the
-Appenines, does these things on its banks.
-
-That the rivers have all cut and divided the mountains of the great
-Alps one from the other. This is visible in the order of the
-stratified rocks, because from the summits of the banks, down to the
-river the correspondence of the strata in the rocks is visible on
-either side of the river. That the stratified stones of the
-mountains are all layers of clay, deposited one above the other by
-the various floods of the rivers. That the different size of the
-strata is caused by the difference in the floods--that is to say
-greater or lesser floods.
-
-981.
-
-The summits of mountains for a long time rise constantly.
-
-The opposite sides of the mountains always approach each other
-below; the depths of the valleys which are above the sphere of the
-waters are in the course of time constantly getting nearer to the
-centre of the world.
-
-In an equal period, the valleys sink much more than the mountains
-rise.
-
-The bases of the mountains always come closer together.
-
-In proportion as the valleys become deeper, the more quickly are
-their sides worn away.
-
-982.
-
-In every concavity at the summit of the mountains we shall always
-find the divisions of the strata in the rocks.
-
-983.
-
-OF THE SEA WHICH ENCIRCLES THE EARTH.
-
-I find that of old, the state of the earth was that its plains were
-all covered up and hidden by salt water. [Footnote: This passage has
-already been published by Dr. M. JORDAN: _Das Malerbuch des L. da
-Vinci, Leipzig_ 1873, p. 86. However, his reading of the text
-differs from mine.]
-
-The authorities for the study of the structure of the earth.
-
-984.
-
-Since things are much more ancient than letters, it is no marvel if,
-in our day, no records exist of these seas having covered so many
-countries; and if, moreover, some records had existed, war and
-conflagrations, the deluge of waters, the changes of languages and
-of laws have consumed every thing ancient. But sufficient for us is
-the testimony of things created in the salt waters, and found again
-in high mountains far from the seas.
-
-VI.
-
-GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.
-
-985.
-
-In this work you have first to prove that the shells at a thousand
-braccia of elevation were not carried there by the deluge, because
-they are seen to be all at one level, and many mountains are seen to
-be above that level; and to inquire whether the deluge was caused by
-rain or by the swelling of the sea; and then you must show how,
-neither by rain nor by swelling of the rivers, nor by the overflow
-of this sea, could the shells--being heavy objects--be floated up
-the mountains by the sea, nor have carried there by the rivers
-against the course of their waters.
-
-Doubts about the deluge.
-
-986.
-
-A DOUBTFUL POINT.
-
-Here a doubt arises, and that is: whether the deluge, which happened
-at the time of Noah, was universal or not. And it would seem not,
-for the reasons now to be given: We have it in the Bible that this
-deluge lasted 40 days and 40 nights of incessant and universal rain,
-and that this rain rose to ten cubits above the highest mountains in
-the world. And if it had been that the rain was universal, it would
-have covered our globe which is spherical in form. And this
-spherical surface is equally distant in every part, from the centre
-of its sphere; hence the sphere of the waters being under the same
-conditions, it is impossible that the water upon it should move,
-because water, in itself, does not move unless it falls; therefore
-how could the waters of such a deluge depart, if it is proved that
-it has no motion? and if it departed how could it move unless it
-went upwards? Here, then, natural reasons are wanting; hence to
-remove this doubt it is necessary to call in a miracle to aid us, or
-else to say that all this water was evaporated by the heat of the
-sun.
-
-[Footnote: The passages, here given from the MS. Leic., have
-hitherto remained unknown. Some preliminary notes on the subject are
-to be found in MS. F 8oa and 8ob; but as compared with the fuller
-treatment here given, they are, it seems to me, of secondary
-interest. They contain nothing that is not repeated here more
-clearly and fully. LIBRI, _Histoire des Sciences mathematiques III_,
-pages 218--221, has printed the text of F 80a and 80b, therefore it
-seemed desirable to give my reasons for not inserting it in this
-work.]
-
-That marine shells could not go up the mountains.
-
-987.
-
-OF THE DELUGE AND OF MARINE SHELLS.
-
-If you were to say that the shells which are to be seen within the
-confines of Italy now, in our days, far from the sea and at such
-heights, had been brought there by the deluge which left them there,
-I should answer that if you believe that this deluge rose 7 cubits
-above the highest mountains-- as he who measured it has
-written--these shells, which always live near the sea-shore, should
-have been left on the mountains; and not such a little way from the
-foot of the mountains; nor all at one level, nor in layers upon
-layers. And if you were to say that these shells are desirous of
-remaining near to the margin of the sea, and that, as it rose in
-height, the shells quitted their first home, and followed the
-increase of the waters up to their highest level; to this I answer,
-that the cockle is an animal of not more rapid movement than the
-snail is out of water, or even somewhat slower; because it does not
-swim, on the contrary it makes a furrow in the sand by means of its
-sides, and in this furrow it will travel each day from 3 to 4
-braccia; therefore this creature, with so slow a motion, could not
-have travelled from the Adriatic sea as far as Monferrato in
-Lombardy [Footnote: _Monferrato di Lombardia_. The range of hills of
-Monferrato is in Piedmont, and Casale di Monferrato belonged, in
-Leonardo's time, to the Marchese di Mantova.], which is 250 miles
-distance, in 40 days; which he has said who took account of the
-time. And if you say that the waves carried them there, by their
-gravity they could not move, excepting at the bottom. And if you
-will not grant me this, confess at least that they would have to
-stay at the summits of the highest mountains, in the lakes which are
-enclosed among the mountains, like the lakes of Lario, or of Como
-and il Maggiore [Footnote: _Lago di Lario._ Lacus Larius was the
-name given by the Romans to the lake of Como. It is evident that it
-is here a slip of the pen since the the words in the MS. are: _"Come
-Lago di Lario o'l Magare e di Como,"_ In the MS. after line 16 we
-come upon a digression treating of the weight of water; this has
-here been omitted. It is 11 lines long.] and of Fiesole, and of
-Perugia, and others.
-
-And if you should say that the shells were carried by the waves,
-being empty and dead, I say that where the dead went they were not
-far removed from the living; for in these mountains living ones are
-found, which are recognisable by the shells being in pairs; and they
-are in a layer where there are no dead ones; and a little higher up
-they are found, where they were thrown by the waves, all the dead
-ones with their shells separated, near to where the rivers fell into
-the sea, to a great depth; like the Arno which fell from the
-Gonfolina near to Monte Lupo [Footnote: _Monte Lupo_, compare 970,
-13; it is between Empoli and Florence.], where it left a deposit of
-gravel which may still be seen, and which has agglomerated; and of
-stones of various districts, natures, and colours and hardness,
-making one single conglomerate. And a little beyond the sandstone
-conglomerate a tufa has been formed, where it turned towards Castel
-Florentino; farther on, the mud was deposited in which the shells
-lived, and which rose in layers according to the levels at which the
-turbid Arno flowed into that sea. And from time to time the bottom
-of the sea was raised, depositing these shells in layers, as may be
-seen in the cutting at Colle Gonzoli, laid open by the Arno which is
-wearing away the base of it; in which cutting the said layers of
-shells are very plainly to be seen in clay of a bluish colour, and
-various marine objects are found there. And if the earth of our
-hemisphere is indeed raised by so much higher than it used to be, it
-must have become by so much lighter by the waters which it lost
-through the rift between Gibraltar and Ceuta; and all the more the
-higher it rose, because the weight of the waters which were thus
-lost would be added to the earth in the other hemisphere. And if the
-shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been
-mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in
-regular steps and layers-- as we see them now in our time.
-
-The marine shells were not produced away from the sea.
-
-988.
-
-As to those who say that shells existed for a long time and were
-born at a distance from the sea, from the nature of the place and of
-the cycles, which can influence a place to produce such
-creatures--to them it may be answered: such an influence could not
-place the animals all on one line, except those of the same sort and
-age; and not the old with the young, nor some with an operculum and
-others without their operculum, nor some broken and others whole,
-nor some filled with sea-sand and large and small fragments of other
-shells inside the whole shells which remained open; nor the claws of
-crabs without the rest of their bodies; nor the shells of other
-species stuck on to them like animals which have moved about on
-them; since the traces of their track still remain, on the outside,
-after the manner of worms in the wood which they ate into. Nor would
-there be found among them the bones and teeth of fish which some
-call arrows and others serpents' tongues, nor would so many
-[Footnote: I. Scilla argued against this hypothesis, which was still
-accepted in his days; see: _La vana Speculazione, Napoli_ 1670.]
-portions of various animals be found all together if they had not
-been thrown on the sea shore. And the deluge cannot have carried
-them there, because things that are heavier than water do not float
-on the water. But these things could not be at so great a height if
-they had not been carried there by the water, such a thing being
-impossible from their weight. In places where the valleys have not
-been filled with salt sea water shells are never to be seen; as is
-plainly visible in the great valley of the Arno above Gonfolina; a
-rock formerly united to Monte Albano, in the form of a very high
-bank which kept the river pent up, in such a way that before it
-could flow into the sea, which was afterwards at its foot, it formed
-two great lakes; of which the first was where we now see the city of
-Florence together with Prato and Pistoia, and Monte Albano. It
-followed the rest of its bank as far as where Serravalle now stands.
->From the Val d'Arno upwards, as far as Arezzo, another lake was
-formed, which discharged its waters into the former lake. It was
-closed at about the spot where now we see Girone, and occupied the
-whole of that valley above for a distance of 40 miles in length.
-This valley received on its bottom all the soil brought down by the
-turbid waters. And this is still to be seen at the foot of Prato
-Magno; it there lies very high where the rivers have not worn it
-away. Across this land are to be seen the deep cuts of the rivers
-that have passed there, falling from the great mountain of Prato
-Magno; in these cuts there are no vestiges of any shells or of
-marine soil. This lake was joined with that of Perugia [Footnote:
-See PI. CXIII.]
-
-A great quantity of shells are to be seen where the rivers flow into
-the sea, because on such shores the waters are not so salt owing to
-the admixture of the fresh water, which is poured into it. Evidence
-of this is to be seen where, of old, the Appenines poured their
-rivers into the Adriatic sea; for there in most places great
-quantities of shells are to be found, among the mountains, together
-with bluish marine clay; and all the rocks which are torn off in
-such places are full of shells. The same may be observed to have
-been done by the Arno when it fell from the rock of Gonfolina into
-the sea, which was not so very far below; for at that time it was
-higher than the top of San Miniato al Tedesco, since at the highest
-summit of this the shores may be seen full of shells and oysters
-within its flanks. The shells did not extend towards Val di Nievole,
-because the fresh waters of the Arno did not extend so far.
-
-That the shells were not carried away from the sea by the deluge,
-because the waters which came from the earth although they drew the
-sea towards the earth, were those which struck its depths; because
-the water which goes down from the earth, has a stronger current
-than that of the sea, and in consequence is more powerful, and it
-enters beneath the sea water and stirs the depths and carries with
-it all sorts of movable objects which are to be found in the earth,
-such as the above-mentioned shells and other similar things. And in
-proportion as the water which comes from the land is muddier than
-sea water it is stronger and heavier than this; therefore I see no
-way of getting the said shells so far in land, unless they had been
-born there. If you were to tell me that the river Loire [Footnote:
-Leonardo has written Era instead of Loera or Loira--perhaps under
-the mistaken idea that _Lo_ was an article.],which traverses France
-covers when the sea rises more than eighty miles of country, because
-it is a district of vast plains, and the sea rises about 20 braccia,
-and shells are found in this plain at the distance of 80 miles from
-the sea; here I answer that the flow and ebb in our Mediterranean
-Sea does not vary so much; for at Genoa it does not rise at all, and
-at Venice but little, and very little in Africa; and where it varies
-little it covers but little of the country.
-
-The course of the water of a river always rises higher in a place
-where the current is impeded; it behaves as it does where it is
-reduced in width to pass under the arches of a bridge.
-
-Further researches (989-991).
-
-989.
-
-A CONFUTATION OF THOSE WHO SAY THAT SHELLS MAY HAVE BEEN CARRIED TO
-A DISTANCE OF MANY DAYS' JOURNEY FROM THE SEA BY THE DELUGE, WHICH
-WAS SO HIGH AS TO BE ABOVE THOSE HEIGHTS.
-
-I say that the deluge could not carry objects, native to the sea, up
-to the mountains, unless the sea had already increased so as to
-create inundations as high up as those places; and this increase
-could not have occurred because it would cause a vacuum; and if you
-were to say that the air would rush in there, we have already
-concluded that what is heavy cannot remain above what is light,
-whence of necessity we must conclude that this deluge was caused by
-rain water, so that all these waters ran to the sea, and the sea did
-not run up the mountains; and as they ran to the sea, they thrust
-the shells from the shore of the sea and did not draw them to wards
-themselves. And if you were then to say that the sea, raised by the
-rain water, had carried these shells to such a height, we have
-already said that things heavier than water cannot rise upon it, but
-remain at the bottom of it, and do not move unless by the impact of
-the waves. And if you were to say that the waves had carried them to
-such high spots, we have proved that the waves in a great depth move
-in a contrary direction at the bottom to the motion at the top, and
-this is shown by the turbidity of the sea from the earth washed down
-near its shores. Anything which is lighter than the water moves with
-the waves, and is left on the highest level of the highest margin of
-the waves. Anything which is heavier than the water moves, suspended
-in it, between the surface and the bottom; and from these two
-conclusions, which will be amply proved in their place, we infer
-that the waves of the surface cannot convey shells, since they are
-heavier than water.
-
-If the deluge had to carry shells three hundred and four hundred
-miles from the sea, it would have carried them mixed with various
-other natural objects heaped together; and we see at such distances
-oysters all together, and sea-snails, and cuttlefish, and all the
-other shells which congregate together, all to be found together and
-dead; and the solitary shells are found wide apart from each other,
-as we may see them on sea-shores every day. And if we find oysters
-of very large shells joined together and among them very many which
-still have the covering attached, indicating that they were left
-here by the sea, and still living when the strait of Gibraltar was
-cut through; there are to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and
-Piacenza, a multitude of shells and corals, full of holes, and still
-sticking to the rocks there. When I was making the great horse for
-Milan, a large sack full was brought to me in my workshop by certain
-peasants; these were found in that place and among them were many
-preserved in their first freshness.
-
-Under ground, and under the foundations of buildings, timbers are
-found of wrought beams and already black. Such were found in my time
-in those diggings at Castel Fiorentino. And these had been in that
-deep place before the sand carried by the Arno into the sea, then
-covering the plain, had heen raised to such a height; and before the
-plains of Casentino had been so much lowered, by the earth being
-constantly carried down from them.
-
-[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
-
-And if you were to say that these shells were created, and were
-continually being created in such places by the nature of the spot,
-and of the heavens which might have some influence there, such an
-opinion cannot exist in a brain of much reason; because here are the
-years of their growth, numbered on their shells, and there are large
-and small ones to be seen which could not have grown without food,
-and could not have fed without motion--and here they could not move
-[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.]
-
-990.
-
-That in the drifts, among one and another, there are still to be
-found the traces of the worms which crawled upon them when they were
-not yet dry. And all marine clays still contain shells, and the
-shells are petrified together with the clay. From their firmness and
-unity some persons will have it that these animals were carried up
-to places remote from the sea by the deluge. Another sect of
-ignorant persons declare that Nature or Heaven created them in these
-places by celestial influences, as if in these places we did not
-also find the bones of fishes which have taken a long time to grow;
-and as if, we could not count, in the shells of cockles and snails,
-the years and months of their life, as we do in the horns of bulls
-and oxen, and in the branches of plants that have never been cut in
-any part. Besides, having proved by these signs the length of their
-lives, it is evident, and it must be admitted, that these animals
-could not live without moving to fetch their food; and we find in
-them no instrument for penetrating the earth or the rock where we
-find them enclosed. But how could we find in a large snail shell the
-fragments and portions of many other sorts of shells, of various
-sorts, if they had not been thrown there, when dead, by the waves of
-the sea like the other light objects which it throws on the earth?
-Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between layer and
-layer of stone, if this had not formerly been covered on the shore
-by a layer of earth thrown up by the sea, and which was afterwards
-petrified? And if the deluge before mentioned had carried them to
-these parts of the sea, you might find these shells at the boundary
-of one drift but not at the boundary between many drifts. We must
-also account for the winters of the years during which the sea
-multiplied the drifts of sand and mud brought down by the
-neighbouring rivers, by washing down the shores; and if you chose to
-say that there were several deluges to produce these rifts and the
-shells among them, you would also have to affirm that such a deluge
-took place every year. Again, among the fragments of these shells,
-it must be presumed that in those places there were sea coasts,
-where all the shells were thrown up, broken, and divided, and never
-in pairs, since they are found alive in the sea, with two valves,
-each serving as a lid to the other; and in the drifts of rivers and
-on the shores of the sea they are found in fragments. And within the
-limits of the separate strata of rocks they are found, few in number
-and in pairs like those which were left by the sea, buried alive in
-the mud, which subsequently dried up and, in time, was petrified.
-
-991.
-
-And if you choose to say that it was the deluge which carried these
-shells away from the sea for hundreds of miles, this cannot have
-happened, since that deluge was caused by rain; because rain
-naturally forces the rivers to rush towards the sea with all the
-things they carry with them, and not to bear the dead things of the
-sea shores to the mountains. And if you choose to say that the
-deluge afterwards rose with its waters above the mountains, the
-movement of the sea must have been so sluggish in its rise against
-the currents of the rivers, that it could not have carried, floating
-upon it, things heavier than itself; and even if it had supported
-them, in its receding it would have left them strewn about, in
-various spots. But how are we to account for the corals which are
-found every day towards Monte Ferrato in Lombardy, with the holes of
-the worms in them, sticking to rocks left uncovered by the currents
-of rivers? These rocks are all covered with stocks and families of
-oysters, which as we know, never move, but always remain with one of
-their halves stuck to a rock, and the other they open to feed
-themselves on the animalcules that swim in the water, which, hoping
-to find good feeding ground, become the food of these shells. We do
-not find that the sand mixed with seaweed has been petrified,
-because the weed which was mingled with it has shrunk away, and this
-the Po shows us every day in the debris of its banks.
-
-Other problems (992-994).
-
-992.
-
-Why do we find the bones of great fishes and oysters and corals and
-various other shells and sea-snails on the high summits of mountains
-by the sea, just as we find them in low seas?
-
-993.
-
-You now have to prove that the shells cannot have originated if not
-in salt water, almost all being of that sort; and that the shells in
-Lombardy are at four levels, and thus it is everywhere, having been
-made at various times. And they all occur in valleys that open
-towards the seas.
-
-994.
-
->From the two lines of shells we are forced to say that the earth
-indignantly submerged under the sea and so the first layer was made;
-and then the deluge made the second.
-
-[Footnote: This note is in the early writing of about 1470--1480. On
-the same sheet are the passages No. 1217 and 1219. Compare also No.
-1339. All the foregoing chapters are from Manuscripts of about 1510.
-This explains the want of connection and the contradiction between
-this and the foregoing texts.]
-
-VII.
-
-ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
-
-Constituents of the atmosphere.
-
-995.
-
-That the brightness of the air is occasioned by the water which has
-dissolved itself in it into imperceptible molecules. These, being
-lighted by the sun from the opposite side, reflect the brightness
-which is visible in the air; and the azure which is seen in it is
-caused by the darkness that is hidden beyond the air. [Footnote:
-Compare Vol. I, No. 300.]
-
-On the motion of air (996--999).
-
-996.
-
-That the return eddies of wind at the mouth of certain valleys
-strike upon the waters and scoop them out in a great hollow, whirl
-the water into the air in the form of a column, and of the colour of
-a cloud. And I saw this thing happen on a sand bank in the Arno,
-where the sand was hollowed out to a greater depth than the stature
-of a man; and with it the gravel was whirled round and flung about
-for a great space; it appeared in the air in the form of a great
-bell-tower; and the top spread like the branches of a pine tree, and
-then it bent at the contact of the direct wind, which passed over
-from the mountains.
-
-997.
-
-The element of fire acts upon a wave of air in the same way as the
-air does on water, or as water does on a mass of sand --that is
-earth; and their motions are in the same proportions as those of the
-motors acting upon them.
-
-998.
-
-OF MOTION.
-
-I ask whether the true motion of the clouds can be known by the
-motion of their shadows; and in like manner of the motion of the
-sun.
-
-999.
-
-To know better the direction of the winds. [Footnote: In connection
-with this text I may here mention a hygrometer, drawn and probably
-invented by Leonardo. A facsimile of this is given in Vol. I, p. 297
-with the note: _'Modi di pesare l'arie eddi sapere quando s'a
-arrompere il tepo'_ (Mode of weighing the air and of knowing when
-the weather will change); by the sponge _"Spugnea"_ is written.]
-
-The globe an organism.
-
-1000.
-
-Nothing originates in a spot where there is no sentient, vegetable
-and rational life; feathers grow upon birds and are changed every
-year; hairs grow upon animals and are changed every year, excepting
-some parts, like the hairs of the beard in lions, cats and their
-like. The grass grows in the fields, and the leaves on the trees,
-and every year they are, in great part, renewed. So that we might
-say that the earth has a spirit of growth; that its flesh is the
-soil, its bones the arrangement and connection of the rocks of which
-the mountains are composed, its cartilage the tufa, and its blood
-the springs of water. The pool of blood which lies round the heart
-is the ocean, and its breathing, and the increase and decrease of
-the blood in the pulses, is represented in the earth by the flow and
-ebb of the sea; and the heat of the spirit of the world is the fire
-which pervades the earth, and the seat of the vegetative soul is in
-the fires, which in many parts of the earth find vent in baths and
-mines of sulphur, and in volcanoes, as at Mount Aetna in Sicily, and
-in many other places.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 929.]
-
-_XVII._
-
-_Topographical Notes._
-
-_A large part of the texts published in this section might perhaps
-have found their proper place in connection with the foregoing
-chapters on Physical Geography. But these observations on Physical
-Geography, of whatever kind they may be, as soon as they are
-localised acquire a special interest and importance and particularly
-as bearing on the question whether Leonardo himself made the
-observations recorded at the places mentioned or merely noted the
-statements from hearsay. In a few instances he himself tells us that
-he writes at second hand. In some cases again, although the style
-and expressions used make it seem highly probable that he has
-derived his information from others-- though, as it seems to me,
-these cases are not very numerous--we find, on the other hand, among
-these topographical notes a great number of observations, about
-which it is extremely difficult to form a decided opinion. Of what
-the Master's life and travels may have been throughout his
-sixty-seven years of life we know comparatively little; for a long
-course of time, and particularly from about 1482 to 1486, we do not
-even know with certainty that he was living in Italy. Thus, from a
-biographical point of view a very great interest attaches to some of
-the topographical notes, and for this reason it seemed that it would
-add to their value to arrange them in a group by themselves.
-Leonardo's intimate knowledge with places, some of which were
-certainly remote from his native home, are of importance as
-contributing to decide the still open question as to the extent of
-Leonardo's travels. We shall find in these notes a confirmation of
-the view, that the MSS. in which the Topographical Notes occur are
-in only a very few instances such diaries as may have been in use
-during a journey. These notes are mostly found in the MSS. books of
-his later and quieter years, and it is certainly remarkable that
-Leonardo is very reticent as to the authorities from whom he quotes
-his facts and observations: For instance, as to the Straits of
-Gibraltar, the Nile, the Taurus Mountains and the Tigris and
-Euphrates. Is it likely that he, who declared that in all scientific
-research, his own experience should be the foundation of his
-statements (see XIX Philosophy No. 987--991,) should here have made
-an exception to this rule without mentioning it?_
-
-_As for instance in the discussion as to the equilibrium of the mass
-of water in the Mediterranean Sea--a subject which, it may be
-observed, had at that time attracted the interest and study of
-hardly any other observer. The acute remarks, in Nos. 985--993, on
-the presence of shells at the tops of mountains, suffice to
-prove--as it seems to me--that it was not in his nature to allow
-himself to be betrayed into wide generalisations, extending beyond
-the limits of his own investigations, even by such brilliant results
-of personal study._
-
-_Most of these Topographical Notes, though suggesting very careful
-and thorough research, do not however, as has been said, afford
-necessarily indisputable evidence that that research was Leonardo's
-own. But it must be granted that in more than one instance
-probability is in favour of this idea._
-
-_Among the passages which treat somewhat fully of the topography of
-Eastern places by far the most interesting is a description of the
-Taurus Mountains; but as this text is written in the style of a
-formal report and, in the original, is associated with certain
-letters which give us the history of its origin, I have thought it
-best not to sever it from that connection. It will be found under
-No. XXI (Letters)._
-
-_That Florence, and its neighbourhood, where Leonardo spent his
-early years, should be nowhere mentioned except in connection with
-the projects for canals, which occupied his attention for some short
-time during the first ten years of the XVIth century, need not
-surprise us. The various passages relating to the construction of
-canals in Tuscany, which are put together at the beginning, are
-immediately followed by those which deal with schemes for canals in
-Lombardy; and after these come notes on the city and vicinity of
-Milan as well as on the lakes of North Italy._
-
-_The notes on some towns of Central Italy which Leonardo visited in
-1502, when in the service of Cesare Borgia, are reproduced here in
-the same order as in the note book used during these travels (MS.
-L., Institut de France). These notes have but little interest in
-themselves excepting as suggesting his itinerary. The maps of the
-districts drawn by Leonardo at the time are more valuable (see No.
-1054 note). The names on these maps are not written from right to
-left, but in the usual manner, and we are permitted to infer that
-they were made in obedience to some command, possibly for the use of
-Cesare Borgia himself; the fact that they remained nevertheless in
-Leonardo's hands is not surprising when we remember the sudden
-political changes and warlike events of the period. There can be no
-doubt that these maps, which are here published for the first time,
-are original in the strictest sense of the word, that is to say
-drawn from observations of the places themselves; this is proved by
-the fact--among others--that we find among his manuscripts not only
-the finished maps themselves but the rough sketches and studies for
-them. And it would perhaps be difficult to point out among the
-abundant contributions to geographical knowledge published during
-the XVIth century, any maps at all approaching these in accuracy and
-finish._
-
-_The interesting map of the world, so far as it was then known,
-which is among the Leonardo MSS. at Windsor (published in the_
-'Archaeologia' _Vol. XI) cannot be attributed to the Master, as the
-Marchese Girolamo d'Adda has sufficiently proved; it has not
-therefore been reproduced here._
-
-_Such of Leonardo's observations on places in Italy as were made
-before or after his official travels as military engineer to Cesare
-Borgia, have been arranged in alphabetical order, under Nos.
-1034-1054. The most interesting are those which relate to the Alps
-and the Appenines, Nos. 1057-1068._
-
-_Most of the passages in which France is mentioned have hitherto
-remained unknown, as well as those which treat of the countries
-bordering on the Mediterranean, which come at the end of this
-section. Though these may be regarded as of a more questionable
-importance in their bearing on the biography of the Master than
-those which mention places in France, it must be allowed that they
-are interesting as showing the prominent place which the countries
-of the East held in his geographical studies. He never once alludes
-to the discovery of America._
-
-I.
-
-ITALY.
-
-Canals in connection with the Arno (1001-1008).
-
-1001.
-
-CANAL OF FLORENCE.
-
-Sluices should be made in the valley of la Chiana at Arezzo, so that
-when, in the summer, the Arno lacks water, the canal may not remain
-dry: and let this canal be 20 braccia wide at the bottom, and at the
-top 30, and 2 braccia deep, or 4, so that two of these braccia may
-flow to the mills and the meadows, which will benefit the country;
-and Prato, Pistoia and Pisa, as well as Florence, will gain two
-hundred thousand ducats a year, and will lend a hand and money to
-this useful work; and the Lucchese the same, for the lake of Sesto
-will be navigable; I shall direct it to Prato and Pistoia, and cut
-through Serravalle and make an issue into the lake; for there will
-be no need of locks or supports, which are not lasting and so will
-always be giving trouble in working at them and keeping them up.
-
-And know that in digging this canal where it is 4 braccia deep, it
-will cost 4 dinari the square braccio; for twice the depth 6 dinari,
-if you are making 4 braccia [Footnote: This passage is illustrated
-by a slightly sketched map, on which these places are indicated from
-West to East: Pisa, Luccha, Lago, Seravalle, Pistoja, Prato,
-Firenze.] and there are but 2 banks; that is to say one from the
-bottom of the trench to the surface of the edges of it, and the
-other from these edges to the top of the ridge of earth which will
-be raised on the margin of the bank. And if this bank were of double
-the depth only the first bank will be increased, that is 4 braccia
-increased by half the first cost; that is to say that if at first 4
-dinari were paid for 2 banks, for 3 it would come to 6, at 2 dinari
-the bank, if the trench measured 16 braccia at the bottom; again, if
-the trench were 16 braccia wide and 4 deep, coming to 4 lire for the
-work, 4 Milan dinari the square braccio; a trench which was 32
-braccia at the bottom would come to 8 dinari the square braccio.
-
-1002.
-
->From the wall of the Arno at [the gate of] la Giustizia to the bank
-of the Arno at Sardigna where the walls are, to the mills, is 7400
-braccia, that is 2 miles and 1400 braccia and beyond the Arno is
-5500 braccia.
-
-[Footnote: 2. _Giustizia_. By this the Porta della Giustizia seems
-to be meant; from the XVth to the XVIth centuries it was also
-commonly known as Porta Guelfa, Porta San Francesco del Renaio,
-Porta Nuova, and Porta Reale. It was close to the Arno opposite to
-the Porta San Niccolo, which still exists.]
-
-1003.
-
-By guiding the Arno above and below a treasure will be found in each
-acre of ground by whomsoever will.
-
-1004.
-
-The wall of the old houses runs towards the gate of San Nicolo.
-
-[Footnote: By the side of this text there is an indistinct sketch,
-resembling that given under No.973. On the bank is written the word
-_Casace_. There then follows in the original a passage of 12 lines
-in which the consequences of the windings of the river are
-discussed. A larger but equally hasty diagram on the same page
-represents the shores of the Arno inside Florence as in two parallel
-lines. Four horizontal lines indicate the bridges. By the side these
-measures are stated in figures: I. (at the Ponte alla Carraja):
-_230--largho br. 12 e 2 di spoda e 14 di pile e a 4 pilastri;_ 2.
-(at the Ponte S. Trinita); _l88--largho br. 15 e 2 di spode he 28
-di pilastri for delle spode e pilastri so 2;_ 3. (at the Ponte
-vecchio); _pote lung br. 152 e largo;_ 4. (at the Ponte alle
-Grazie): _290 ellargo 12 e 2 di spode e 6 di pili._
-
-There is, in MS. W. L. 2l2b, a sketched plan of Florence, with the
-following names of gates:
-_Nicholo--Saminiato--Giorgo--Ghanolini--Porta San Fredian
---Prato--Faenza--Ghallo--Pinti--Giustitia_.]
-
-1005.
-
-The ruined wall is 640 braccia; 130 is the wall remaining with the
-mill; 300 braccia were broken in 4 years by Bisarno.
-
-1006.
-
-They do not know why the Arno will never remain in a channel. It is
-because the rivers which flow into it deposit earth where they
-enter, and wear it away on the opposite side, bending the river in
-that direction. The Arno flows for 6 miles between la Caprona and
-Leghorn; and for 12 through the marshes, which extend 32 miles, and
-16 from La Caprona up the river, which makes 48; by the Arno from
-Florence beyond 16 miles; to Vico 16 miles, and the canal is 5; from
-Florence to Fucechio it is 40 miles by the river Arno.
-
-56 miles by the Arno from Florence to Vico; by the Pistoia canal it
-is 44 miles. Thus it is 12 miles shorter by the canal than by the
-Arno.
-
-[Footnote: This passage is written by the side of a map washed in
-Indian ink, of the course of the Arno; it is evidently a sketch for
-a completer map.
-
-These investigations may possibly be connected with the following
-documents. _Francesco Guiducci alla Balia di Firenze. Dal Campo
-contro Pisa_ 24 _Luglio_ 1503 (_Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Lettere
-alla Balia_; published by J. GAYE, _Carteggio inedito d'Artisti,
-Firenze_ 1840, _Tom. II_, p. 62): _Ex Castris, Franciscus
-Ghuiduccius,_ 24. _Jul._ 1503. _Appresso fu qui hieri con una di V.
-Signoria Alexandro degli Albizi insieme con Leonardo da Vinci et
-certi altri, et veduto el disegno insieme con el ghovernatore, doppo
-molte discussioni et dubii conclusesi che l'opera fussi molto al
-proposito, o si veramente Arno volgersi qui, o restarvi con un
-canale, che almeno vieterebbe che le colline da nemici non
-potrebbono essere offese; come tucto referiranno loro a bocha V. S._
-
-And, _Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Libro d'Entrata e Uscita di cassa
-de' Magnifici Signori di luglio e agosto_
-
-1503 _a_ 51 _T.: Andata di Leonardo al Campo sotto Pisa. Spese
-extraordinarie dieno dare a di XXVI di luglio L. LVI sol. XII per
-loro a Giovanni Piffero; e sono per tanti, asegnia avere spexi in
-vetture di sei chavalli a spese di vitto per andare chon Lionardo da
-Vinci a livellare Arno in quello di Pisa per levallo del lilo suo._
-(Published by MILANESI, _Archivio Storico Italiano, Serie III, Tom.
-XVI._} VASARI asserts: _(Leonardo) fu il primo ancora, che
-giovanetto discorresse sopra il fiume d'Arno per metterlo in canale
-da Pisa a Fiorenza_ (ed. SANSONI, IV, 20).
-
-The passage above is in some degree illustrated by the map on Pl.
-CXII, where the course of the Arno westward from Empoli is shown.]
-
-1007.
-
-The eddy made by the Mensola, when the Arno is low and the Mensola
-full.
-
-[Footnote: _Mensola_ is a mountain stream which falls into the Arno
-about a mile and a half above Florence.
-
-A=Arno, I=Isola, M=Mvgone, P=Pesa, N=Mesola.]
-
-1008.
-
-That the river which is to be turned from one place to another must
-be coaxed and not treated roughly or with violence; and to do this a
-sort of floodgate should be made in the river, and then lower down
-one in front of it and in like manner a third, fourth and fifth, so
-that the river may discharge itself into the channel given to it, or
-that by this means it may be diverted from the place it has damaged,
-as was done in Flanders--as I was told by Niccolo di Forsore.
-
-How to protect and repair the banks washed by the water, as below
-the island of Cocomeri.
-
-Ponte Rubaconte (Fig. 1); below [the palaces] Bisticci and Canigiani
-(Fig. 2). Above the flood gate of la Giustizia (Fig. 3); _a b_ is a
-sand bank opposite the end of the island of the Cocomeri in the
-middle of the Arno (Fig. 4). [Footnote: The course of the river Arno
-is also discussed in Nos. 987 and 988.]
-
-Canals in the Milanese (1009-1013).
-
-1009.
-
-The canal of San Cristofano at Milan made May 3rd 1509. [Footnote:
-This observation is written above a washed pen and ink drawing which
-has been published as Tav. VI in the _,,Saggio."_ The editors of
-that work explain the drawing as _"uno Studio di bocche per
-estrazione d'acqua."_]
-
-1010.
-
-OF THE CANAL OF MARTESANA.
-
-By making the canal of Martesana the water of the Adda is greatly
-diminished by its distribution over many districts for the
-irrigation of the fields. A remedy for this would be to make several
-little channels, since the water drunk up by the earth is of no more
-use to any one, nor mischief neither, because it is taken from no
-one; and by making these channels the water which before was lost
-returns again and is once more serviceable and useful to men.
-
-[Footnote: _"el navilio di Martagano"_ is also mentioned in a note
-written in red chalk, MS. H2 17a Leonardo has, as it seems, little
-to do with Lodovico il Moro's scheme to render this canal navigable.
-The canal had been made in 1460 by Bertonino da Novara. Il Moro
-issued his degree in 1493, but Leonardo's notes about this canal
-were, with the exception of one (No. 1343), written about sixteen
-years later.]
-
-1011.
-
-No canal which is fed by a river can be permanent if the river
-whence it originates is not wholly closed up, like the canal of
-Martesana which is fed by the Ticino.
-
-1012.
-
->From the beginning of the canal to the mill.
-
->From the beginning of the canal of Brivio to the mill of Travaglia
-is 2794 trabochi, that is 11176 braccia, which is more than 3 miles
-and two thirds; and here the canal is 57 braccia higher than the
-surface of the water of the Adda, giving a fall of two inches in
-every hundred trabochi; and at that spot we propose to take the
-opening of our canal.
-
-[Footnote: The following are written on the sketches: At the place
-marked _N: navilio da dacquiue_ (canal of running water); at _M:
-molin del Travaglia_ (Mill of Travaglia); at _R: rochetta ssanta
-maria_ (small rock of Santa Maria); at _A: Adda;_ at _L: Lagho di
-Lecho ringorgato alli 3 corni in Adda,--Concha perpetua_ (lake of
-Lecco overflowing at Tre Corni, in Adda,-- a permanent sluice). Near
-the second sketch, referring to the sluice near _Q: qui la chatena
-ttalie d'u peso_ (here the chain is in one piece). At _M_ in the
-lower sketch: _mol del travaglia, nel cavare la concha il tereno
-ara chotrapero co cassa d'acqua._ (Mill of Travaglia, in digging
-out the sluice the soil will have as a counterpoise a vessel of
-water).]
-
-1013.
-
-If it be not reported there that this is to be a public canal, it
-will be necessary to pay for the land; [Footnote 3: _il re_. Louis
-XII or Francis I of France. It is hardly possible to doubt that the
-canals here spoken of were intended to be in the Milanese. Compare
-with this passage the rough copy of a letter by Leonardo, to the
-_"Presidente dell' Ufficio regolatore dell' acqua"_ on No. 1350. See
-also the note to No. 745, 1. 12.] and the king will pay it by
-remitting the taxes for a year.
-
-Estimates and preparatory studies for canals (1014. 1015).
-
-1014.
-
-CANAL.
-
-The canal which may be 16 braccia wide at the bottom and 20 at the
-top, we may say is on the average 18 braccia wide, and if it is 4
-braccia deep, at 4 dinari the square braccia; it will only cost 900
-ducats, to excavate by the mile, if the square braccio is calculated
-in ordinary braccia; but if the braccia are those used in measuring
-land, of which every 4 are equal to 4 1/2 and if by the mile we
-understand three thousand ordinary braccia; turned into land
-braccia, these 3000 braccia will lack 1/4; there remain 2250
-braccia, which at 4 dinari the braccio will amount to 675 ducats a
-mile. At 3 dinari the square braccio, the mile will amount to 506
-1/4 ducats so that the excavation of 30 miles of the canal will
-amount to 15187 1/2 ducats.
-
-1015.
-
-To make the great canal, first make the smaller one and conduct into
-it the waters which by a wheel will help to fill the great one.
-
-Notes on buildings in Milan (1016-1019)
-
-1016.
-
-Indicate the centre of Milan.
-
-Moforte--porta resa--porta nova--strada nova--navilio--porta
-cumana--barco--porta giovia--porta vercellina--porta sco
-Anbrogio--porta Tesinese--torre dell' Imperatore-- porta
-Lodovica--acqua.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CIX. The original sketch is here reduced to about
-half its size. The gates of the town are here named, beginning at
-the right hand and following the curved line. In the bird's eye view
-of Milan below, the cathedral is plainly recognisable in the middle;
-to the right is the tower of San Gottardo. The square, above the
-number 9147, is the Lazzaretto, which was begun in 1488. On the left
-the group of buildings of the _'Castello'_ will be noticed. On the
-sketched Plan of Florence (see No. 1004 note) Leonardo has written
-on the margin the following names of gates of Milan: Vercellina
---Ticinese--Ludovica--Romana--Orientale--
-Nova--Beatrice--Cumana--Compare too No. 1448, 11. 5, 12.]
-
-1017.
-
-The moat of Milan.
-
-Canal 2 braccia wide.
-
-The castle with the moats full.
-
-The filling of the moats of the Castle of Milan.
-
-1018.
-
-THE BATH.
-
-To heat the water for the stove of the Duchess take four parts of
-cold water to three parts of hot water.
-
-[Footnote: _Duchessa di Milano_, Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico
-il Moro to whom she was married, in 1491. She died in June 1497.]
-
-1019.
-
-In the Cathedral at the pulley of the nail of the cross.
-
-Item.
-
-To place the mass _v r_ in the...
-
-[Footnote: On this passage AMORETTI remarks _(Memorie Storiche_
-chap. IX): _Nell'anno stesso lo veggiamo formare un congegno di
-carucole e di corde, con cui trasportare in piu venerabile e piu
-sicuro luogo, cioe nell'ultima arcata della nave di mezzo della
-metropolitana, la sacra reliquia del Santo Chiodo, che ivi ancor si
-venera. Al fol. 15 del codice segnato Q. R. in 16, egli ci ha
-lasciata di tal congegno una doppia figura, cioe una di quattro
-carucole, e una di tre colle rispettive corde, soggiugnandovi: in
-Domo alla carucola del Chiodo della Croce._
-
-AMORETTI'S views as to the mark on the MS, and the date when it was
-written are, it may be observed, wholly unfounded. The MS. L, in
-which it occurs, is of the year 1502, and it is very unlikely that
-Leonardo was in Milan at that time; this however would not prevent
-the remark, which is somewhat obscure, from applying to the
-Cathedral at Milan.]
-
-1020.
-
-OF THE FORCE OF THE VACUUM FORMED IN A MOMENT.
-
-I saw, at Milan, a thunderbolt fall on the tower della Credenza on
-its Northern side, and it descended with a slow motion down that
-side, and then at once parted from that tower and carried with it
-and tore away from that wall a space of 3 braccia wide and two deep;
-and this wall was 4 braccia thick and was built of thin and small
-old bricks; and this was dragged out by the vacuum which the flame
-of the thunderbolt had caused, &c.
-
-[Footnote: With reference to buildings at Milan see also Nos. 751
-and 756, and Pl. XCV, No. 2 (explained on p. 52), Pl. C (explained
-on pages 60-62). See also pages 25, 39 and 40.]
-
-Remarks on natural phenomena in and near Milan (1021. 1022).
-
-1021.
-
-I have already been to see a great variety (of atmospheric effects).
-And lately over Milan towards Lago Maggiore I saw a cloud in the
-form of an immense mountain full of rifts of glowing light, because
-the rays of the sun, which was already close to the horizon and red,
-tinged the cloud with its own hue. And this cloud attracted to it
-all the little clouds that were near while the large one did not
-move from its place; thus it retained on its summit the reflection
-of the sunlight till an hour and a half after sunset, so immensely
-large was it; and about two hours after sunset such a violent wind
-arose, that it was really tremendous and unheard of.
-
-[Footnote: _di arie_ is wanting in the original but may safely be
-inserted in the context, as the formation of clouds is under
-discussion before this text.]
-
-1022.
-
-On the 10th day of December at 9 o'clock a. m. fire was set to the
-place.
-
-On the l8th day of December 1511 at 9 o'clock a. m. this second fire
-was kindled by the Swiss at Milan at the place called DCXC.
-[Footnote: With these two texts, (l. 1--2 and l. 3--5 are in the
-original side by side) there are sketches of smoke wreaths in red
-chalk.]
-
-Note on Pavia.
-
-1023.
-
-The chimneys of the castle of Pavia have 6 rows of openings and from
-each to the other is one braccio.
-
-[Footnote: Other notes relating to Pavia occur on p. 43 and p. 53
-(Pl. XCVIII, No. 3). Compare No. 1448, 26.]
-
-Notes on the Sforzesca near Vigevano (1024-1028).
-
-1024.
-
-On the 2nd day of February 1494. At Sforzesca I drew twenty five
-steps, 2/3 braccia to each, and 8 braccia wide.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 2. The rest of the notes on this page
-refer to the motion of water. On the lower sketch we read: 4 _br._
-(four braccia) and _giara_ (for _ghiaja_, sand, gravel).]
-
-1025.
-
-The vineyards of Vigevano on the 20th day of March 1494.
-
-[Footnote: On one side there is an effaced sketch in red chalk.]
-
-1026.
-
-To lock up a butteris at Vigevano.
-
-1027.
-
-Again if the lowest part of the bank which lies across the current
-of the waters is made in deep and wide steps, after the manner of
-stairs, the waters which, in their course usually fall
-perpendicularly from the top of such a place to the bottom, and wear
-away the foundations of this bank can no longer descend with a blow
-of too great a force; and I find the example of this in the stairs
-down which the water falls in the fields at Sforzesca at Vigevano
-over which the running water falls for a height of 50 braccia.
-
-1028.
-
-Stair of Vigevano below La Sforzesca, 130 steps, 1/4 braccio high
-and 1/2 braccio wide, down which the water falls, so as not to wear
-away anything at the end of its fall; by these steps so much soil
-has come down that it has dried up a pool; that is to say it has
-filled it up and a pool of great depth has been turned into meadows.
-
-Notes on the North Italian lake. (1029-1033)
-
-1029.
-
-In many places there are streams of water which swell for six hours
-and ebb for six hours; and I, for my part, have seen one above the
-lake of Como called Fonte Pliniana, which increases and ebbs, as I
-have said, in such a way as to turn the stones of two mills; and
-when it fails it falls so low that it is like looking at water in a
-deep pit.
-
-[Footnote: The fountain is known by this name to this day: it is
-near Torno, on the Eastern shore of Como. The waters still rise and
-fall with the flow and ebb of the tide as Pliny described it (Epist.
-IV, 30; Hist. Nat. II, 206).]
-
-1030.
-
-LAKE OF COMO. VALLEY OF CHIAVENNA.
-
-Above the lake of Como towards Germany is the valley of Chiavenna
-where the river Mera flows into this lake. Here are barren and very
-high mountains, with huge rocks. Among these mountains are to be
-found the water-birds called gulls. Here grow fir trees, larches and
-pines. Deer, wildgoats, chamois, and terrible bears. It is
-impossible to climb them without using hands and feet. The peasants
-go there at the time of the snows with great snares to make the
-bears fall down these rocks. These mountains which very closely
-approach each other are parted by the river. They are to the right
-and left for the distance of 20 miles throughout of the same nature.
->From mile to mile there are good inns. Above on the said river there
-are waterfalls of 400 braccia in height, which are fine to see; and
-there is good living at 4 soldi the reckoning. This river brings
-down a great deal of timber.
-
-VAL SASINA.
-
-Val Sasina runs down towards Italy; this is almost the same form and
-character. There grow here many _mappello_ and there are great ruins
-and falls of water [Footnote 14: The meaning of _mappello_ is
-unknown.].
-
-VALLEY OF INTROZZO.
-
-This valley produces a great quantity of firs, pines and larches;
-and from here Ambrogio Fereri has his timber brought down; at the
-head of the Valtellina are the mountains of Bormio, terrible and
-always covered with snow; marmots (?) are found there.
-
-BELLAGGIO.
-
-Opposite the castle Bellaggio there is the river Latte, which falls
-from a height of more than 100 braccia from the source whence it
-springs, perpendicularly, into the lake with an inconceivable roar
-and noise. This spring flows only in August and September.
-
-VALTELLINA.
-
-Valtellina, as it is called, is a valley enclosed in high and
-terrible mountains; it produces much strong wine, and there is so
-much cattle that the natives conclude that more milk than wine grows
-there. This is the valley through which the Adda passes, which first
-runs more than 40 miles through Germany; this river breeds the fish
-_temolo_ which live on silver, of which much is to be found in its
-sands. In this country every one can sell bread and wine, and the
-wine is worth at most one soldo the bottle and a pound of veal one
-soldo, and salt ten dinari and butter the same and their pound is 30
-ounces, and eggs are one soldo the lot.
-
-1031.
-
-At BORMIO.
-
-At Bormio are the baths;--About eight miles above Como is the
-Pliniana, which increases and ebbs every six hours, and its swell
-supplies water for two mills; and its ebbing makes the spring dry
-up; two miles higher up there is Nesso, a place where a river falls
-with great violence into a vast rift in the mountain. These
-excursions are to be made in the month of May. And the largest bare
-rocks that are to be found in this part of the country are the
-mountains of Mandello near to those of Lecco, and of Gravidona
-towards Bellinzona, 30 miles from Lecco, and those of the valley of
-Chiavenna; but the greatest of all is that of Mandello, which has at
-its base an opening towards the lake, which goes down 200 steps, and
-there at all times is ice and wind.
-
-IN VAL SASINA.
-
-In Val Sasina, between Vimognio and Introbbio, to the right hand,
-going in by the road to Lecco, is the river Troggia which falls from
-a very high rock, and as it falls it goes underground and the river
-ends there. 3 miles farther we find the buildings of the mines of
-copper and silver near a place called Pra' Santo Pietro, and mines
-of iron and curious things. La Grigna is the highest mountain there
-is in this part, and it is quite bare.
-
-[Footnote: 1030 and 1031. From the character of the handwriting we
-may conclude that these observations were made in Leonardo's youth;
-and I should infer from their contents, that they were notes made in
-anticipation of a visit to the places here described, and derived
-from some person (unknown to us) who had given him an account of
-them.]
-
-1032.
-
-The lake of Pusiano flows into the lake of Segrino [Footnote 3: The
-statement about the lake Segrino is incorrect; it is situated in the
-Valle Assina, above the lake of Pusiano.] and of Annone and of Sala.
-The lake of Annone is 22 braccia higher at the surface of its water
-than the surface of the water of the lake of Lecco, and the lake of
-Pusiano is 20 braccia higher than the lake of Annone, which added to
-the afore said 22 braccia make 42 braccia and this is the greatest
-height of the surface of the lake of Pusiano above the surface of
-the lake of Lecco.
-
-[Footnote: This text has in the original a slight sketch to
-illustrate it.]
-
-1033.
-
-At Santa Maria in the Valley of Ravagnate [Footnote 2: _Ravagnate_
-(Leonardo writes _Ravagna_) in the Brianza is between Oggiono and
-Brivio, South of the lake of Como. M. Ravaisson avails himself of
-this note to prove his hypothesis that Leonardo paid two visits to
-France. See Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1881 pag. 528:
-
-_Au recto du meme feuillet, on lit encore une note relative a une
-vallee "nemonti brigatia"; il me semble qu'il s'agit bien des monts
-de Briancon, le Brigantio des anciens. Briancon est sur la route de
-Lyon en Italie. Ce fut par le mont Viso que passerent, en aout 1515,
-les troupes francaises qui allaient remporter la victoire de
-Marignan.
-
-Leonard de Vinci, ingenieur de Francois Ier, comme il l'avait ete de
-Louis XII, aurait-il ete pour quelque chose dans le plan du celebre
-passage des Alpes, qui eut lieu en aout 1515, et a la suite duquel
-on le vit accompagner partout le chevaleresque vainqueur? Auraitil
-ete appele par le jeune roi, de Rome ou l'artiste etait alors, des
-son avenement au trone?_] in the mountains of Brianza are the rods
-of chestnuts of 9 braccia and one out of an average of 100 will be
-14 braccia.
-
-At Varallo di Ponbia near to Sesto on the Ticino the quinces are
-white, large and hard.
-
-[Footnote 5: Varallo di Ponbia, about ten miles South of Arona is
-distinct from Varallo the chief town in the Val di Sesia.]
-
-Notes on places in Central Italy, visited in 1502 (1034-1054).
-
-1034.
-
-Pigeon-house at Urbino, the 30th day of July 1502. [Footnote: An
-indistinct sketch is introduced with this text, in the original, in
-which the word _Scolatoro_ (conduit) is written.]
-
-1035.
-
-Made by the sea at Piombino. [Footnote: Below the sketch there are
-eleven lines of text referring to the motion of waves.]
-
-1036.
-
-Acquapendente is near Orvieto. [Footnote: _Acquapendente_ is about
-10 miles West of Orvieto, and is to the right in the map on Pl.
-CXIII, near the lake of Bolsena.]
-
-1037.
-
-The rock of Cesena. [Footnote: See Pl. XCIV No. 1, the lower sketch.
-The explanation of the upper sketch is given on p. 29.]
-
-1038.
-
-Siena, _a b_ 4 braccia, _a c_ 10 braccia. Steps at [the castle of]
-Urbino. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3; compare also No. 765.]
-
-1039.
-
-The bell of Siena, that is the manner of its movement, and the place
-of the attachment of the clapper. [Footnote: The text is accompanied
-by an indistinct sketch.]
-
-1040.
-
-On St. Mary's day in the middle of August, at Cesena, 1502.
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 4.]
-
-1041.
-
-Stairs of the [palace of the] Count of Urbino,--rough. [Footnote:
-The text is accompanied by a slight sketch.]
-
-1042.
-
-At the fair of San Lorenzo at Cesena. 1502.
-
-1043.
-
-Windows at Cesena. [Footnote: There are four more lines of text
-which refer to a slightly sketched diagram.]
-
-1044.
-
-At Porto Cesenatico, on the 6th of September 1502 at 9 o'clock a. m.
-
-The way in which bastions ought to project beyond the walls of the
-towers to defend the outer talus; so that they may not be taken by
-artillery.
-
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch, accompanies this passage.]
-
-1045.
-
-The rock of the harbour of Cesena is four points towards the South
-West from Cesena.
-
-1046.
-
-In Romagna, the realm of all stupidity, vehicles with four wheels
-are used, of which O the two in front are small and two high ones
-are behind; an arrangement which is very unfavourable to the motion,
-because on the fore wheels more weight is laid than on those behind,
-as I showed in the first of the 5th on "Elements".
-
-1047.
-
-Thus grapes are carried at Cesena. The number of the diggers of the
-ditches is [arranged] pyramidically. [Footnote: A sketch,
-representing a hook to which two bunches of grapes are hanging,
-refers to these first two lines. Cesena is mentioned again Fol. 82a:
-_Carro da Cesena_ (a cart from Cesena).]
-
-1048.
-
-There might be a harmony of the different falls of water as you saw
-them at the fountain of Rimini on the 8th day of August, 1502.
-
-1049.
-
-The fortress at Urbino. [Footnote: 1049. In the original the text is
-written inside the sketch in the place here marked _n_.]
-
-1050.
-
-Imola, as regards Bologna, is five points from the West, towards the
-North West, at a distance of 20 miles.
-
-Castel San Piero is seen from Imola at four points from the West
-towards the North West, at a distance of 7 miles.
-
-Faenza stands with regard to Imola between East and South East at a
-distance of ten miles. Forli stands with regard to Faenza between
-South East and East at a distance of 20 miles from Imola and ten
-from Faenza.
-
-Forlimpopoli lies in the same direction at 25 miles from Imola.
-
-Bertinoro, as regards Imola, is five points from the East to wards
-the South East, at 27 miles.
-
-1051.
-
-Imola as regards Bologna is five points from the West towards the
-North West at a distance of 20 miles.
-
-Castel San Pietro lies exactly North West of Imola, at a distance of
-7 miles.
-
-Faenza, as regards Imola lies exactly half way between the East and
-South East at a distance of 10 miles; and Forli lies in the same
-direction from Imola at a distance of 20 miles; and Forlimpopolo
-lies in the same direction from Forli at a distance of 25 miles.
-
-Bertinoro is seen from Imola two points from the East towards the
-South East at a distance of 27 miles.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo inserted this passage on the margin of the
-circular plan, in water colour, of Imola--see Pl. CXI No. 1.--In the
-original the fields surrounding the town are light green; the moat,
-which surrounds the fortifications and the windings of the river
-Santerno, are light blue. The parts, which have come out blackish
-close to the river are yellow ochre in the original. The dark groups
-of houses inside the town are red. At the four points of the compass
-drawn in the middle of the town Leonardo has written (from right to
-left): _Mezzodi_ (South) at the top; to the left _Scirocho_ (South
-east), _levante_ (East), _Greco_ (North East), _Septantrione_
-(North), _Maesstro_ (North West), _ponente_ (West) _Libecco_ (South
-West). The arch in which the plan is drawn is, in the original, 42
-centimetres across.
-
-At the beginning of October 1502 Cesare Borgia was shut up in Imola
-by a sudden revolt of the Condottieri, and it was some weeks before
-he could release himself from this state of siege (see Gregorovius,
-_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, Vol. VII, Book XIII, 5,
-5).
-
-Besides this incident Imola plays no important part in the history
-of the time. I therefore think myself fully justified in connecting
-this map, which is at Windsor, with the siege of 1502 and with
-Leonardo's engagements in the service of Cesare Borgia, because a
-comparison of these texts, Nos. 1050 and 1051, raise, I believe, the
-hypothesis to a certainty.]
-
-1052.
-
->From Bonconventi to Casa Nova are 10 miles, from Casa Nova to Chiusi
-9 miles, from Chiusi to Perugia, from, Perugia to Santa Maria degli
-Angeli, and then to Fuligno. [Footnote: Most of the places here
-described lie within the district shown in the maps on Pl. CXIII.]
-
-1053.
-
-On the first of August 1502, the library at Pesaro.
-
-1054.
-
-OF PAINTING.
-
-On the tops and sides of hills foreshorten the shape of the ground
-and its divisions, but give its proper shape to what is turned
-towards you. [Footnote: This passage evidently refers to the making
-of maps, such as Pl. CXII, CXIII, and CXIV. There is no mention of
-such works, it is true, excepting in this one passage of MS. L. But
-this can scarcely be taken as evidence against my view that Leonardo
-busied himself very extensively at that time in the construction of
-maps; and all the less since the foregoing chapters clearly prove
-that at a time so full of events Leonardo would only now and then
-commit his observations to paper, in the MS. L.
-
-By the side of this text we find, in the original, a very indistinct
-sketch, perhaps a plan of a position. Instead of this drawing I have
-here inserted a much clearer sketch of a position from the same MS.,
-L. 82b and 83a. They are the only drawings of landscape, it may be
-noted, which occur at all in that MS.]
-
-Alessandria in Piedmont (1055. 1056).
-
-1055.
-
-At Candia in Lombardy, near Alessandria della Paglia, in making a
-well for Messer Gualtieri [Footnote 2: Messer Gualtieri, the same
-probably as is mentioned in Nos. 672 and 1344.] of Candia, the
-skeleton of a very large boat was found about 10 braccia
-underground; and as the timber was black and fine, it seemed good to
-the said Messer Gualtieri to have the mouth of the well lengthened
-in such a way as that the ends of the boat should be uncovered.
-
-1056.
-
-At Alessandria della Paglia in Lombardy there are no stones for
-making lime of, but such as are mixed up with an infinite variety of
-things native to the sea, which is now more than 200 miles away.
-
-The Alps (1057-1062).
-
-1057.
-
-At Monbracco, above Saluzzo,--a mile above the Certosa, at the foot
-of Monte Viso, there is a quarry of flakey stone, which is as white
-as Carrara marble, without a spot, and as hard as porphyry or even
-harder; of which my worthy gossip, Master Benedetto the sculptor,
-has promised to give me a small slab, for the colours, the second
-day of January 1511.
-
-[Footnote: Saluzzo at the foot of the Alps South of Turin.]
-
-[Footnote 9. 10.: _Maestro Benedetto scultore_; probably some native
-of Northern Italy acquainted with the place here described. Hardly
-the Florentine sculptor Benedetto da Majano. Amoretti had published
-this passage, and M. Ravaisson who gave a French translation of it
-in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1881, pag. 528), remarks as
-follows: _Le maitre sculpteur que Leonard appelle son "compare" ne
-serait-il pas Benedetto da Majano, un de ceux qui jugerent avec lui
-de la place a donner au David de Michel-Ange, et de qui le Louvre a
-acquis recemment un buste d'apres Philippe Strozzi?_ To this it may
-be objected that Benedetto da Majano had already lain in his grave
-fourteen years, in the year 1511, when he is supposed to have given
-the promise to Leonardo. The colours may have been given to the
-sculptor Benedetto and the stone may have been in payment for them.
->From the description of the stone here given we may conclude that it
-is repeated from hearsay of the sculptor's account of it. I do not
-understand how, from this observation, it is possible to conclude
-that Leonardo was on the spot.]
-
-1058.
-
-That there are springs which suddenly break forth in earthquakes or
-other convulsions and suddenly fail; and this happened in a mountain
-in Savoy where certain forests sank in and left a very deep gap, and
-about four miles from here the earth opened itself like a gulf in
-the mountain, and threw out a sudden and immense flood of water
-which scoured the whole of a little valley of the tilled soil,
-vineyards and houses, and did the greatest mischief, wherever it
-overflowed.
-
-1059.
-
-The river Arve, a quarter of a mile from Geneva in Savoy, where the
-fair is held on midsummerday in the village of Saint Gervais.
-
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch is to be seen by the text.]
-
-1060.
-
-And this may be seen, as I saw it, by any one going up Monbroso
-[Footnote: I have vainly enquired of every available authority for a
-solution of the mystery as to what mountain is intended by the name
-Monboso (Comp. Vol. I Nos. 300 and 301). It seems most obvious to
-refer it to Monte Rosa. ROSA derived from the Keltic ROS which
-survives in Breton and in Gaelic, meaning, in its first sense, a
-mountain spur, but which also--like HORN--means a very high peak;
-thus Monte Rosa would mean literally the High Peak.], a peak of the
-Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain gives
-birth to the 4 rivers which flow in four different directions
-through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base at so
-great a height as this, which lifts itself above almost all the
-clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer,
-when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so
-that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling
-clouds, which does not happen more than twice in an age, an enormous
-mass of ice would be piled up there by the layers of hail, and in
-the middle of July I found it very considerable; and I saw the sky
-above me quite dark, and the sun as it fell on the mountain was far
-brighter here than in the plains below, because a smaller extent of
-atmosphere lay between the summit of the mountain and the sun.
-[Footnote 6: _in una eta._ This is perhaps a slip of the pen on
-Leonardo's part and should be read _estate_ (summer).]
-
-Leic. 9b]
-
-1061.
-
-In the mountains of Verona the red marble is found all mixed with
-cockle shells turned into stone; some of them have been filled at
-the mouth with the cement which is the substance of the stone; and
-in some parts they have remained separate from the mass of the rock
-which enclosed them, because the outer covering of the shell had
-interposed and had not allowed them to unite with it; while in other
-places this cement had petrified those which were old and almost
-stripped the outer skin.
-
-1062.
-
-Bridge of Goertz-Wilbach (?).
-
-[Footnote: There is a slight sketch with this text, Leonardo seems
-to have intended to suggest, with a few pen-strokes, the course of
-the Isonzo and of the Wipbach in the vicinity of Gorizia (Goerz). He
-himself says in another place that he had been in Friuli (see No.
-1077 1. 19).]
-
-The Appenins (1063-1068).
-
-1063.
-
-That part of the earth which was lightest remained farthest from the
-centre of the world; and that part of the earth became the lightest
-over which the greatest quantity of water flowed. And therefore that
-part became lightest where the greatest number of rivers flow; like
-the Alps which divide Germany and France from Italy; whence issue
-the Rhone flowing Southwards, and the Rhine to the North. The Danube
-or Tanoia towards the North East, and the Po to the East, with
-innumerable rivers which join them, and which always run turbid with
-the soil carried by them to the sea.
-
-The shores of the sea are constantly moving towards the middle of
-the sea and displace it from its original position. The lowest
-portion of the Mediterranean will be reserved for the bed and
-current of the Nile, the largest river that flows into that sea. And
-with it are grouped all its tributaries, which at first fell into
-the sea; as may be seen with the Po and its tributaries, which first
-fell into that sea, which between the Appenines and the German Alps
-was united to the Adriatic sea.
-
-That the Gallic Alps are the highest part of Europe.
-
-1064.
-
-And of these I found some in the rocks of the high Appenines and
-mostly at the rock of La Vernia. [Footnote 6: _Sasso della Vernia._
-The frowning rock between the sources of the Arno and the Tiber, as
-Dante describes this mountain, which is 1269 metres in height.
-
-This note is written by the side of that given as No. 1020; but
-their connection does not make it clear what Leonardo's purpose was
-in writing it.]
-
-1065.
-
-At Parma, at 'La Campana' on the twenty-fifth of October 1514.
-[Footnote 2: _Capano_, an Inn.]
-
-A note on the petrifactions, or fossils near Parma will be found
-under No. 989.]
-
-1066.
-
-A method for drying the marsh of Piombino. [Footnote: There is a
-slight sketch with this text in the original.--Piombino is also
-mentioned in Nos. 609, l. 55-58 (compare Pl. XXXV, 3, below). Also
-in No. 1035.]
-
-1067.
-
-The shepherds in the Romagna at the foot of the Apennines make
-peculiar large cavities in the mountains in the form of a horn, and
-on one side they fasten a horn. This little horn becomes one and the
-same with the said cavity and thus they produce by blowing into it a
-very loud noise. [Footnote: As to the Romagna see also No. 1046.]
-
-1068.
-
-A spring may be seen to rise in Sicily which at certain times of the
-year throws out chesnut leaves in quantities; but in Sicily chesnuts
-do not grow, hence it is evident that that spring must issue from
-some abyss in Italy and then flow beneath the sea to break forth in
-Sicily. [Footnote: The chesnut tree is very common in Sicily. In
-writing _cicilia_ Leonardo meant perhaps Cilicia.]
-
-II.
-
-FRANCE.
-
-1069.
-
-   GERMANY.                     FRANCE.
-
-a. Austria,                 a. Picardy.
-b. Saxony.                  b. Normandy.
-c. Nuremberg.               c. Dauphine.
-d. Flanders.
-
-               SPAIN.
-
-            a. Biscay.
-            b. Castille.
-            c. Galicia.
-            d. Portugal.
-            e. Taragona.
-            f. Granada.
-
-[Footnote: Two slightly sketched maps, one of Europe the other of
-Spain, are at the side of these notes.]
-
-1070.
-
-Perpignan. Roanne. Lyons. Paris. Ghent. Bruges. Holland.
-
-[Footnote: _Roana_ does not seem to mean here Rouen in Normandy, but
-is probably Roanne (Rodumna) on the upper Loire, Lyonnais (Dep. du
-Loire). This town is now unimportant, but in Leonardo's time was
-still a place of some consequence.]
-
-1071.
-
-At Bordeaux in Gascony the sea rises about 40 braccia before its
-ebb, and the river there is filled with salt water for more than a
-hundred and fifty miles; and the vessels which are repaired there
-rest high and dry on a high hill above the sea at low tide.
-[Footnote 2: This is obviously an exaggeration founded on inaccurate
-information. Half of 150 miles would be nearer the mark.]
-
-1072.
-
-The Rhone issues from the lake of Geneva and flows first to the West
-and then to the South, with a course of 400 miles and pours its
-waters into the Mediterranean.
-
-1073.
-
-_c d_ is the garden at Blois; _a b_ is the conduit of Blois, made in
-France by Fra Giocondo, _b c_ is what is wanting in the height of
-that conduit, _c d_ is the height of the garden at Blois, _e f_ is
-the siphon of the conduit, _b c_, _e f_, _f g_ is where the siphon
-discharges into the river. [Footnote: The tenor of this note (see
-lines 2 and 3) seems to me to indicate that this passage was not
-written in France, but was written from oral information. We have no
-evidence as to when this note may have been written beyond the
-circumstance that Fra Giocondo the Veronese Architect left France
-not before the year 1505. The greater part of the magnificent
-Chateau of Blois has now disappeared. Whether this note was made for
-a special purpose is uncertain. The original form and extent of the
-Chateau is shown in Androvet, _Les plus excellents Bastiments de
-France, Paris MDCVII,_ and it may be observed that there is in the
-middle of the garden a Pavilion somewhat similar to that shown on
-Pl. LXXXVIII No. 7.
-
-See S. DE LA SAUSSAYE, _Histoire du Chateau de Blois 4eme edition
-Blois et Paris_ p. 175: _En mariant sa fille ainee a Francois, comte
-d'Angouleme, Louis XII lui avait constitue en dot les comtes de
-Blois, d'Asti, de Coucy, de Montfort, d'Etampes et de Vertus. Une
-ordonnance de Francois I. lui laissa en_ 1516 _l'administration du
-comte de Blois.
-
-Le roi fit commencer, dans la meme annee, les travaux de celle belle
-partie du chateau, connue sous le nom d'aile de Francois I, et dont
-nous avons donne la description au commencement de ce livre. Nous
-trouvons en effet, dans les archives du Baron de Foursanvault, une
-piece qui en fixe parfaitement la date. On y lit: "Je, Baymon
-Philippeaux, commis par le Roy a tenir le compte et fair le payement
-des bastiments, ediffices et reparacions que le dit seigneur fait
-faire en son chastu de Blois, confesse avoir eu et receu ... la
-somme de trois mille livres tournois ... le cinquieme jour de
-juillet, l'an mil cinq cent et seize._ P. 24: _Les jardins avaient
-ete decores avec beaucoup de luxe par les differents possesseurs du
-chateau. Il ne reste de tous les batiments qu'ils y eleverent que
-ceux des officiers charges de l'ad_ministration et de la culture des
-jardins, et un pavilion carre en pierre et en brique flanque de
-terrasses a chacun de ses angles. Quoique defigure par des mesures
-elevees sur les terrasses, cet edifice est tris-digne d'interet par
-l'originalite du plan, la decoration architecturale et le souvenir
-d'Anne de Bretagne qui le fit construire._ Felibien describes the
-garden as follows: _Le jardin haut etait fort bien dresse par grands
-compartimens de toutes sortes de figures, avec des allees de
-meuriers blancs et des palissades de coudriers. Deux grands berceaux
-de charpenterie separoient toute la longueur et la largeur du
-jardin, et dans les quatres angles des allees, ou ces berceaux se
-croissent, il y auoit 4 cabinets, de mesme charpenterie ... Il y a
-pas longtemps qu'il y auoit dans ce mesme jardin, a l'endroit ou se
-croissent les allees du milieu, un edifice de figure octogone, de
-plus de 7 thoises de diametre et de plus de neuf thoises de haut;
-avec 4 enfoncements en forme de niches dans les 4 angles des allies.
-Ce bastiment.... esloit de charpente mais d'un extraordinairement
-bien travaille. On y voyait particulierement la cordiliere qui
-regnati tout autour en forme de cordon. Car la Reyne affectait de la
-mettre nonseulement a ses armes et a ses chiffres mais de la faire
-representer en divers manieres dans tous les ouvrages qu'on lui
-faisait pour elle ... le bastiment estati couvert en forme de dome
-qui dans son milieu avait encore un plus petit dome, ou lanterne
-vitree au-dessus de laquelle estait une figure doree representant
-Saint Michel. Les deux domes estoient proprement couvert d'ardoise
-et de plomb dore par dehors; par dedans ils esloient lambrissez
-d'une menuiserie tres delicate. Au milieu de ce Salon il y avait un
-grand bassin octogone de marbre blanc, dont toutes les faces
-estoient enrichies de differentes sculptures, avec les armes et les
-chiffres du Roy Louis XII et de la Reine Anne, Dans ce bassin il y
-en avait un autre pose sur un piedestal lequel auoit sept piedz de
-diametre. Il estait de figure ronde a godrons, avec des masques et
-d'autres ornements tres scauamment taillez. Du milieu de ce
-deuxiesme bassin s'y levoit un autre petit piedestal qui portait un
-troisiesme bassin de trois pieds de diametre, aussy parfaitement
-bien taille; c'estoit de ce dernier bassin que jallissoit l'eau qui
-se rependoit en suitte dans les deux autres bassins. Les beaux
-ouvrages faits d'un marbre esgalement blanc et poli, furent brisez
-par la pesanteur de tout l'edifice, que les injures de l'air
-renverserent de fond en comble.]
-
-1074.
-
-The river Loire at Amboise.
-
-The river is higher within the bank _b d_ than outside that bank.
-
-The island where there is a part of Amboise.
-
-This is the river that passes through Amboise; it passes at _a b c
-d_, and when it has passed the bridge it turns back, against the
-original current, by the channel _d e_, _b f_ in contact with the
-bank which lies between the two contrary currents of the said river,
-_a b_, _c d_, and _d e_, _b f_. It then turns down again by the
-channel _f l_, _g h_, _n m_, and reunites with the river from which
-it was at first separated, which passes by _k n_, which makes _k m_,
-_r t_. But when the river is very full it flows all in one channel
-passing over the bank _b d_. [Footnote: See Pl. CXV. Lines 1-7 are
-above, lines 8-10 in the middle of the large island and the word
-_Isola_ is written above _d_ in the smaller island; _a_ is written
-on the margin on the bank of the river above 1. I; in the
-reproduction it is not visible. As may be seen from the last
-sentence, the observation was made after long study of the river's
-course, when Leonardo had resided for some time at, or near,
-Amboise.]
-
-1075.
-
-The water may be dammed up above the level of Romorantin to such a
-height, that in its fall it may be used for numerous mills.
-
-1075.
-
-The river at Villefranche may be conducted to Romorantin which may
-be done by the inhabitants; and the timber of which their houses are
-built may be carried in boats to Romorantin [Footnote: Compare No.
-744.]. The river may be dammed up at such a height that the waters
-may be brought back to Romorantin with a convenient fall.
-
-1076.
-
-As to whether it is better that the water should all be raised in a
-single turn or in two?
-
-The answer is that in one single turn the wheel could not support
-all the water that it can raise in two turns, because at the half
-turn of the wheel it would be raising 100 pounds and no more; and if
-it had to raise the whole, 200 pounds in one turn, it could not
-raise them unless the wheel were of double the diameter and if the
-diameter were doubled, the time of its revolution would be doubled;
-therefore it is better and a greater advantage in expense to make
-such a wheel of half the size (?) the land which it would water and
-would render the country fertile to supply food to the inhabitants,
-and would make navigable canals for mercantile purposes.
-
-The way in which the river in its flow should scour its own channel.
-
-By the ninth of the third; the more rapid it is, the more it wears
-away its channel; and, by the converse proposition, the slower the
-water the more it deposits that which renders it turbid.
-
-And let the sluice be movable like the one I arranged in Friuli
-[Footnote 19: This passage reveals to us the fact that Leonardo had
-visited the country of Friuli and that he had stayed there for some
-time. Nothing whatever was known of this previously.], where when
-one sluice was opened the water which passed through it dug out the
-bottom. Therefore when the rivers are flooded, the sluices of the
-mills ought to be opened in order that the whole course of the river
-may pass through falls to each mill; there should be many in order
-to give a greater impetus, and so all the river will be scoured. And
-below the site of each of the two mills there may be one of the said
-sluice falls; one of them may be placed below each mill.
-
-1078.
-
-A trabocco is four braccia, and one mile is three thousand of the
-said braccia. Each braccio is divided into 12 inches; and the water
-in the canals has a fall in every hundred trabocchi of two of these
-inches; therefore 14 inches of fall are necessary in two thousand
-eight hundred braccia of flow in these canals; it follows that 15
-inches of fall give the required momentum to the currents of the
-waters in the said canals, that is one braccio and a half in the
-mile. And from this it may be concluded that the water taken from
-the river of Ville-franche and lent to the river of Romorantin
-will..... Where one river by reason of its low level cannot flow
-into the other, it will be necessary to dam it up, so that it may
-acquire a fall into the other, which was previously the higher.
-
-The eve of Saint Antony I returned from Romorantin to Amboise, and
-the King went away two days before from Romorantin.
-
->From Romorantin as far as the bridge at Saudre it is called the
-Saudre, and from that bridge as far as Tours it is called the Cher.
-
-I would test the level of that channel which is to lead from the
-Loire to Romorantin, with a channel one braccio wide and one braccio
-deep.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 6-18 are partly reproduced in the facsimile on p.
-254, and the whole of lines 19-25.
-
-The following names are written along the rivers on the larger
-sketch, _era f_ (the Loire) _scier f_ (the Cher) three times. _Pote
-Sodro_ (bridge of the Soudre). _Villa francha_ (Villefranche)
-_banco_ (sandbank) _Sodro_ (Soudre). The circle below shows the
-position of Romorantin. The words '_orologio del sole_' written
-below do not belong to the map of the rivers. The following names
-are written by the side of the smaller sketch-map:--_tors_ (Tours),
-_Abosa_ (Amboise) _bres_--for Bles (Blois) _mo rica_ (Montrichard).
-_Lione_ (Lyons). This map was also published in the 'Saggio'
-(Milano, 1872) Pl. XXII, and the editors remark: _Forse la linia
-retta che va da Amboise a Romorantin segna l'andamento proposto d'un
-Canale, che poi rembra prolungarsi in giu fin dove sta scritto
-Lione._
-
-M. Ravaisson has enlarged on this idea in the Gazette des Beaux Arts
-(1881 p. 530): _Les traces de Leonard permettent d'entrevoir que le
-canal commencant soit aupres de Tours, soit aupres de Blois et
-passant par Romorantin, avec port d'embarquement a Villefranche,
-devait, au dela de Bourges, traverser l'Allier au-dessous des
-affluents de la Dore et de la Sioule, aller par Moulins jusqu' a
-Digoin; enfin, sur l'autre rive de la Loire, depasser les monts du
-Charolais et rejoindre la Saone aupres de Macon._ It seems to me
-rash, however, to found so elaborate an hypothesis on these sketches
-of rivers. The slight stroke going to _Lione_ is perhaps only an
-indication of the direction.--With regard to the Loire compare also
-No. 988. l. 38.]
-
-1079.
-
-THE ROAD TO ORLEANS
-
-At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/3 from the South to
-the South East. At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/5 from
-the South to the South East. Between the South West and South, to
-the East bearing to the South; from the South towards the East 1/8;
-thence to the West, between the South and South West; at the South.
-
-[Footnote: The meaning is obscure; a more important passage
-referring to France is to be found under No. 744]
-
-On the Germans (1080. 1081).
-
-1080.
-
-The way in which the Germans closing up together cross and
-interweave their broad leather shields against the enemy, stooping
-down and putting one of the ends on the ground while they hold the
-rest in their hand. [Footnote: Above the text is a sketch of a few
-lines crossing each other and the words _de ponderibus_. The meaning
-of the passage is obscure.]
-
-1081.
-
-The Germans are wont to annoy a garrison with the smoke of feathers,
-sulphur and realgar, and they make this smoke last 7 or 8 hours.
-Likewise the husks of wheat make a great and lasting smoke; and also
-dry dung; but this must be mixed with olive husks, that is olives
-pressed for oil and from which the oil has been extracted.
-[Footnote: There is with this passage a sketch of a round tower
-shrouded in smoke.]
-
-The Danube.
-
-1082.
-
-That the valleys were formerly in great part covered by lakes the
-soil of which always forms the banks of rivers,--and by seas, which
-afterwards, by the persistent wearing of the rivers, cut through the
-mountains and the wandering courses of the rivers carried away the
-other plains enclosed by the mountains; and the cutting away of the
-mountains is evident from the strata in the rocks, which correspond
-in their sections as made by the courses of the rivers [Footnote 4:
-_Emus_, the Balkan; _Dardania_, now Servia.], The Haemus mountains
-which go along Thrace and Dardania and join the Sardonius mountains
-which, going on to the westward change their name from Sardus to
-Rebi, as they come near Dalmatia; then turning to the West cross
-Illyria, now called Sclavonia, changing the name of Rebi to Albanus,
-and going on still to the West, they change to Mount Ocra in the
-North; and to the South above Istria they are named Caruancas; and
-to the West above Italy they join the Adula, where the Danube rises
-[8], which stretches to the East and has a course of 1500 miles; its
-shortest line is about l000 miles, and the same or about the same is
-that branch of the Adula mountains changed as to their name, as
-before mentioned. To the North are the Carpathians, closing in the
-breadth of the valley of the Danube, which, as I have said extends
-eastward, a length of about 1000 miles, and is sometimes 200 and in
-some places 300 miles wide; and in the midst flows the Danube, the
-principal river of Europe as to size. The said Danube runs through
-the middle of Austria and Albania and northwards through Bavaria,
-Poland, Hungary, Wallachia and Bosnia and then the Danube or Donau
-flows into the Black Sea, which formerly extended almost to Austria
-and occupied the plains through which the Danube now courses; and
-the evidence of this is in the oysters and cockle shells and
-scollops and bones of great fishes which are still to be found in
-many places on the sides of those mountains; and this sea was formed
-by the filling up of the spurs of the Adula mountains which then
-extended to the East joining the spurs of the Taurus which extend to
-the West. And near Bithynia the waters of this Black Sea poured into
-the Propontis [Marmora] falling into the Aegean Sea, that is the
-Mediterranean, where, after a long course, the spurs of the Adula
-mountains became separated from those of the Taurus. The Black Sea
-sank lower and laid bare the valley of the Danube with the above
-named countries, and the whole of Asia Minor beyond the Taurus range
-to the North, and the plains from mount Caucasus to the Black Sea to
-the West, and the plains of the Don this side--that is to say, at
-the foot of the Ural mountains. And thus the Black Sea must have
-sunk about 1000 braccia to uncover such vast plains.
-
-[Footnote 8: _Danubio_, in the original _Reno_; evidently a mistake
-as we may infer from _come dissi_ l. 10 &c.]
-
-III.
-
-THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN END OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
-
-The straits of Gibraltar (1083-1085).
-
-1083.
-
-WHY THE SEA MAKES A STRONGER CURRENT IN THE STRAITS OF SPAIN THAN
-ELSEWHERE.
-
-A river of equal depth runs with greater speed in a narrow space
-than in a wide one, in proportion to the difference between the
-wider and the narrower one.
-
-This proposition is clearly proved by reason confirmed by
-experiment. Supposing that through a channel one mile wide there
-flows one mile in length of water; where the river is five miles
-wide each of the 5 square miles will require 1/5 of itself to be
-equal to the square mile of water required in the sea, and where the
-river is 3 miles wide each of these square miles will require the
-third of its volume to make up the amount of the square mile of the
-narrow part; as is demonstrated in _f g h_ at the mile marked _n_.
-
-[Footnote: In the place marked A in the diagram _Mare Mediterano_
-(Mediterranean Sea) is written in the original. And at B, _stretto
-di Spugna_ (straits of Spain, _i.e._ Gibraltar). Compare No. 960.]
-
-1084.
-
-WHY THE CURRENT OF GIBRALTAR IS ALWAYS GREATER TO THE WEST THAN TO
-THE EAST.
-
-The reason is that if you put together the mouths of the rivers
-which discharge into the Mediterranean sea, you would find the sum
-of water to be larger than that which this sea pours through the
-straits into the ocean. You see Africa discharging its rivers that
-run northwards into this sea, and among them the Nile which runs
-through 3000 miles of Africa; there is also the Bagrada river and
-the Schelif and others. [Footnote 5: _Bagrada_ (Leonardo writes
-Bragada) in Tunis, now Medscherda; _Mavretano_, now Schelif.]
-Likewise Europe pours into it the Don and the Danube, the Po, the
-Rhone, the Arno, and the Tiber, so that evidently these rivers, with
-an infinite number of others of less fame, make its great breadth
-and depth and current; and the sea is not wider than 18 miles at the
-most westerly point of land where it divides Europe from Africa.
-
-1085.
-
-The gulf of the Mediterranean, as an inland sea, received the
-principal waters of Africa, Asia and Europe that flowed towards it;
-and its waters came up to the foot of the mountains that surrounded
-it and made its shores. And the summits of the Apennines stood up
-out of this sea like islands, surrounded by salt water. Africa
-again, behind its Atlas mountains did not expose uncovered to the
-sky the surface of its vast plains about 3000 miles in length, and
-Memphis [Footnote 6: _Mefi._ Leonardo can only mean here the citadel
-of Cairo on the Mokattam hills.] was on the shores of this sea, and
-above the plains of Italy, where now birds fly in flocks, fish were
-wont to wander in large shoals.
-
-1086.
-
-Tunis.
-
-The greatest ebb made anywhere by the Mediterranean is above Tunis,
-being about two and a half braccia and at Venice it falls two
-braccia. In all the rest of the Mediterranean sea the fall is little
-or none.
-
-1087.
-
-Libya.
-
-Describe the mountains of shifting deserts; that is to say the
-formation of waves of sand borne by the wind, and of its mountains
-and hills, such as occur in Libya. Examples may be seen on the wide
-sands of the Po and the Ticino, and other large rivers.
-
-1088.
-
-Majorca.
-
-Circumfulgore is a naval machine. It was an invention of the men of
-Majorca. [Footnote: The machine is fully described in the MS. and
-shown in a sketch.]
-
-1089.
-
-The Tyrrhene Sea.
-
-Some at the Tyrrhene sea employ this method; that is to say they
-fastened an anchor to one end of the yard, and to the other a cord,
-of which the lower end was fastened to an anchor; and in battle they
-flung this anchor on to the oars of the opponent's boat and by the
-use of a capstan drew it to the side; and threw soft soap and tow,
-daubed with pitch and set ablaze, on to that side where the anchor
-hung; so that in order to escape that fire, the defenders of that
-ship had to fly to the opposite side; and in doing this they aided
-to the attack, because the galley was more easily drawn to the side
-by reason of the counterpoise. [Footnote: This text is illustrated
-in the original by a pen and ink sketch.]
-
-IV.
-
-THE LEVANT.
-
-The Levantine Sea.
-
-1090.
-
-On the shores of the Mediterranean 300 rivers flow, and 40, 200
-ports. And this sea is 3000 miles long. Many times has the increase
-of its waters, heaped up by their backward flow and the blowing of
-the West winds, caused the overflow of the Nile and of the rivers
-which flow out through the Black Sea, and have so much raised the
-seas that they have spread with vast floods over many countries. And
-these floods take place at the time when the sun melts the snows on
-the high mountains of Ethiopia that rise up into the cold regions of
-the air; and in the same way the approach of the sun acts on the
-mountains of Sarmatia in Asia and on those in Europe; so that the
-gathering together of these three things are, and always have been,
-the cause of tremendous floods: that is, the return flow of the sea
-with the West wind and the melting of the snows. So every river will
-overflow in Syria, in Samaria, in Judea between Sinai and the
-Lebanon, and in the rest of Syria between the Lebanon and the Taurus
-mountains, and in Cilicia, in the Armenian mountains, and in
-Pamphilia and in Lycia within the hills, and in Egypt as far as the
-Atlas mountains. The gulf of Persia which was formerly a vast lake
-of the Tigris and discharged into the Indian Sea, has now worn away
-the mountains which formed its banks and laid them even with the
-level of the Indian ocean. And if the Mediterranean had continued
-its flow through the gulf of Arabia, it would have done the same,
-that is to say, would have reduced the level of the Mediterranean to
-that of the Indian Sea.
-
-The Red Sea. (1091. 1092).
-
-1091.
-
-For a long time the water of the Mediterranean flowed out through
-the Red Sea, which is 100 miles wide and 1500 long, and full of
-reefs; and it has worn away the sides of Mount Sinai, a fact which
-testifies, not to an inundation from the Indian sea beating on these
-coasts, but to a deluge of water which carried with it all the
-rivers which abound round the Mediterranean, and besides this there
-is the reflux of the sea; and then, a cutting being made to the West
-3000 miles away from this place, Gibraltar was separated from Ceuta,
-which had been joined to it. And this passage was cut very low down,
-in the plains between Gibraltar and the ocean at the foot of the
-mountain, in the low part, aided by the hollowing out of some
-valleys made by certain rivers, which might have flowed here.
-Hercules [Footnote 9: Leonardo seems here to mention Hercules half
-jestingly and only in order to suggest to the reader an allusion to
-the legend of the pillars of Hercules.] came to open the sea to the
-westward and then the sea waters began to pour into the Western
-Ocean; and in consequence of this great fall, the Red Sea remained
-the higher; whence the water, abandoning its course here, ever after
-poured away through the Straits of Spain.
-
-1092.
-
-The surface of the Red Sea is on a level with the ocean.
-
-A mountain may have fallen and closed the mouth of the Red Sea and
-prevented the outlet of the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean Sea
-thus overfilled had for outlet the passage below the mountains of
-Gades; for, in our own times a similar thing has been seen [Footnote
-6: Compare also No. 1336, ll. 30, 35 and 36.-- Paolo Giovio, the
-celebrated historian (born at Como in 1483) reports that in 1513 at
-the foot of the Alps, above Bellinzona, on the road to Switzerland,
-a mountain fell with a very great noise, in consequence of an
-earthquake, and that the mass of rocks, which fell on the left
-(Western) side blocked the river Breno (T. I p. 218 and 345 of D.
-Sauvage's French edition, quoted in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire des
-tremblements de terre de la peninsule italique; Academie Royale de
-Belgique._ T. XXII).--]; a mountain fell seven miles across a valley
-and closed it up and made a lake. And thus most lakes have been made
-by mountains, as the lake of Garda, the lakes of Como and Lugano,
-and the Lago Maggiore. The Mediterranean fell but little on the
-confines of Syria, in consequence of the Gaditanean passage, but a
-great deal in this passage, because before this cutting was made the
-Mediterranean sea flowed to the South East, and then the fall had to
-be made by its run through the Straits of Gades.
-
-At _a_ the water of the Mediterranean fell into the ocean.
-
-All the plains which lie between the sea and mountains were formerly
-covered with salt water.
-
-Every valley has been made by its own river; and the proportion
-between valleys is the same as that between river and river.
-
-The greatest river in our world is the Mediterranean river, which
-moves from the sources of the Nile to the Western ocean.
-
-And its greatest height is in Outer Mauritania and it has a course
-of ten thousand miles before it reunites with its ocean, the father
-of the waters.
-
-That is 3000 miles for the Mediterranean, 3000 for the Nile, as far
-as discovered and 3000 for the Nile which flows to the East, &c.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CXI 2, a sketch of the shores of the
-Mediterranean Sea, where lines 11 to 16 may be seen. The large
-figures 158 are not in Leonardo's writing. The character of the
-writing leads us to conclude that this text was written later than
-the foregoing. A slight sketch of the Mediterranean is also to be
-found in MS. I', 47a.]
-
-The Nile (1093-1098).
-
-1093.
-
-Therefore we must conclude those mountains to be of the greatest
-height, above which the clouds falling in snow give rise to the
-Nile.
-
-1094.
-
-The Egyptians, the Ethiopians, and the Arabs, in crossing the Nile
-with camels, are accustomed to attach two bags on the sides of the
-camel's bodies that is skins in the form shown underneath.
-
-In these four meshes of the net the camels for baggage place their
-feet.
-
-[Footnote: Unfortunately both the sketches which accompany this
-passage are too much effaced to be reproduced. The upper represents
-the two sacks joined by ropes, as here described, the other shows
-four camels with riders swimming through a river.]
-
-1095.
-
-The Tigris passes through Asia Minor and brings with it the water of
-three lakes, one after the other of various elevations; the first
-being Munace and the middle Pallas and the lowest Triton. And the
-Nile again springs from three very high lakes in Ethiopia, and runs
-northwards towards the sea of Egypt with a course of 4000 miles, and
-by the shortest and straightest line it is 3000 miles. It is said
-that it issues from the Mountains of the Moon, and has various
-unknown sources. The said lakes are about 4000 braccia above the
-surface of the sphere of water, that is 1 mile and 1/3, giving to
-the Nile a fall of 1 braccia in every mile.
-
-[Footnote 5: _Incogniti principio._ The affluents of the lakes are
-probably here intended. Compare, as to the Nile, Nos. 970, 1063 and
-1084.]
-
-1096.
-
-Very many times the Nile and other very large rivers have poured out
-their whole element of water and restored it to the sea.
-
-1097.
-
-Why does the inundation of the Nile occur in the summer, coming from
-torrid countries?
-
-1098.
-
-It is not denied that the Nile is constantly muddy in entering the
-Egyptian sea and that its turbidity is caused by soil that this
-river is continually bringing from the places it passes; which soil
-never returns in the sea which receives it, unless it throws it on
-its shores. You see the sandy desert beyond Mount Atlas where
-formerly it was covered with salt water.
-
-Customs of Asiatic Nations (1099. 1100).
-
-1099.
-
-The Assyrians and the people of Euboea accustom their horses to
-carry sacks which they can at pleasure fill with air, and which in
-case of need they carry instead of the girth of the saddle above and
-at the side, and they are well covered with plates of cuir bouilli,
-in order that they may not be perforated by flights of arrows. Thus
-they have not on their minds their security in flight, when the
-victory is uncertain; a horse thus equipped enables four or five men
-to cross over at need.
-
-1100.
-
-SMALL BOATS.
-
-The small boats used by the Assyrians were made of thin laths of
-willow plaited over rods also of willow, and bent into the form of a
-boat. They were daubed with fine mud soaked with oil or with
-turpentine, and reduced to a kind of mud which resisted the water
-and because pine would split; and always remained fresh; and they
-covered this sort of boats with the skins of oxen in safely crossing
-the river Sicuris of Spain, as is reported by Lucant; [Footnote 7:
-See Lucan's Pharsalia IV, 130: _Utque habuit ripas Sicoris camposque
-reliquit, Primum cana salix madefacto vimine parvam Texitur in
-puppim, calsoque inducto juvenco Vectoris patiens tumidum supernatat
-amnem. Sic Venetus stagnante Pado, fusoque Britannus Navigat oceano,
-sic cum tenet omnia Nilus, Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymbo papyro.
-His ratibus transjecta manus festinat utrimque Succisam cavare nemus
-]
-
-The Spaniards, the Scythians and the Arabs, when they want to make a
-bridge in haste, fix hurdlework made of willows on bags of ox-hide,
-and so cross in safety.
-
-Rhodes (1101. 1102).
-
-1101.
-
-In [fourteen hundred and] eighty nine there was an earthquake in the
-sea of Atalia near Rhodes, which opened the sea--that is its
-bottom--and into this opening such a torrent of water poured that
-for more than three hours the bottom of the sea was uncovered by
-reason of the water which was lost in it, and then it closed to the
-former level.
-
-[Footnote: _Nello ottanto_ 9. It is scarcely likely that Leonardo
-should here mean 89 AD. Dr. H. MULLER- STRUBING writes to me as
-follows on this subject: "With reference to Rhodes Ross says (_Reise
-auf den Griechischen Inseln, III_ 70 _ff_. 1840), that ancient
-history affords instances of severe earthquakes at Rhodes, among
-others one in the second year of the 138th Olympiad=270 B. C.; a
-remarkably violent one under Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) and
-again under Constantine and later. But Leonardo expressly speaks of
-an earthquake "_nel mar di Atalia presso a Rodi_", which is
-singular. The town of Attalia, founded by Attalus, which is what he
-no doubt means, was in Pamphylia and more than 150 English miles
-East of Rhodes in a straight line. Leake and most other geographers
-identify it with the present town of Adalia. Attalia is rarely
-mentioned by the ancients, indeed only by Strabo and Pliny and no
-earthquake is spoken of. I think therefore you are justified in
-assuming that Leonardo means 1489". In the elaborate catalogue of
-earthquakes in the East by Sciale Dshelal eddin Sayouthy (an
-unpublished Arabic MS. in the possession of Prof. SCHEFER, (Membre
-de l'Institut, Paris) mention is made of a terrible earthquake in
-the year 867 of the Mohamedan Era corresponding to the year 1489,
-and it is there stated that a hundred persons were killed by it in
-the fortress of Kerak. There are three places of this name. Kerak on
-the sea of Tiberias, Kerak near Tahle on the Libanon, which I
-visited in the summer of l876--but neither of these is the place
-alluded to. Possibly it may be the strongly fortified town of
-Kerak=Kir Moab, to the West of the Dead Sea. There is no notice
-about this in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire sur les tremblements de terres
-ressentis dans la peninsule turco- hellenique et en Syrie (Memoires
-couronnes et memoires des savants etrangers, Academie Royale de
-Belgique, Tome XXIII)._]
-
-1102.
-
-Rhodes has in it 5000 houses.
-
-Cyprus (1103. 1104).
-
-1103.
-
-SITE FOR [A TEMPLE OF] VENUS.
-
-You must make steps on four sides, by which to mount to a meadow
-formed by nature at the top of a rock which may be hollowed out and
-supported in front by pilasters and open underneath in a large
-portico,
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXIII. Compare also p. 33 of this Vol. The
-standing male figure at the side is evidently suggested by Michael
-Angelo's David. On the same place a slight sketch of horses seems to
-have been drawn first; there is no reason for assuming that the text
-and this sketch, which have no connection with each other, are of
-the same date.
-
-_Sito di Venere._ By this heading Leonardo appears to mean Cyprus,
-which was always considered by the ancients to be the home and birth
-place of Aphrodite (Kirpic in Homer).]
-
-in which the water may fall into various vases of granite,
-porphyryand serpentine, within semi-circular recesses; and the water
-may overflow from these. And round this portico towards the North
-there should be a lake with a little island in the midst of which
-should be a thick and shady wood; the waters at the top of the
-pilasters should pour into vases at their base, from whence they
-should flow in little channels.
-
-Starting from the shore of Cilicia towards the South you discover
-the beauties of the island of Cyprus.
-
-The Caspian Sea (1105. 1106).
-
-1104.
-
->From the shore of the Southern coast of Cilicia may be seen to the
-South the beautiful island of Cyprus, which was the realm of the
-goddess Venus, and many navigators being attracted by her beauty,
-had their ships and rigging broken amidst the reefs, surrounded by
-the whirling waters. Here the beauty of delightful hills tempts
-wandering mariners to refresh themselves amidst their flowery
-verdure, where the winds are tempered and fill the island and the
-surrounding seas with fragrant odours. Ah! how many a ship has here
-been sunk. Ah! how many a vessel broken on these rocks. Here might
-be seen barks without number, some wrecked and half covered by the
-sand; others showing the poop and another the prow, here a keel and
-there the ribs; and it seems like a day of judgment when there
-should be a resurrection of dead ships, so great is the number of
-them covering all the Northern shore; and while the North gale makes
-various and fearful noises there.
-
-1105.
-
-Write to Bartolomeo the Turk as to the flow and ebb of the Black
-sea, and whether he is aware if there be such a flow and ebb in the
-Hyrcanean or Caspian sea. [Footnote: The handwriting of this note
-points to a late date.]
-
-1106.
-
-WHY WATER IS FOUND AT THE TOP OF MOUNTAINS.
-
->From the straits of Gibraltar to the Don is 3500 miles, that is one
-mile and 1/6, giving a fall of one braccio in a mile to any water
-that moves gently. The Caspian sea is a great deal higher; and none
-of the mountains of Europe rise a mile above the surface of our
-seas; therefore it might be said that the water which is on the
-summits of our mountains might come from the height of those seas,
-and of the rivers which flow into them, and which are still higher.
-
-The sea of Azov.
-
-1107.
-
-Hence it follows that the sea of Azov is the highest part of the
-Mediterranean sea, being at a distance of 3500 miles from the
-Straits of Gibraltar, as is shown by the map for navigation; and it
-has 3500 braccia of descent, that is, one mile and 1/6; therefore it
-is higher than any mountains which exist in the West.
-
-[Footnote: The passage before this, in the original, treats of the
-exit of the waters from Lakes in general.]
-
-The Dardanelles.
-
-1108.
-
-In the Bosphorus the Black Sea flows always into the Egean sea, and
-the Egean sea never flows into it. And this is because the Caspian,
-which is 400 miles to the East, with the rivers which pour into it,
-always flows through subterranean caves into this sea of Pontus; and
-the Don does the same as well as the Danube, so that the waters of
-Pontus are always higher than those of the Egean; for the higher
-always fall towards the lower, and never the lower towards the
-higher.
-
-Constantinople.
-
-1109.
-
-The bridge of Pera at Constantinople, 40 braccia wide, 70 braccia
-high above the water, 600 braccia long; that is 400 over the sea and
-200 on the land, thus making its own abutments.
-
-[Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 1. In 1453 by order of Sultan Mohamed II.
-the Golden Horn was crossed by a pontoon bridge laid on barrels (see
-Joh. Dukas' History of the Byzantine Empire XXXVIII p. 279). --The
-biographers of Michelangelo, Vasari as well as Condivi, relate that
-at the time when Michelangelo suddenly left Rome, in 1506, he
-entertained some intention of going to Constantinople, there to
-serve the Sultan, who sought to engage him, by means of certain
-Franciscan Monks, for the purpose of constructing a bridge to
-connect Constantinople with Pera. See VASARI, _Vite_ (ed. Sansoni
-VII, 168): _Michelangelo, veduto questa furia del papa, dubitando di
-lui, ebbe, secondo che si dice, voglia di andarsene in
-Gostantinopoli a servire il Turco, per mezzo di certi frati di San
-Francesco, che desiderava averlo per fare un ponte che passassi da
-Gostantinopoli a Pera._ And CONDIVI, _Vita di M. Buonaroti chap._
-30_; Michelangelo allora vedendosi condotto a questo, temendo
-dell'ira del papa, penso d'andarsene in Levante; massimamente
-essendo stato dal Turco ricercato con grandissime promesse per mezzo
-di certi frati di San Francesco, per volersene servire in fare un
-ponte da Costantinopoli a Pera ed in altri affari._ Leonardo's plan
-for this bridge was made in 1502. We may therefore conclude that at
-about that time the Sultan Bajazet II. had either announced a
-competition in this matter, or that through his agents Leonardo had
-first been called upon to carry out the scheme.]
-
-The Euphrates.
-
-1110.
-
-If the river will turn to the rift farther on it will never return
-to its bed, as the Euphrates does, and this may do at Bologna the
-one who is disappointed for his rivers.
-
-Centrae Asia.
-
-1111.
-
-Mounts Caucasus, Comedorum, and Paropemisidae are joined together
-between Bactria and India, and give birth to the river Oxus which
-takes its rise in these mountains and flows 500 miles towards the
-North and as many towards the West, and discharges its waters into
-the Caspian sea; and is accompanied by the Oxus, Dargados, Arthamis,
-Xariaspes, Dargamaim, Ocus and Margus, all very large rivers. From
-the opposite side towards the South rises the great river Indus
-which sends its waters for 600 miles Southwards and receives as
-tributaries in this course the rivers Xaradrus, Hyphasis, Vadris,
-Vandabal Bislaspus to the East, Suastes and Coe to the West, uniting
-with these rivers, and with their waters it flows 800 miles to the
-West; then, turning back by the Arbiti mountains makes an elbow and
-turns Southwards, where after a course of about 100 miles it finds
-the Indian Sea, in which it pours itself by seven branches. On the
-side of the same mountains rises the great Ganges, which river flows
-Southwards for 500 miles and to the Southwest a thousand ... and
-Sarabas, Diarnuna, Soas and Scilo, Condranunda are its tributaries.
-It flows into the Indian sea by many mouths.
-
-On the natives of hot countries.
-
-1112.
-
-Men born in hot countries love the night because it refreshes them
-and have a horror of light because it burns them; and therefore they
-are of the colour of night, that is black. And in cold countries it
-is just the contrary.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch here inserted is in MS. H3 55b.]
-
-_XVIII._
-
-_Naval Warfare.--Mechanical Appliances.--Music._
-
-_Such theoretical questions, as have been laid before the reader in
-Sections XVI and XVII, though they were the chief subjects of
-Leonardo's studies of the sea, did not exclusively claim his
-attention. A few passages have been collected at the beginning of
-this section, which prove that he had turned his mind to the
-practical problems of navigation, and more especially of naval
-warfare. What we know for certain of his life gives us no data, it
-is true, as to when or where these matters came under his
-consideration; but the fact remains certain both from these notes in
-his manuscripts, and from the well known letter to Ludovico il Moro
-(No._ 1340_), in which he expressly states that he is as capable as
-any man, in this very department._
-
-_The numerous notes as to the laws and rationale of the flight of
-birds, are scattered through several note-books. An account of these
-is given in the Bibliography of the manuscripts at the end of this
-work. It seems probable that the idea which led him to these
-investigations was his desire to construct a flying or aerial
-machine for man. At the same time it must be admitted that the notes
-on the two subjects are quite unconnected in the manuscripts, and
-that those on the flight of birds are by far the most numerous and
-extensive. The two most important passages that treat of the
-construction of a flying machine are those already published as Tav.
-XVI, No._ 1 _and Tav. XVIII in the_ "Saggio delle opere di Leonardo
-da Vinci" _(Milan_ 1872_). The passages--Nos._ 1120-1125--_here
-printed for the first time and hitherto unknown--refer to the same
-subject and, with the exception of one already published in the
-Saggio-- No._ 1126--_they are, so far as I know, the only notes,
-among the numerous observations on the flight of birds, in which the
-phenomena are incidentally and expressly connected with the idea of
-a flying machine._
-
-_The notes on machines of war, the construction of fortifications,
-and similar matters which fall within the department of the
-Engineer, have not been included in this work, for the reasons given
-on page_ 26 _of this Vol. An exception has been made in favour of
-the passages Nos._ 1127 _and_ 1128, _because they have a more
-general interest, as bearing on the important question: whence the
-Master derived his knowledge of these matters. Though it would be
-rash to assert that Leonardo was the first to introduce the science
-of mining into Italy, it may be confidently said that he is one of
-the earliest writers who can be proved to have known and understood
-it; while, on the other hand, it is almost beyond doubt that in the
-East at that time, the whole science of besieging towns and mining
-in particular, was far more advanced than in Europe. This gives a
-peculiar value to the expressions used in No._ 1127.
-
-_I have been unable to find in the manuscripts any passage whatever
-which throws any light on Leonardo's great reputation as a musician.
-Nothing therein illustrates VASARPS well-known statement:_ Avvenne
-che morto Giovan Galeazze duca di Milano, e creato Lodovico Sforza
-nel grado medesimo anno 1494, fu condotto a Milano con gran
-riputazione Lionardo al duca, il quale molto si dilettava del suono
-della lira, perche sonasse; e Lionardo porto quello strumento
-ch'egli aveva di sua mano fabbricato d'argento gran parte, in forma
-d'un teschio di cavallo, cosa bizzarra e nuova, acciocche l'armonia
-fosse con maggior tuba e piu sonora di voce; laonde supero tutti i
-musici che quivi erano concorsi a sonare.
-
-_The only notes on musical matters are those given as Nos._ 1129
-_and_ 1130, _which explain certain arrangements in instruments._
-
-The ship's logs of Vitruvius, of Alberti and of Leonardo
-
-1113.
-
-ON MOVEMENTS;--TO KNOW HOW MUCH A SHIP ADVANCES IN AN HOUR.
-
-The ancients used various devices to ascertain the distance gone by
-a ship each hour, among which Vitruvius [Footnote 6: See VITRUVIUS,
-_De Architectura lib. X._ C. 14 (p. 264 in the edition of Rose and
-Muller- Strubing). The German edition published at Bale in 1543 has,
-on fol. 596, an illustration of the contrivance, as described by
-Vitruvius.] gives one in his work on Architecture which is just as
-fallacious as all the others; and this is a mill wheel which touches
-the waves of the sea at one end and in each complete revolution
-describes a straight line which represents the circumference of the
-wheel extended to a straightness. But this invention is of no worth
-excepting on the smooth and motionless surface of lakes. But if the
-water moves together with the ship at an equal rate, then the wheel
-remains motionless; and if the motion of the water is more or less
-rapid than that of the ship, then neither has the wheel the same
-motion as the ship so that this invention is of but little use.
-There is another method tried by experiment with a known distance
-between one island and another; and this is done by a board or under
-the pressure of wind which strikes on it with more or less
-swiftness. This is in Battista Alberti [Footnote 25: LEON BATTISTA
-ALBERTI, _De Architectura lib. V._, c. 12 treats '_de le navi e
-parti loro_', but there is no reference to the machine, mentioned by
-Leonardo. Alberti says here: _Noi abbiamo trattato lungamente in
-altro luogo de' modi de le navi, ma in questo luogo ne abbiamo detto
-quel tanto che si bisogna_. To this the following note is added in
-the most recent Italian edition: _Questo libro e tuttora inedito e
-porta il titolo, secondo Gesnero di_ '_Liber navis_'.].
-
-Battista Alberti's method which is made by experiment on a known
-distance between one island and another. But such an invention does
-not succeed excepting on a ship like the one on which the experiment
-was made, and it must be of the same burden and have the same sails,
-and the sails in the same places, and the size of the waves must be
-the same. But my method will serve for any ship, whether with oars
-or sails; and whether it be small or large, broad or long, or high
-or low, it always serves [Footnote 52: Leonardo does not reveal the
-method invented by him.].
-
-Methods of staying and moving in water
-
-1114.
-
-How an army ought to cross rivers by swimming with air-bags ... How
-fishes swim [Footnote 2: Compare No. 821.]; of the way in which they
-jump out of the water, as may be seen with dolphins; and it seems a
-wonderful thing to make a leap from a thing which does not resist
-but slips away. Of the swimming of animals of a long form, such as
-eels and the like. Of the mode of swimming against currents and in
-the rapid falls of rivers. Of the mode of swimming of fishes of a
-round form. How it is that animals which have not long hind quartres
-cannot swim. How it is that all other animals which have feet with
-toes, know by nature how to swim, excepting man. In what way man
-ought to learn to swim. Of the way in which man may rest on the
-water. How man may protect himself against whirlpools or eddies in
-the water, which drag him down. How a man dragged to the bottom must
-seek the reflux which will throw him up from the depths. How he
-ought to move his arms. How to swim on his back. How he can and how
-he cannot stay under water unless he can hold his breath [13]. How
-by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under
-water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under
-water, or how long I can stay without eating; and I do not publish
-nor divulge these by reason of the evil nature of men who would use
-them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea, by sending
-ships to the bottom, and sinking them together with the men in them.
-And although I will impart others, there is no danger in them;
-because the mouth of the tube, by which you breathe, is above the
-water supported on bags or corks [19].
-
-[Footnote: L. 13-19 will also be found in Vol. I No. 1.]
-
-On naval warfare (1115. 1116).
-
-1115.
-
-Supposing in a battle between ships and galleys that the ships are
-victorious by reason of the high of heir tops, you must haul the
-yard up almost to the top of the mast, and at the extremity of the
-yard, that is the end which is turned towards the enemy, have a
-small cage fastened, wrapped up below and all round in a great
-mattress full of cotton so that it may not be injured by the bombs;
-then, with the capstan, haul down the opposite end of this yard and
-the top on the opposite side will go up so high, that it will be far
-above the round-top of the ship, and you will easily drive out the
-men that are in it. But it is necessary that the men who are in the
-galley should go to the opposite side of it so as to afford a
-counterpoise to the weight of the men placed inside the cage on the
-yard.
-
-1116.
-
-If you want to build an armada for the sea employ these ships to ram
-in the enemy's ships. That is, make ships 100 feet long and 8 feet
-wide, but arranged so that the left hand rowers may have their oars
-to the right side of the ship, and the right hand ones to the left
-side, as is shown at M, so that the leverage of the oars may be
-longer. And the said ship may be one foot and a half thick, that is
-made with cross beams within and without, with planks in contrary
-directions. And this ship must have attached to it, a foot below the
-water, an iron-shod spike of about the weight and size of an anvil;
-and this, by force of oars may, after it has given the first blow,
-be drawn back, and driven forward again with fury give a second
-blow, and then a third, and so many as to destroy the other ship.
-
-The use of swimming belts.
-
-1117.
-
-A METHOD OF ESCAPING IN A TEMPEST AND SHIPWRECK AT SEA.
-
-Have a coat made of leather, which must be double across the breast,
-that is having a hem on each side of about a finger breadth. Thus it
-will be double from the waist to the knee; and the leather must be
-quite air-tight. When you want to leap into the sea, blow out the
-skirt of your coat through the double hems of the breast; and jump
-into the sea, and allow yourself to be carried by the waves; when
-you see no shore near, give your attention to the sea you are in,
-and always keep in your mouth the air-tube which leads down into the
-coat; and if now and again you require to take a breath of fresh
-air, and the foam prevents you, you may draw a breath of the air
-within the coat.
-
-[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_, Tav. II. B. Fig. 5, gives
-the same figure, somewhat altered. 6. _La canna dell' aria_. Compare
-Vol. I. No. I. Note]
-
-On the gravity of water.
-
-1118.
-
-If the weight of the sea bears on its bottom, a man, lying on that
-bottom and having l000 braccia of water on his back, would have
-enough to crush him.
-
-Diving apparatus and Skating (1119-1121).
-
-1119.
-
-Of walking under water. Method of walking on water.
-
-[Footnote: The two sketches belonging to this passage are given by
-AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_. Tav. II, Fig. 3 and 4.]
-
-1120.
-
-Just as on a frozen river a man may run without moving his feet, so
-a car might be made that would slide by itself.
-
-[Footnote: The drawings of carts by the side of this text have no
-direct connection with the problem as stated in words.--Compare No.
-1448, l. 17.]
-
-1121.
-
-A definition as to why a man who slides on ice does not fall.
-[Footnote: An indistinct sketch accompanies the passage, in the
-original.]
-
-On Flying machines (1122-1126).
-
-1122.
-
-Man when flying must stand free from the waist upwards so as to be
-able to balance himself as he does in a boat so that the centre of
-gravity in himself and in the machine may counterbalance each other,
-and be shifted as necessity demands for the changes of its centre of
-resistance.
-
-1123.
-
-Remember that your flying machine must imitate no other than the
-bat, because the web is what by its union gives the armour, or
-strength to the wings.
-
-If you imitate the wings of feathered birds, you will find a much
-stronger structure, because they are pervious; that is, their
-feathers are separate and the air passes through them. But the bat
-is aided by the web that connects the whole and is not pervious.
-
-1124.
-
-TO ESCAPE THE PERIL OF DESTRUCTION.
-
-Destruction to such a machine may occur in two ways; of which the
-first is the breaking of the machine. The second would be when the
-machine should turn on its edge or nearly on its edge, because it
-ought always to descend in a highly oblique direction, and almost
-exactly balanced on its centre. As regards the first--the breaking
-of the machine--, that may be prevented by making it as strong as
-possible; and in whichever direction it may tend to turn over, one
-centre must be very far from the other; that is, in a machine 30
-braccia long the centres must be 4 braccia one from the other.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1428.]
-
-1125.
-
-Bags by which a man falling from a height of 6 braccia may avoid
-hurting himself, by a fall whether into water or on the ground; and
-these bags, strung together like a rosary, are to be fixed on one's
-back.
-
-1126.
-
-An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to
-the object. You may see that the beating of its wings against the
-air supports a heavy eagle in the highest and rarest atmosphere,
-close to the sphere of elemental fire. Again you may see the air in
-motion over the sea, fill the swelling sails and drive heavily laden
-ships. From these instances, and the reasons given, a man with wings
-large enough and duly connected might learn to overcome the
-resistance of the air, and by conquering it, succeed in subjugating
-it and rising above it. [Footnote: A parachute is here sketched,
-with an explanatory remark. It is reproduced on Tav. XVI in the
-Saggio, and in: _Leonardo da Vinci als Ingenieur etc., Ein Beitrag
-zur Geschichte der Technik und der induktiven Wissenschaften, von
-Dr. Hermann Grothe, Berlin_ 1874, p. 50.]
-
-Of mining.
-
-1127.
-
-If you want to know where a mine runs, place a drum over all the
-places where you suspect that it is being made, and upon this drum
-put a couple of dice, and when you are over the spot where they are
-mining, the dice will jump a little on the drum at every blow which
-is given underground in the mining.
-
-There are persons who, having the convenience of a river or a lake
-in their lands, have made, close to the place where they suspect
-that a mine is being made, a great reservoir of water, and have
-countermined the enemy, and having found them, have turned the water
-upon them and destroyed a great number in the mine.
-
-Of Greek fire.
-
-1128.
-
-GREEK FIRE.
-
-Take charcoal of willow, and saltpetre, and sulphuric acid, and
-sulphur, and pitch, with frankincense and camphor, and Ethiopian
-wool, and boil them all together. This fire is so ready to burn that
-it clings to the timbers even under water. And add to this
-composition liquid varnish, and bituminous oil, and turpentine and
-strong vinegar, and mix all together and dry it in the sun, or in an
-oven when the bread is taken out; and then stick it round hempen or
-other tow, moulding it into a round form, and studding it all over
-with very sharp nails. You must leave in this ball an opening to
-serve as a fusee, and cover it with rosin and sulphur.
-
-Again, this fire, stuck at the top of a long plank which has one
-braccio length of the end pointed with iron that it may not be burnt
-by the said fire, is good for avoiding and keeping off the ships, so
-as not to be overwhelmed by their onset.
-
-Again throw vessels of glass full of pitch on to the enemy's ships
-when the men in them are intent on the battle; and then by throwing
-similar burning balls upon them you have it in your power to burn
-all their ships.
-
-[Footnote: Venturi has given another short text about the Greek fire
-in a French translation (Essai Section XIV). He adds that the
-original text is to be found in MS. B. 30 (?). Libri speaks of it in
-a note as follows (_Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie
-Vol. II_ p. 129): _La composition du feu gregeois est une des chases
-qui ont ete les plus cherchees et qui sont encore les plus
-douteuses. On dit qu'il fut invente au septieme siecle de l'ere
-chretienne par l'architecte Callinique (Constantini Porphyrogenetae
-opera, Lugd. Batav._ 1617,-- _in-_8vo; p. 172, _de admin, imper.
-exp._ 48_), et il se trouve souvent mentionne par les Historiens
-Byzantins. Tantot on le langait avec des machines, comme on
-lancerait une banche, tantot on le soufflait avec de longs tubes,
-comme on soufflerait un gaz ou un liquide enflamme (Annae Comnenae
-Alexias_, p. 335, _lib. XI.--Aeliani et Leonis, imperatoris tactica,
-Lugd.-Bat._ 1613, _in_-4. part. 2 a, p. 322, _Leonis tact. cap._
-l9.--_Joinville, histoire du Saint Louis collect. Petitot tom. II,_
-p. 235). _Les ecrivains contemporains disent que l'eau ne pouvait
-pas eteindre ce feu, mais qu'avec du vinaigre et du sable on y
-parvenait. Suivant quelques historiens le feu gregeois etait compose
-de soufre et de resine. Marcus Graecus (Liber ignium, Paris,_ 1804,
-_in_-40_) donne plusieurs manieres de le faire qui ne sont pas tres
-intelligibles, mais parmi lesquelles on trouve la composition de la
-poudre a canon. Leonard de Vinci (MSS. de Leonard de Vinci, vol. B.
-f. 30,) dit qu'on le faisait avec du charbon de saule, du salpetre,
-de l'eau de vie, de la resine, du soufre, de la poix et du camphre.
-Mais il est probable que nous ne savons pas qu'elle etait sa
-composition, surtout a cause du secret qu'en faisaient les Grecs. En
-effet, l'empereur Constantin Porphyrogenete recommende a son fils de
-ne jamais en donner aux Barbares, et de leur repondre, s'ils en
-demandaient, qu'il avait ete apporti du ciel par un ange et que le
-secret en avait ete confie aux Chretiens (Constantini
-Porphyrogennetae opera,_ p. 26-27, _de admin. imper., cap. _12_)._]
-
-Of Music (1129. 1130).
-
-1129.
-
-A drum with cogs working by wheels with springs [2].
-
-[Footnote: This chapter consists of explanations of the sketches
-shown on Pl. CXXI. Lines 1 and 2 of the text are to be seen at the
-top at the left hand side of the first sketch of a drum. Lines 3-5
-refer to the sketch immediately below this. Line 6 is written as the
-side of the seventh sketch, and lines 7 and 8 at the side of the
-eighth. Lines 9-16 are at the bottom in the middle. The remainder of
-the text is at the side of the drawing at the bottom.]
-
-A square drum of which the parchment may be drawn tight or slackened
-by the lever _a b_ [5].
-
-A drum for harmony [6].
-
-[7] A clapper for harmony; that is, three clappers together.
-
-[9] Just as one and the same drum makes a deep or acute sound
-according as the parchments are more or less tightened, so these
-parchments variously tightened on one and the same drum will make
-various sounds [16].
-
-Keys narrow and close together; (bicchi) far apart; these will be
-right for the trumpet shown above.
-
-_a_ must enter in the place of the ordinary keys which have the ...
-in the openings of a flute.
-
-1130.
-
-Tymbals to be played like the monochord, or the soft flute.
-
-[6] Here there is to be a cylinder of cane after the manner of
-clappers with a musical round called a Canon, which is sung in four
-parts; each singer singing the whole round. Therefore I here make a
-wheel with 4 teeth so that each tooth takes by itself the part of a
-singer.
-
-[Footnote: In the original there are some more sketches, to which
-the text, from line 6, refers. They are studies for a contrivance
-exactly like the cylinder in our musical boxes.]
-
-1131.
-
-Of decorations.
-
-White and sky-blue cloths, woven in checks to make a decoration.
-
-Cloths with the threads drawn at _a b c d e f g h i k_, to go round
-the decoration.
-
-_XIX._
-
-_Philosophical Maxims. Morals. Polemics and Speculations_.
-
-_Vasari indulges in severe strictures on Leonardo's religious views.
-He speaks, among other things, of his_ "capricci nel filosofar delle
-cose naturali" _and says on this point:_ "Per il che fece nell'animo
-un concetto si eretico che e' non si accostava a qualsi voglia
-religione, stimando per avventura assai piu lo esser filosofo che
-cristiano" _(see the first edition of_ 'Le Vite'_). But this
-accusation on the part of a writer in the days of the Inquisition is
-not a very serious one--and the less so, since, throughout the
-manuscripts, we find nothing to support it._
-
-_Under the heading of "Philosophical Maxims" I have collected all
-the passages which can give us a clear comprehension of Leonardo's
-ideas of the world at large. It is scarcely necessary to observe
-that there is absolutely nothing in them to lead to the inference
-that he was an atheist. His views of nature and its laws are no
-doubt very unlike those of his contemporaries, and have a much
-closer affinity to those which find general acceptance at the
-present day. On the other hand, it is obvious from Leonardo's will
-(see No._ 1566_) that, in the year before his death, he had
-professed to adhere to the fundamental doctrines of the Roman
-Catholic faith, and this evidently from his own personal desire and
-impulse._
-
-_The incredible and demonstrably fictitious legend of Leonardo's
-death in the arms of Francis the First, is given, with others, by
-Vasari and further embellished by this odious comment:_ "Mostrava
-tuttavia quanto avea offeso Dio e gli uomini del mondo, non avendo
-operato nell'arte come si conveniva." _This last accusation, it may
-be remarked, is above all evidence of the superficial character of
-the information which Vasari was in a position to give about
-Leonardo. It seems to imply that Leonardo was disdainful of diligent
-labour. With regard to the second, referring to Leonardo's morality
-and dealings with his fellow men, Vasari himself nullifies it by
-asserting the very contrary in several passages. A further
-refutation may be found in the following sentence from the letter in
-which Melsi, the young Milanese nobleman, announces the Master's
-death to Leonardo's brothers:_ Credo siate certificati della morte
-di Maestro Lionardo fratello vostro, e mio quanto optimo padre, per
-la cui morte sarebbe impossibile che io potesse esprimere il dolore
-che io ho preso; e in mentre che queste mia membra si sosterranno
-insieme, io possedero una perpetua infelicita, e meritamente perche
-sviscerato et ardentissimo amore mi portava giornalmente. E dolto ad
-ognuno la perdita di tal uomo, quale non e piu in podesta della
-natura, ecc.
-
-_It is true that, in April_ 1476, _we find the names of Leonardo and
-Verrocchio entered in the_ "Libro degli Uffiziali di notte e de'
-Monasteri" _as breaking the laws; but we immediately after find the
-note_ "Absoluti cum condizione ut retamburentur" (Tamburini _was the
-name given to the warrant cases of the night police). The acquittal
-therefore did not exclude the possibility of a repetition of the
-charge. It was in fact repeated, two months later, and on this
-occasion the Master and his pupil were again fully acquitted.
-Verrocchio was at this time forty and Leonardo four-and-twenty. The
-documents referring to this affair are in the State Archives of
-Florence; they have been withheld from publication, but it seemed to
-me desirable to give the reader this brief account of the leading
-facts of the story, as the vague hints of it, which have recently
-been made public, may have given to the incident an aspect which it
-had not in reality, and which it does not deserve._
-
-_The passages here classed under the head "Morals" reveal Leonardo
-to us as a man whose life and conduct were unfailingly governed by
-lofty principles and aims. He could scarcely have recorded his stern
-reprobation and unmeasured contempt for men who do nothing useful
-and strive only for riches, if his own life and ambitions had been
-such as they have so often been misrepresented._
-
-_At a period like that, when superstition still exercised unlimited
-dominion over the minds not merely of the illiterate crowd, but of
-the cultivated and learned classes, it was very natural that
-Leonardo's views as to Alchemy, Ghosts, Magicians, and the like
-should be met with stern reprobation whenever and wherever he may
-have expressed them; this accounts for the argumentative tone of all
-his utterances on such subjects which I have collected in
-Subdivision III of this section. To these I have added some passages
-which throw light on Leonardo's personal views on the Universe. They
-are, without exception, characterised by a broad spirit of
-naturalism of which the principles are more strictly applied in his
-essays on Astronomy, and still more on Physical Geography._
-
-_To avoid repetition, only such notes on Philosophy, Morals and
-Polemics, have been included in this section as occur as independent
-texts in the original MSS. Several moral reflections have already
-been given in Vol. I, in section "Allegorical representations,
-Mottoes and Emblems". Others will be found in the following section.
-Nos._ 9 _to_ 12, _Vol. I, are also passages of an argumentative
-character. It did not seem requisite to repeat here these and
-similar passages, since their direct connection with the context is
-far closer in places where they have appeared already, than it would
-be here._
-
-I.
-
-PHILOSOPHICAL MAXIMS.
-
-Prayers to God (1132. 1133).
-
-1132.
-
-I obey Thee Lord, first for the love I ought, in all reason to bear
-Thee; secondly for that Thou canst shorten or prolong the lives of
-men.
-
-1133.
-
-A PRAYER.
-
-Thou, O God, dost sell us all good things at the price of labour.
-
-The powers of Nature (1134-1139).
-
-1134.
-
-O admirable impartiality of Thine, Thou first Mover; Thou hast not
-permitted that any force should fail of the order or quality of its
-necessary results.
-
-1135.
-
-Necessity is the mistress and guide of nature.
-
-Necessity is the theme and the inventress, the eternal curb and law
-of nature.
-
-1136.
-
-In many cases one and the same thing is attracted by two strong
-forces, namely Necessity and Potency. Water falls in rain; the earth
-absorbs it from the necessity for moisture; and the sun evaporates
-it, not from necessity, but by its power.
-
-1137.
-
-Weight, force and casual impulse, together with resistance, are the
-four external powers in which all the visible actions of mortals
-have their being and their end.
-
-1138.
-
-Our body is dependant on heaven and heaven on the Spirit.
-
-1139.
-
-The motive power is the cause of all life.
-
-Psychology (1140-1147).
-
-1140.
-
-And you, O Man, who will discern in this work of mine the wonderful
-works of Nature, if you think it would be a criminal thing to
-destroy it, reflect how much more criminal it is to take the life of
-a man; and if this, his external form, appears to thee marvellously
-constructed, remember that it is nothing as compared with the soul
-that dwells in that structure; for that indeed, be it what it may,
-is a thing divine. Leave it then to dwell in His work at His good
-will and pleasure, and let not your rage or malice destroy a
-life--for indeed, he who does not value it, does not himself deserve
-it [Footnote 19: In MS. II 15a is the note: _chi no stima la vita,
-non la merita._].
-
-[Footnote: This text is on the back of the drawings reproduced on
-Pl. CVII. Compare No. 798, 35 note on p. 111: Compare also No. 837
-and 838.]
-
-1141.
-
-The soul can never be corrupted with the corruption of the body,,
-but is in the body as it were the air which causes the sound of the
-organ, where when a pipe bursts, the wind would cease to have any
-good effect. [Footnote: Compare No. 845.]
-
-1142.
-
-The part always has a tendency to reunite with its whole in order to
-escape from its imperfection.
-
-The spirit desires to remain with its body, because, without the
-organic instruments of that body, it can neither act, nor feel
-anything.
-
-1143.
-
-If any one wishes to see how the soul dwells in its body, let him
-observe how this body uses its daily habitation; that is to say, if
-this is devoid of order and confused, the body will be kept in
-disorder and confusion by its soul.
-
-1144.
-
-Why does the eye see a thing more clearly in dreams than with the
-imagination being awake?
-
-1145.
-
-The senses are of the earth; Reason, stands apart in contemplation.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 842.]
-
-1146.
-
-Every action needs to be prompted by a motive.
-
-To know and to will are two operations of the human mind.
-
-Discerning, judging, deliberating are acts of the human mind.
-
-1147.
-
-All our knowledge has its origin in our preceptions.
-
-Science, its principles and rules (1148--1161)
-
-1148.
-
-Science is the observation of things possible, whether present or
-past; prescience is the knowledge of things which may come to pass,
-though but slowly.
-
-1149.
-
-Experience, the interpreter between formative nature and the human
-race, teaches how that nature acts among mortals; and being
-constrained by necessity cannot act otherwise than as reason, which
-is its helm, requires her to act.
-
-1150.
-
-Wisdom is the daughter of experience.
-
-1151.
-
-Nature is full of infinite causes that have never occured in
-experience.
-
-1152.
-
-Truth was the only daughter of Time.
-
-1153.
-
-Experience never errs; it is only your judgments that err by
-promising themselves effects such as are not caused by your
-experiments.
-
-Experience does not err; only your judgments err by expecting from
-her what is not in her power. Men wrongly complain of Experience;
-with great abuse they accuse her of leading them astray but they set
-Experience aside, turning from it with complaints as to our
-ignorance causing us to be carried away by vain and foolish desires
-to promise ourselves, in her name, things that are not in her power;
-saying that she is fallacious. Men are unjust in complaining of
-innocent Experience, constantly accusing her of error and of false
-evidence.
-
-1154.
-
-Instrumental or mechanical science is of all the noblest and the
-most useful, seeing that by means of this all animated bodies that
-have movement perform all their actions; and these movements are
-based on the centre of gravity which is placed in the middle
-dividing unequal weights, and it has dearth and wealth of muscles
-and also lever and counterlever.
-
-1155.
-
-OF MECHANICS.
-
-Mechanics are the Paradise of mathematical science, because here we
-come to the fruits of mathematics. [Footnote: Compare No. 660, 11.
-19--22 (Vol. I., p. 332). 1156.
-
-Every instrument requires to be made by experience.
-
-1157.
-
-The man who blames the supreme certainty of mathematics feeds on
-confusion, and can never silence the contradictions of sophistical
-sciences which lead to an eternal quackery.
-
-1158.
-
-There is no certainty in sciences where one of the mathematical
-sciences cannot be applied, or which are not in relation with these
-mathematics.
-
-1159.
-
-Any one who in discussion relies upon authority uses, not his
-understanding, but rather his memory. Good culture is born of a good
-disposition; and since the cause is more to be praised than the
-effect, I will rather praise a good disposition without culture,
-than good culture without the disposition.
-
-1160.
-
-Science is the captain, and practice the soldiers.
-
-1161.
-
-OF THE ERRORS OF THOSE WHO DEPEND ON PRACTICE WITHOUT SCIENCE.
-
-Those who fall in love with practice without science are like a
-sailor who enters a ship without a helm or a compass, and who never
-can be certain whither he is going.
-
-II.
-
-MORALS.
-
-What is life? (1162. 1163).
-
-1162.
-
-Now you see that the hope and the desire of returning home and to
-one's former state is like the moth to the light, and that the man
-who with constant longing awaits with joy each new spring time, each
-new summer, each new month and new year--deeming that the things he
-longs for are ever too late in coming--does not perceive that he is
-longing for his own destruction. But this desire is the very
-quintessence, the spirit of the elements, which finding itself
-imprisoned with the soul is ever longing to return from the human
-body to its giver. And you must know that this same longing is that
-quintessence, inseparable from nature, and that man is the image of
-the world.
-
-1163.
-
-O Time! consumer of all things; O envious age! thou dost destroy all
-things and devour all things with the relentless teeth of years,
-little by little in a slow death. Helen, when she looked in her
-mirror, seeing the withered wrinkles made in her face by old age,
-wept and wondered why she had twice been carried away.
-
-O Time! consumer of all things, and O envious age! by which all
-things are all devoured.
-
-Death.
-
-1164.
-
-Every evil leaves behind a grief in our memory, except the supreme
-evil, that is death, which destroys this memory together with life.
-
-How to spend life (1165-1170).
-
-1165.
-
-0 sleepers! what a thing is slumber! Sleep resembles death. Ah, why
-then dost thou not work in such wise as that after death thou mayst
-retain a resemblance to perfect life, when, during life, thou art in
-sleep so like to the hapless dead? [Footnote: Compare No. 676, Vol.
-I. p. 353.]
-
-1166.
-
-One pushes down the other.
-
-By these square-blocks are meant the life and the studies of men.
-
-1167.
-
-The knowledge of past times and of the places on the earth is both
-an ornament and nutriment to the human mind.
-
-1168.
-
-To lie is so vile, that even if it were in speaking well of godly
-things it would take off something from God's grace; and Truth is so
-excellent, that if it praises but small things they become noble.
-
-Beyond a doubt truth bears the same relation to falsehood as light
-to darkness; and this truth is in itself so excellent that, even
-when it dwells on humble and lowly matters, it is still infinitely
-above uncertainty and lies, disguised in high and lofty discourses;
-because in our minds, even if lying should be their fifth element,
-this does not prevent that the truth of things is the chief
-nutriment of superior intellects, though not of wandering wits.
-
-But you who live in dreams are better pleased by the sophistical
-reasons and frauds of wits in great and uncertain things, than by
-those reasons which are certain and natural and not so far above us.
-
-1169.
-
-Avoid studies of which the result dies with the worker.
-
-1170.
-
-Men are in error when they lament the flight of time, accusing it of
-being too swift, and not perceiving that it is sufficient as it
-passes; but good memory, with which nature has endowed us, causes
-things long past to seem present.
-
-1171.
-
-Learning acquired in youth arrests the evil of old age; and if you
-understand that old age has wisdom for its food, you will so conduct
-yourself in youth that your old age will not lack for nourishment.
-
-1172.
-
-The acquisition of any knowledge is always of use to the intellect,
-because it may thus drive out useless things and retain the good.
-
-For nothing can be loved or hated unless it is first known.
-
-1173.
-
-As a day well spent procures a happy sleep, so a life well employed
-procures a happy death.
-
-1174.
-
-The water you touch in a river is the last of that which has passed,
-and the first of that which is coming. Thus it is with time present.
-
-Life if well spent, is long.
-
-1175.
-
-Just as food eaten without caring for it is turned into loathsome
-nourishment, so study without a taste for it spoils memory, by
-retaining nothing which it has taken in.
-
-1176.
-
-Just as eating against one's will is injurious to health, so study
-without a liking for it spoils the memory, and it retains nothing it
-takes in.
-
-1177.
-
-On Mount Etna the words freeze in your mouth and you may make ice of
-them.[Footnote 2: There is no clue to explain this strange
-sentence.]
-
-Just as iron rusts unless it is used, and water putrifies or, in
-cold, turns to ice, so our intellect spoils unless it is kept in
-use.
-
-You do ill if you praise, and still worse if you reprove in a matter
-you do not understand.
-
-When Fortune comes, seize her in front with a sure hand, because
-behind she is bald.
-
-1178.
-
-It seems to me that men of coarse and clumsy habits and of small
-knowledge do not deserve such fine instruments nor so great a
-variety of natural mechanism as men of speculation and of great
-knowledge; but merely a sack in which their food may be stowed and
-whence it may issue, since they cannot be judged to be any thing
-else than vehicles for food; for it seems to me they have nothing
-about them of the human species but the voice and the figure, and
-for all the rest are much below beasts.
-
-1179.
-
-Some there are who are nothing else than a passage for food and
-augmentors of excrement and fillers of privies, because through them
-no other things in the world, nor any good effects are produced,
-since nothing but full privies results from them.
-
-On foolishness and ignorance (1180--1182).
-
-1180.
-
-The greatest deception men suffer is from their own opinions.
-
-1181.
-
-Folly is the shield of shame, as unreadiness is that of poverty
-glorified.
-
-1182.
-
-Blind ignorance misleads us thus and delights with the results of
-lascivious joys.
-
-Because it does not know the true light. Because it does not know
-what is the true light.
-
-Vain splendour takes from us the power of being .... behold! for its
-vain splendour we go into the fire, thus blind ignorance does
-mislead us. That is, blind ignorance so misleads us that ...
-
-O! wretched mortals, open your eyes.
-
-On riches (1183--1187).
-
-1183.
-
-That is not riches, which may be lost; virtue is our true good and
-the true reward of its possessor. That cannot be lost; that never
-deserts us, but when life leaves us. As to property and external
-riches, hold them with trembling; they often leave their possessor
-in contempt, and mocked at for having lost them.
-
-1184.
-
-Every man wishes to make money to give it to the doctors, destroyers
-of life; they then ought to be rich. [Footnote 2: Compare No. 856.]
-
-Man has much power of discourse which for the most part is vain and
-false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a
-small truth is better than a great lie.
-
-1185.
-
-He who possesses most must be most afraid of loss.
-
-1186.
-
-He who wishes to be rich in a day will be hanged in a year.
-
-1187.
-
-That man is of supreme folly who always wants for fear of wanting;
-and his life flies away while he is still hoping to enjoy the good
-things which he has with extreme labour acquired.
-
-Rules of Life (1188-1202).
-
-1188.
-
-If you governed your body by the rules of virtue you would not walk
-on all fours in this world.
-
-You grow in reputation like bread in the hands of a child.
-[Footnote: The first sentence is obscure. Compare Nos. 825, 826.]
-
-1189.
-
-Savage he is who saves himself.
-
-1190.
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci3.txt b/docs/examples/kernel/davinci3.txt
deleted file mode 100644
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--- a/docs/examples/kernel/davinci3.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7968 +0,0 @@
-
-We ought not to desire the impossible. [Footnote: The writing of
-this note, which is exceedingly minute, is reproduced in facsimile
-on Pl. XLI No. 5 above the first diagram.
-
-1191.
-
-Ask counsel of him who rules himself well.
-
-Justice requires power, insight, and will; and it resembles the
-queen-bee.
-
-He who does not punish evil commands it to be done.
-
-He who takes the snake by the tail will presently be bitten by it.
-
-The grave will fall in upon him who digs it.
-
-1192.
-
-The man who does not restrain wantonness, allies himself with
-beasts.
-
-You can have no dominion greater or less than that over yourself.
-
-He who thinks little, errs much.
-
-It is easier to contend with evil at the first than at the last.
-
-No counsel is more loyal than that given on ships which are in
-peril: He may expect loss who acts on the advice of an inexperienced
-youth.
-
-1193.
-
-Where there is most feeling, there is the greatest martyrdom;--a
-great martyr.
-
-1194.
-
-The memory of benefits is a frail defence against ingratitude.
-
-Reprove your friend in secret and praise him openly.
-
-Be not false about the past.
-
-1195.
-
-A SIMILE FOR PATIENCE.
-
-Patience serves us against insults precisely as clothes do against
-the cold. For if you multiply your garments as the cold increases,
-that cold cannot hurt you; in the same way increase your patience
-under great offences, and they cannot hurt your feelings.
-
-1196.
-
-To speak well of a base man is much the same as speaking ill of a
-good man.
-
-1197.
-
-Envy wounds with false accusations, that is with detraction, a thing
-which scares virtue.
-
-1198.
-
-We are deceived by promises and time disappoints us ... [Footnote 2:
-The rest of this passage may be rendered in various ways, but none
-of them give a satisfactory meaning.]
-
-1199.
-
-Fear arises sooner than any thing else.
-
-1200.
-
-Just as courage imperils life, fear protects it.
-
-Threats alone are the weapons of the threatened man.
-
-Wherever good fortune enters, envy lays siege to the place and
-attacks it; and when it departs, sorrow and repentance remain
-behind.
-
-He who walks straight rarely falls.
-
-It is bad if you praise, and worse if you reprove a thing, I mean,
-if you do not understand the matter well.
-
-It is ill to praise, and worse to reprimand in matters that you do
-not understand.
-
-1201.
-
-Words which do not satisfy the ear of the hearer weary him or vex
-him, and the symptoms of this you will often see in such hearers in
-their frequent yawns; you therefore, who speak before men whose good
-will you desire, when you see such an excess of fatigue, abridge
-your speech, or change your discourse; and if you do otherwise, then
-instead of the favour you desire, you will get dislike and
-hostility.
-
-And if you would see in what a man takes pleasure, without hearing
-him speak, change the subject of your discourse in talking to him,
-and when you presently see him intent, without yawning or wrinkling
-his brow or other actions of various kinds, you may be certain that
-the matter of which you are speaking is such as is agreeable to him
-&c.
-
-1202.
-
-The lover is moved by the beloved object as the senses are by
-sensible objects; and they unite and become one and the same thing.
-The work is the first thing born of this union; if the thing loved
-is base the lover becomes base.
-
-When the thing taken into union is perfectly adapted to that which
-receives it, the result is delight and pleasure and satisfaction.
-
-When that which loves is united to the thing beloved it can rest
-there; when the burden is laid down it finds rest there.
-
-Politics (1203. 1204).
-
-1203.
-
-There will be eternal fame also for the inhabitants of that town,
-constructed and enlarged by him.
-
-All communities obey and are led by their magnates, and these
-magnates ally themselves with the lords and subjugate them in two
-ways: either by consanguinity, or by fortune; by consanguinity, when
-their children are, as it were, hostages, and a security and pledge
-of their suspected fidelity; by property, when you make each of
-these build a house or two inside your city which may yield some
-revenue and he shall have...; 10 towns, five thousand houses with
-thirty thousand inhabitants, and you will disperse this great
-congregation of people which stand like goats one behind the other,
-filling every place with fetid smells and sowing seeds of pestilence
-and death;
-
-And the city will gain beauty worthy of its name and to you it will
-be useful by its revenues, and the eternal fame of its
-aggrandizement.
-
-[Footnote: These notes were possibly written in preparation for a
-letter. The meaning is obscure.]
-
-1204.
-
-To preserve Nature's chiefest boon, that is freedom, I can find
-means of offence and defence, when it is assailed by ambitious
-tyrants, and first I will speak of the situation of the walls, and
-also I shall show how communities can maintain their good and just
-Lords.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1266.]
-
-III.
-
-POLEMICS.--SPECULATION.
-
-Against Speculators (1205. 1206).
-
-1205.
-
-Oh! speculators on things, boast not of knowing the things that
-nature ordinarily brings about; but rejoice if you know the end of
-those things which you yourself devise.
-
-1206.
-
-Oh! speculators on perpetual motion how many vain projects of the
-like character you have created! Go and be the companions of the
-searchers for gold. [Footnote: Another short passage in MS. I,
-referring also to speculators, is given by LIBRI (_Hist, des
-Sciences math._ III, 228): _Sicche voi speculatori non vi fidate
-delli autori che anno sol col immaginatione voluto farsi interpreti
-tra la natura e l'omo, ma sol di quelli che non coi cienni della
-natura, ma cogli effetti delle sue esperienze anno esercitati i loro
-ingegni._]
-
-Against alchemists (1207. 1208).
-
-1207.
-
-The false interpreters of nature declare that quicksilver is the
-common seed of every metal, not remembering that nature varies the
-seed according to the variety of the things she desires to produce
-in the world.
-
-1208.
-
-And many have made a trade of delusions and false miracles,
-deceiving the stupid multitude.
-
-Against friars.
-
-1209.
-
-Pharisees--that is to say, friars.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 837, 11. 54-57, No. 1296 (p. 363 and 364),
-and No. 1305 (p. 370).]
-
-Against writers of epitomes.
-
-1210.
-
-Abbreviators do harm to knowledge and to love, seeing that the love
-of any thing is the offspring of this knowledge, the love being the
-more fervent in proportion as the knowledge is more certain. And
-this certainty is born of a complete knowledge of all the parts,
-which, when combined, compose the totality of the thing which ought
-to be loved. Of what use then is he who abridges the details of
-those matters of which he professes to give thorough information,
-while he leaves behind the chief part of the things of which the
-whole is composed? It is true that impatience, the mother of
-stupidity, praises brevity, as if such persons had not life long
-enough to serve them to acquire a complete knowledge of one single
-subject, such as the human body; and then they want to comprehend
-the mind of God in which the universe is included, weighing it
-minutely and mincing it into infinite parts, as if they had to
-dissect it!
-
-Oh! human stupidity, do you not perceive that, though you have been
-with yourself all your life, you are not yet aware of the thing you
-possess most of, that is of your folly? and then, with the crowd of
-sophists, you deceive yourselves and others, despising the
-mathematical sciences, in which truth dwells and the knowledge of
-the things included in them. And then you occupy yourself with
-miracles, and write that you possess information of those things of
-which the human mind is incapable and which cannot be proved by any
-instance from nature. And you fancy you have wrought miracles when
-you spoil a work of some speculative mind, and do not perceive that
-you are falling into the same error as that of a man who strips a
-tree of the ornament of its branches covered with leaves mingled
-with the scented blossoms or fruit....... [Footnote 48: _Givstino_,
-Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of the second century,
-who compiled an epitome from the general history written by Trogus
-Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus. The work of the latter
-writer no longer exist.] as Justinus did, in abridging the histories
-written by Trogus Pompeius, who had written in an ornate style all
-the worthy deeds of his forefathers, full of the most admirable and
-ornamental passages; and so composed a bald work worthy only of
-those impatient spirits, who fancy they are losing as much time as
-that which they employ usefully in studying the works of nature and
-the deeds of men. But these may remain in company of beasts; among
-their associates should be dogs and other animals full of rapine and
-they may hunt with them after...., and then follow helpless beasts,
-which in time of great snows come near to your houses asking alms as
-from their master....
-
-On spirits (1211--1213).
-
-1211.
-
-O mathematicians shed light on this error.
-
-The spirit has no voice, because where there is a voice there is a
-body, and where there is a body space is occupied, and this prevents
-the eye from seeing what is placed behind that space; hence the
-surrounding air is filled by the body, that is by its image.
-
-1212.
-
-There can be no voice where there is no motion or percussion of the
-air; there can be no percussion of the air where there is no
-instrument, there can be no instrument without a body; and this
-being so, a spirit can have neither voice, nor form, nor strength.
-And if it were to assume a body it could not penetrate nor enter
-where the passages are closed. And if any one should say that by
-air, compressed and compacted together, a spirit may take bodies of
-various forms and by this means speak and move with strength--to him
-I reply that when there are neither nerves nor bones there can be no
-force exercised in any kind of movement made by such imaginary
-spirits.
-
-Beware of the teaching of these speculators, because their reasoning
-is not confirmed by experience.
-
-1213.
-
-Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which
-deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which
-gives birth to simple and natural things. But it is all the more
-worthy of reprehension than alchemy, because it brings forth nothing
-but what is like itself, that is, lies; this does not happen in
-Alchemy which deals with simple products of nature and whose
-function cannot be exercised by nature itself, because it has no
-organic instruments with which it can work, as men do by means of
-their hands, who have produced, for instance, glass &c. but this
-Necromancy the flag and flying banner, blown by the winds, is the
-guide of the stupid crowd which is constantly witness to the
-dazzling and endless effects of this art; and there are books full,
-declaring that enchantments and spirits can work and speak without
-tongues and without organic instruments-- without which it is
-impossible to speak-- and can carry heaviest weights and raise
-storms and rain; and that men can be turned into cats and wolves and
-other beasts, although indeed it is those who affirm these things
-who first became beasts.
-
-And surely if this Necromancy did exist, as is believed by small
-wits, there is nothing on the earth that would be of so much
-importance alike for the detriment and service of men, if it were
-true that there were in such an art a power to disturb the calm
-serenity of the air, converting it into darkness and making
-coruscations or winds, with terrific thunder and lightnings rushing
-through the darkness, and with violent storms overthrowing high
-buildings and rooting up forests; and thus to oppose armies,
-crushing and annihilating them; and, besides these frightful storms
-may deprive the peasants of the reward of their labours.--Now what
-kind of warfare is there to hurt the enemy so much as to deprive him
-of the harvest? What naval warfare could be compared with this? I
-say, the man who has power to command the winds and to make ruinous
-gales by which any fleet may be submerged, --surely a man who could
-command such violent forces would be lord of the nations, and no
-human ingenuity could resist his crushing force. The hidden
-treasures and gems reposing in the body of the earth would all be
-made manifest to him. No lock nor fortress, though impregnable,
-would be able to save any one against the will of the necromancer.
-He would have himself carried through the air from East to West and
-through all the opposite sides of the universe. But why should I
-enlarge further upon this? What is there that could not be done by
-such a craftsman? Almost nothing, except to escape death. Hereby I
-have explained in part the mischief and the usefulness, contained in
-this art, if it is real; and if it is real why has it not remained
-among men who desire it so much, having nothing to do with any
-deity? For I know that there are numberless people who would, to
-satisfy a whim, destroy God and all the universe; and if this
-necromancy, being, as it were, so necessary to men, has not been
-left among them, it can never have existed, nor will it ever exist
-according to the definition of the spirit, which is invisible in
-substance; for within the elements there are no incorporate things,
-because where there is no body, there is a vacuum; and no vacuum can
-exist in the elements because it would be immediately filled up.
-Turn over.
-
-1214.
-
-OF SPIRITS.
-
-We have said, on the other side of this page, that the definition of
-a spirit is a power conjoined to a body; because it cannot move of
-its own accord, nor can it have any kind of motion in space; and if
-you were to say that it moves itself, this cannot be within the
-elements. For, if the spirit is an incorporeal quantity, this
-quantity is called a vacuum, and a vacuum does not exist in nature;
-and granting that one were formed, it would be immediately filled up
-by the rushing in of the element in which the vacuum had been
-generated. Therefore, from the definition of weight, which is
-this--Gravity is an accidental power, created by one element being
-drawn to or suspended in another--it follows that an element, not
-weighing anything compared with itself, has weight in the element
-above it and lighter than it; as we see that the parts of water have
-no gravity or levity compared with other water, but if you draw it
-up into the air, then it would acquire weight, and if you were to
-draw the air beneath the water then the water which remains above
-this air would acquire weight, which weight could not sustain itself
-by itself, whence collapse is inevitable. And this happens in water;
-wherever the vacuum may be in this water it will fall in; and this
-would happen with a spirit amid the elements, where it would
-continuously generate a vacuum in whatever element it might find
-itself, whence it would be inevitable that it should be constantly
-flying towards the sky until it had quitted these elements.
-
-AS TO WHETHER A SPIRIT HAS A BODY AMID THE ELEMENTS.
-
-We have proved that a spirit cannot exist of itself amid the
-elements without a body, nor can it move of itself by voluntary
-motion unless it be to rise upwards. But now we will say how such a
-spirit taking an aerial body would be inevitably melt into air;
-because if it remained united, it would be separated and fall to
-form a vacuum, as is said above; therefore it is inevitable, if it
-is to be able to remain suspended in the air, that it should absorb
-a certain quantity of air; and if it were mingled with the air, two
-difficulties arise; that is to say: It must rarefy that portion of
-the air with which it mingles; and for this cause the rarefied air
-must fly up of itself and will not remain among the air that is
-heavier than itself; and besides this the subtle spiritual essence
-disunites itself, and its nature is modified, by which that nature
-loses some of its first virtue. Added to these there is a third
-difficulty, and this is that such a body formed of air assumed by
-the spirits is exposed to the penetrating winds, which are
-incessantly sundering and dispersing the united portions of the air,
-revolving and whirling amidst the rest of the atmosphere; therefore
-the spirit which is infused in this
-
-1215.
-
-air would be dismembered or rent and broken up with the rending of
-the air into which it was incorporated.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT, HAVING TAKEN THIS BODY OF AIR, CAN MOVE OF
-ITSELF OR NOT.
-
-It is impossible that the spirit infused into a certain quantity of
-air, should move this air; and this is proved by the above passage
-where it is said: the spirit rarefies that portion of the air in
-which it incorporates itself; therefore this air will rise high
-above the other air and there will be a motion of the air caused by
-its lightness and not by a voluntary movement of the spirit, and if
-this air is encountered by the wind, according to the 3rd of this,
-the air will be moved by the wind and not by the spirit incorporated
-in it.
-
-AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT CAN SPEAK OR NOT.
-
-In order to prove whether the spirit can speak or not, it is
-necessary in the first place to define what a voice is and how it is
-generated; and we will say that the voice is, as it were, the
-movement of air in friction against a dense body, or a dense body in
-friction against the air,--which is the same thing. And this
-friction of the dense and the rare condenses the rare and causes
-resistance; again, the rare, when in swift motion, and the rare in
-slow motion condense each other when they come in contact and make a
-noise and very great uproar; and the sound or murmur made by the
-rare moving through the rare with only moderate swiftness, like a
-great flame generating noises in the air; and the tremendous uproar
-made by the rare mingling with the rare, and when that air which is
-both swift and rare rushes into that which is itself rare and in
-motion, it is like the flame of fire which issues from a big gun and
-striking against the air; and again when a flame issues from the
-cloud, there is a concussion in the air as the bolt is generated.
-Therefore we may say that the spirit cannot produce a voice without
-movement of the air, and air in it there is none, nor can it emit
-what it has not; and if desires to move that air in which it is
-incorporated, it is necessary that the spirit should multiply
-itself, and that cannot multiply which has no quantity. And in the
-4th place it is said that no rare body can move, if it has not a
-stable spot, whence it may take its motion; much more is it so when
-an element has to move within its own element, which does not move
-of itself, excepting by uniform evaporation at the centre of the
-thing evaporated; as occurs in a sponge squeezed in the hand held
-under water; the water escapes in every direction with equal
-movement through the openings between the fingers of the hand in
-which it is squeezed.
-
-As to whether the spirit has an articulate voice, and whether the
-spirit can be heard, and what hearing is, and seeing; the wave of
-the voice passes through the air as the images of objects pass to
-the eye.
-
-Nonentity.
-
-1216.
-
-Every quantity is intellectually conceivable as infinitely
-divisible.
-
-[Amid the vastness of the things among which we live, the existence
-of nothingness holds the first place; its function extends over all
-things that have no existence, and its essence, as regards time,
-lies precisely between the past and the future, and has nothing in
-the present. This nothingness has the part equal to the whole, and
-the whole to the part, the divisible to the indivisible; and the
-product of the sum is the same whether we divide or multiply, and in
-addition as in subtraction; as is proved by arithmeticians by their
-tenth figure which represents zero; and its power has not extension
-among the things of Nature.]
-
-[What is called Nothingness is to be found only in time and in
-speech. In time it stands between the past and future and has no
-existence in the present; and thus in speech it is one of the things
-of which we say: They are not, or they are impossible.]
-
-With regard to time, nothingness lies between the past and the
-future, and has nothing to do with the present, and as to its nature
-it is to be classed among things impossible: hence, from what has
-been said, it has no existence; because where there is nothing there
-would necessarily be a vacuum.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 916.]
-
-Reflections on Nature (1217-1219).
-
-1217.
-
-EXAMPLE OF THE LIGHTNING IN CLOUDS.
-
-[O mighty and once living instrument of formative nature. Incapable
-of availing thyself of thy vast strength thou hast to abandon a life
-of stillness and to obey the law which God and time gave to
-procreative nature.]
-
-Ah! how many a time the shoals of terrified dolphins and the huge
-tunny-fish were seen to flee before thy cruel fury, to escape;
-whilst thy fulminations raised in the sea a sudden tempest with
-buffeting and submersion of ships in the great waves; and filling
-the uncovered shores with the terrified and desperate fishes which
-fled from thee, and left by the sea, remained in spots where they
-became the abundant prey of the people in the neighbourhood.
-
-O time, swift robber of all created things, how many kings, how many
-nations hast thou undone, and how many changes of states and of
-various events have happened since the wondrous forms of this fish
-perished here in this cavernous and winding recess. Now destroyed by
-time thou liest patiently in this confined space with bones stripped
-and bare; serving as a support and prop for the superimposed
-mountain.
-
-[Footnote: The character of the handwriting points to an early
-period of Leonardo's life. It has become very indistinct, and is at
-present exceedingly difficult to decipher. Some passages remain
-doubtful.]
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1339, written on the same sheet.]
-
-1218.
-
-The watery element was left enclosed between the raised banks of the
-rivers, and the sea was seen between the uplifted earth and the
-surrounding air which has to envelope and enclose the complicated
-machine of the earth, and whose mass, standing between the water and
-the element of fire, remained much restricted and deprived of its
-indispensable moisture; the rivers will be deprived of their waters,
-the fruitful earth will put forth no more her light verdure; the
-fields will no more be decked with waving corn; all the animals,
-finding no fresh grass for pasture, will die and food will then be
-lacking to the lions and wolves and other beasts of prey, and to men
-who after many efforts will be compelled to abandon their life, and
-the human race will die out. In this way the fertile and fruitful
-earth will remain deserted, arid and sterile from the water being
-shut up in its interior, and from the activity of nature it will
-continue a little time to increase until the cold and subtle air
-being gone, it will be forced to end with the element of fire; and
-then its surface will be left burnt up to cinder and this will be
-the end of all terrestrial nature. [Footnote: Compare No. 1339,
-written on the same sheet.]
-
-1219.
-
-Why did nature not ordain that one animal should not live by the
-death of another? Nature, being inconstant and taking pleasure in
-creating and making constantly new lives and forms, because she
-knows that her terrestrial materials become thereby augmented, is
-more ready and more swift in her creating, than time in his
-destruction; and so she has ordained that many animals shall be food
-for others. Nay, this not satisfying her desire, to the same end she
-frequently sends forth certain poisonous and pestilential vapours
-upon the vast increase and congregation of animals; and most of all
-upon men, who increase vastly because other animals do not feed upon
-them; and, the causes being removed, the effects would not follow.
-This earth therefore seeks to lose its life, desiring only continual
-reproduction; and as, by the argument you bring forward and
-demonstrate, like effects always follow like causes, animals are the
-image of the world.
-
-_XX._
-
-_Humorous Writings._
-
-_Just as Michaelangelo's occasional poems reflect his private life
-as well as the general disposition of his mind, we may find in the
-writings collected in this section, the transcript of Leonardo's
-fanciful nature, and we should probably not be far wrong in
-assuming, that he himself had recited these fables in the company of
-his friends or at the court festivals of princes and patrons._ Era
-tanto piacevole nella conversazione-- _so relates Vasari_--che
-tirava a se gli animi delle genti. _And Paulus Jovius says in his
-short biography of the artist:_ Fuit ingenio valde comi, nitido,
-liberali, vultu autem longe venustissimo, et cum elegantiae omnis
-deliciarumque maxime theatralium mirificus inventor ac arbiter
-esset, ad lyramque scito caneret, cunctis per omnem aetatem
-principibus mire placuit. _There can be no doubt that the fables are
-the original offspring of Leonardo's brain, and not borrowed from
-any foreign source; indeed the schemes and plans for the composition
-of fables collected in division V seem to afford an external proof
-of this, if the fables themselves did not render it self-evident.
-Several of them-- for instance No._ l279--_are so strikingly
-characteristic of Leonardo's views of natural science that we cannot
-do them justice till we are acquainted with his theories on such
-subjects; and this is equally true of the 'Prophecies'_.
-
-_I have prefixed to these quaint writings the 'Studies on the life
-and habits of animals' which are singular from their peculiar
-aphoristic style, and I have transcribed them in exactly the order
-in which they are written in MS. H. This is one of the very rare
-instances in which one subject is treated in a consecutive series of
-notes, all in one MS., and Leonardo has also departed from his
-ordinary habits, by occasionally not completing the text on the page
-it is begun. These brief notes of a somewhat mysterious bearing have
-been placed here, simply because they may possibly have been
-intended to serve as hints for fables or allegories. They can
-scarcely be regarded as preparatory for a natural history, rather
-they would seem to be extracts. On the one hand the names of some of
-the animals seem to prove that Leonardo could not here be recording
-observations of his own; on the other hand the notes on their habits
-and life appear to me to dwell precisely on what must have
-interested him most--so far as it is possible to form any complete
-estimate of his nature and tastes._
-
-_In No._ 1293 _lines_ 1-10, _we have a sketch of a scheme for
-grouping the Prophecies. I have not however availed myself of it as
-a clue to their arrangement here because, in the first place, the
-texts are not so numerous as to render the suggested classification
-useful to the reader, and, also, because in reading the long series,
-as they occur in the original, we may follow the author's mind; and
-here and there it is not difficult to see how one theme suggested
-another. I have however regarded Leonardo's scheme for the
-classification of the Prophecies as available for that of the Fables
-and Jests, and have adhered to it as far as possible._
-
-_Among the humourous writings I might perhaps have included the_
-'Rebusses', _of which there are several in the collection of
-Leonardo's drawings at Windsor; it seems to me not likely that many
-or all of them could be solved at the present day and the MSS. throw
-no light on them. Nor should I be justified if I intended to include
-in the literary works the well-known caricatures of human faces
-attributed to Leonardo-- of which, however, it may be incidentally
-observed, the greater number are in my opinion undoubtedly spurious.
-Two only have necessarily been given owing to their presence in
-text, which it was desired to reproduce: Vol. I page_ 326, _and Pl.
-CXXII. It can scarcely be doubted that some satirical intention is
-conveyed by the drawing on Pl. LXIV (text No. _688_).
-
-My reason for not presenting Leonardo to the reader as a poet is the
-fact that the maxims and morals in verse which have been ascribed to
-him, are not to be found in the manuscripts, and Prof. Uzielli has
-already proved that they cannot be by him. Hence it would seem that
-only a few short verses can be attributed to him with any
-certainty._
-
-I.
-
-STUDIES ON THE LIFE AND HABITS OF ANIMALS.
-
-1220.
-
-THE LOVE OF VIRTUE.
-
-The gold-finch is a bird of which it is related that, when it is
-carried into the presence of a sick person, if the sick man is going
-to die, the bird turns away its head and never looks at him; but if
-the sick man is to be saved the bird never loses sight of him but is
-the cause of curing him of all his sickness.
-
-Like unto this is the love of virtue. It never looks at any vile or
-base thing, but rather clings always to pure and virtuous things and
-takes up its abode in a noble heart; as the birds do in green woods
-on flowery branches. And this Love shows itself more in adversity
-than in prosperity; as light does, which shines most where the place
-is darkest.
-
-1221.
-
-ENVY.
-
-We read of the kite that, when it sees its young ones growing too
-big in the nest, out of envy it pecks their sides, and keeps them
-without food.
-
-CHEERFULNESS.
-
-Cheerfulness is proper to the cock, which rejoices over every little
-thing, and crows with varied and lively movements.
-
-SADNESS.
-
-Sadness resembles the raven, which, when it sees its young ones born
-white, departs in great grief, and abandons them with doleful
-lamentations, and does not feed them until it sees in them some few
-black feathers.
-
-1222.
-
-PEACE.
-
-We read of the beaver that when it is pursued, knowing that it is
-for the virtue [contained] in its medicinal testicles and not being
-able to escape, it stops; and to be at peace with its pursuers, it
-bites off its testicles with its sharp teeth, and leaves them to its
-enemies.
-
-RAGE.
-
-It is said of the bear that when it goes to the haunts of bees to
-take their honey, the bees having begun to sting him he leaves the
-honey and rushes to revenge himself. And as he seeks to be revenged
-on all those that sting him, he is revenged on none; in such wise
-that his rage is turned to madness, and he flings himself on the
-ground, vainly exasperating, by his hands and feet, the foes against
-which he is defending himself.
-
-1223.
-
-GRATITUDE.
-
-The virtue of gratitude is said to be more [developed] in the birds
-called hoopoes which, knowing the benefits of life and food, they
-have received from their father and their mother, when they see them
-grow old, make a nest for them and brood over them and feed them,
-and with their beaks pull out their old and shabby feathers; and
-then, with a certain herb restore their sight so that they return to
-a prosperous state.
-
-AVARICE.
-
-The toad feeds on earth and always remains lean; because it never
-eats enough:-- it is so afraid lest it should want for earth.
-
-1224.
-
-INGRATITUDE.
-
-Pigeons are a symbol of ingratitude; for when they are old enough no
-longer to need to be fed, they begin to fight with their father, and
-this struggle does not end until the young one drives the father out
-and takes the hen and makes her his own.
-
-CRUELTY.
-
-The basilisk is so utterly cruel that when it cannot kill animals by
-its baleful gaze, it turns upon herbs and plants, and fixing its
-gaze on them withers them up.
-
-1225.
-
-GENEROSITY.
-
-It is said of the eagle that it is never so hungry but that it will
-leave a part of its prey for the birds that are round it, which,
-being unable to provide their own food, are necessarily dependent on
-the eagle, since it is thus that they obtain food.
-
-DISCIPLINE.
-
-When the wolf goes cunningly round some stable of cattle, and by
-accident puts his foot in a trap, so that he makes a noise, he bites
-his foot off to punish himself for his folly.
-
-1226.
-
-FLATTERERS OR SYRENS.
-
-The syren sings so sweetly that she lulls the mariners to sleep;
-then she climbs upon the ships and kills the sleeping mariners.
-
-PRUDENCE.
-
-The ant, by her natural foresight provides in the summer for the
-winter, killing the seeds she harvests that they may not germinate,
-and on them, in due time she feeds.
-
-FOLLY.
-
-The wild bull having a horror of a red colour, the hunters dress up
-the trunk of a tree with red and the bull runs at this with great
-frenzy, thus fixing his horns, and forthwith the hunters kill him
-there.
-
-1227.
-
-JUSTICE.
-
-We may liken the virtue of Justice to the king of the bees which
-orders and arranges every thing with judgment. For some bees are
-ordered to go to the flowers, others are ordered to labour, others
-to fight with the wasps, others to clear away all dirt, others to
-accompagny and escort the king; and when he is old and has no wings
-they carry him. And if one of them fails in his duty, he is punished
-without reprieve.
-
-TRUTH.
-
-Although partridges steal each other's eggs, nevertheless the young
-born of these eggs always return to their true mother.
-
-1228.
-
-FIDELITY, OR LOYALTY.
-
-The cranes are so faithful and loyal to their king, that at night,
-when he is sleeping, some of them go round the field to keep watch
-at a distance; others remain near, each holding a stone in his foot,
-so that if sleep should overcome them, this stone would fall and
-make so much noise that they would wake up again. And there are
-others which sleep together round the king; and this they do every
-night, changing in turn so that their king may never find them
-wanting.
-
-FALSEHOOD.
-
-The fox when it sees a flock of herons or magpies or birds of that
-kind, suddenly flings himself on the ground with his mouth open to
-look as he were dead; and these birds want to peck at his tongue,
-and he bites off their heads.
-
-1229.
-
-LIES.
-
-The mole has very small eyes and it always lives under ground; and
-it lives as long as it is in the dark but when it comes into the
-light it dies immediately, because it becomes known;--and so it is
-with lies.
-
-VALOUR.
-
-The lion is never afraid, but rather fights with a bold spirit and
-savage onslaught against a multitude of hunters, always seeking to
-injure the first that injures him.
-
-FEAR OR COWARDICE.
-
-The hare is always frightened; and the leaves that fall from the
-trees in autumn always keep him in terror and generally put him to
-flight.
-
-1230.
-
-MAGNANIMITY.
-
-The falcon never preys but on large birds; and it will let itself
-die rather than feed on little ones, or eat stinking meat.
-
-VAIN GLORY.
-
-As regards this vice, we read that the peacock is more guilty of it
-than any other animal. For it is always contemplating the beauty of
-its tail, which it spreads in the form of a wheel, and by its cries
-attracts to itself the gaze of the creatures that surround it.
-
-And this is the last vice to be conquered.
-
-1231.
-
-CONSTANCY.
-
-Constancy may be symbolised by the phoenix which, knowing that by
-nature it must be resuscitated, has the constancy to endure the
-burning flames which consume it, and then it rises anew.
-
-INCONSTANCY.
-
-The swallow may serve for Inconstancy, for it is always in movement,
-since it cannot endure the smallest discomfort.
-
-CONTINENCE.
-
-The camel is the most lustful animal there is, and will follow the
-female for a thousand miles. But if you keep it constantly with its
-mother or sister it will leave them alone, so temperate is its
-nature.
-
-1232.
-
-INCONTINENCE.
-
-The unicorn, through its intemperance and not knowing how to control
-itself, for the love it bears to fair maidens forgets its ferocity
-and wildness; and laying aside all fear it will go up to a seated
-damsel and go to sleep in her lap, and thus the hunters take it.
-
-HUMILITY.
-
-We see the most striking example of humility in the lamb which will
-submit to any animal; and when they are given for food to imprisoned
-lions they are as gentle to them as to their own mother, so that
-very often it has been seen that the lions forbear to kill them.
-
-1233.
-
-PRIDE.
-
-The falcon, by reason of its haughtiness and pride, is fain to lord
-it and rule over all the other birds of prey, and longs to be sole
-and supreme; and very often the falcon has been seen to assault the
-eagle, the Queen of birds.
-
-ABSTINENCE.
-
-The wild ass, when it goes to the well to drink, and finds the water
-troubled, is never so thirsty but that it will abstain from
-drinking, and wait till the water is clear again.
-
-GLUTTONY.
-
-The vulture is so addicted to gluttony that it will go a thousand
-miles to eat a carrion [carcase]; therefore is it that it follows
-armies.
-
-1234.
-
-CHASTITY.
-
-The turtle-dove is never false to its mate; and if one dies the
-other preserves perpetual chastity, and never again sits on a green
-bough, nor ever again drinks of clear water.
-
-UNCHASTITY.
-
-The bat, owing to unbridled lust, observes no universal rule in
-pairing, but males with males and females with females pair
-promiscuously, as it may happen.
-
-MODERATION.
-
-The ermine out of moderation never eats but once in the day; it will
-rather let itself be taken by the hunters than take refuge in a
-dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity.
-
-1235.
-
-THE EAGLE.
-
-The eagle when it is old flies so high that it scorches its
-feathers, and Nature allowing that it should renew its youth, it
-falls into shallow water [Footnote 5: The meaning is obscure.]. And
-if its young ones cannot bear to gaze on the sun [Footnote 6: The
-meaning is obscure.]--; it does not feed them with any bird, that
-does not wish to die. Animals which much fear it do not approach its
-nest, although it does not hurt them. It always leaves part of its
-prey uneaten.
-
-LUMERPA,--FAME.
-
-This is found in Asia Major, and shines so brightly that it absorbs
-its own shadow, and when it dies it does not lose this light, and
-its feathers never fall out, but a feather pulled out shines no
-longer.
-
-1236.
-
-THE PELICAN.
-
-This bird has a great love for its young; and when it finds them in
-its nest dead from a serpent's bite, it pierces itself to the heart,
-and with its blood it bathes them till they return to life.
-
-THE SALAMANDER.
-
-This has no digestive organs, and gets no food but from the fire, in
-which it constantly renews its scaly skin.
-
-The salamander, which renews its scaly skin in the fire,--for
-virtue.
-
-THE CAMELEON.
-
-This lives on air, and there it is the prey of all the birds; so in
-order to be safer it flies above the clouds and finds an air so
-rarefied that it cannot support the bird that follows it.
-
-At that height nothing can go unless it has a gift from Heaven, and
-that is where the chameleon flies.
-
-1237.
-
-THE ALEPO, A FISH.
-
-The fish _alepo_ does not live out of water.
-
-THE OSTRICH.
-
-This bird converts iron into nourishment, and hatches its eggs by
-its gaze;--Armies under commanders.
-
-THE SWAN.
-
-The swan is white without any spot, and it sings sweetly as it dies,
-its life ending with that song.
-
-THE STORK.
-
-This bird, by drinking saltwater purges itself of distempers. If the
-male finds his mate unfaithful, he abandons her; and when it grows
-old its young ones brood over it, and feed it till it dies.
-
-1238.
-
-THE GRASSHOPPER.
-
-This silences the cuckoo with its song. It dies in oil and revives
-in vinegar. It sings in the greatest heats
-
-THE BAT.
-
-The more light there is the blinder this creature becomes; as those
-who gaze most at the sun become most dazzled.--For Vice, that cannot
-remain where Virtue appears.
-
-THE PARTRIDGE.
-
-This bird changes from the female into the male and forgets its
-former sex; and out of envy it steals the eggs from others and
-hatches them, but the young ones follow the true mother.
-
-THE SWALLOW.
-
-This bird gives sight to its blind young ones by means of celandine.
-
-1239.
-
-THE OYSTER.--FOR TREACHERY.
-
-This creature, when the moon is full opens itself wide, and when the
-crab looks in he throws in a piece of rock or seaweed and the oyster
-cannot close again, whereby it serves for food to that crab. This is
-what happens to him who opens his mouth to tell his secret. He
-becomes the prey of the treacherous hearer.
-
-THE BASILISK.--CRUELTY.
-
-All snakes flie from this creature; but the weasel attacks it by
-means of rue and kills it.
-
-THE ASP.
-
-This carries instantaneous death in its fangs; and, that it may not
-hear the charmer it stops its ears with its tail.
-
-1240.
-
-THE DRAGON.
-
-This creature entangles itself in the legs of the elephant which
-falls upon it, and so both die, and in its death it is avenged.
-
-THE VIPER.
-
-She, in pairing opens her mouth and at last clenches her teeth and
-kills her husband. Then the young ones, growing within her body rend
-her open and kill their mother.
-
-THE SCORPION.
-
-Saliva, spit out when fasting will kill a scorpion. This may be
-likened to abstinence from greediness, which removes and heals the
-ills which result from that gluttony, and opens the path of virtue.
-
-1241.
-
-THE CROCODILE. HYPOCRISY.
-
-This animal catches a man and straightway kills him; after he is
-dead, it weeps for him with a lamentable voice and many tears. Then,
-having done lamenting, it cruelly devours him. It is thus with the
-hypocrite, who, for the smallest matter, has his face bathed with
-tears, but shows the heart of a tiger and rejoices in his heart at
-the woes of others, while wearing a pitiful face.
-
-THE TOAD.
-
-The toad flies from the light of the sun, and if it is held there by
-force it puffs itself out so much as to hide its head below and
-shield itself from the rays. Thus does the foe of clear and radiant
-virtue, who can only be constrainedly brought to face it with puffed
-up courage.
-
-1242.
-
-THE CATERPILLAR.--FOR VIRTUE IN GENERAL.
-
-The caterpillar, which by means of assiduous care is able to weave
-round itself a new dwelling place with marvellous artifice and fine
-workmanship, comes out of it afterwards with painted and lovely
-wings, with which it rises towards Heaven.
-
-THE SPIDER.
-
-The spider brings forth out of herself the delicate and ingenious
-web, which makes her a return by the prey it takes.
-
-[Footnote: Two notes are underneath this text. The first: _'nessuna
-chosa e da ttemere piu che lla sozza fama'_ is a repetition of the
-first line of the text given in Vol. I No. 695.
-
-The second: _faticha fugga cholla fama in braccio quasi ochultata c_
-is written in red chalk and is evidently an incomplete sentence.]
-
-1243.
-
-THE LION.
-
-This animal, with his thundering roar, rouses his young the third
-day after they are born, teaching them the use of all their dormant
-senses and all the wild things which are in the wood flee away.
-
-This may be compared to the children of Virtue who are roused by the
-sound of praise and grow up in honourable studies, by which they are
-more and more elevated; while all that is base flies at the sound,
-shunning those who are virtuous.
-
-Again, the lion covers over its foot tracks, so that the way it has
-gone may not be known to its enemies. Thus it beseems a captain to
-conceal the secrets of his mind so that the enemy may not know his
-purpose.
-
-1244.
-
-THE TARANTULA.
-
-The bite of the tarantula fixes a man's mind on one idea; that is on
-the thing he was thinking of when he was bitten.
-
-THE SCREECH-OWL AND THE OWL.
-
-These punish those who are scoffing at them by pecking out their
-eyes; for nature has so ordered it, that they may thus be fed.
-
-1245.
-
-THE ELEPHANT.
-
-The huge elephant has by nature what is rarely found in man; that is
-Honesty, Prudence, Justice, and the Observance of Religion; inasmuch
-as when the moon is new, these beasts go down to the rivers, and
-there, solemnly cleansing themselves, they bathe, and so, having
-saluted the planet, return to the woods. And when they are ill,
-being laid down, they fling up plants towards Heaven as though they
-would offer sacrifice. --They bury their tusks when they fall out
-from old age.--Of these two tusks they use one to dig up roots for
-food; but they save the point of the other for fighting with; when
-they are taken by hunters and when worn out by fatigue, they dig up
-these buried tusks and ransom themselves.
-
-1246.
-
-They are merciful, and know the dangers, and if one finds a man
-alone and lost, he kindly puts him back in the road he has missed,
-if he finds the footprints of the man before the man himself. It
-dreads betrayal, so it stops and blows, pointing it out to the other
-elephants who form in a troop and go warily.
-
-These beasts always go in troops, and the oldest goes in front and
-the second in age remains the last, and thus they enclose the troop.
-Out of shame they pair only at night and secretly, nor do they then
-rejoin the herd but first bathe in the river. The females do not
-fight as with other animals; and it is so merciful that it is most
-unwilling by nature ever to hurt those weaker than itself. And if it
-meets in the middle of its way a flock of sheep
-
-1247.
-
-it puts them aside with its trunk, so as not to trample them under
-foot; and it never hurts any thing unless when provoked. When one
-has fallen into a pit the others fill up the pit with branches,
-earth and stones, thus raising the bottom that he may easily get
-out. They greatly dread the noise of swine and fly in confusion,
-doing no less harm then, with their feet, to their own kind than to
-the enemy. They delight in rivers and are always wandering about
-near them, though on account of their great weight they cannot swim.
-They devour stones, and the trunks of trees are their favourite
-food. They have a horror of rats. Flies delight in their smell and
-settle on their back, and the beast scrapes its skin making its
-folds even and kills them.
-
-1248.
-
-When they cross rivers they send their young ones up against the
-stream of the water; thus, being set towards the fall, they break
-the united current of the water so that the current does not carry
-them away. The dragon flings itself under the elephant's body, and
-with its tail it ties its legs; with its wings and with its arms it
-also clings round its ribs and cuts its throat with its teeth, and
-the elephant falls upon it and the dragon is burst. Thus, in its
-death it is revenged on its foe.
-
-THE DRAGON.
-
-These go in companies together, and they twine themselves after the
-manner of roots, and with their heads raised they cross lakes, and
-swim to where they find better pasture; and if they did not thus
-combine
-
-1249.
-
-they would be drowned, therefore they combine.
-
-THE SERPENT.
-
-The serpent is a very large animal. When it sees a bird in the air
-it draws in its breath so strongly that it draws the birds into its
-mouth too. Marcus Regulus, the consul of the Roman army was
-attacked, with his army, by such an animal and almost defeated. And
-this animal, being killed by a catapult, measured 123 feet, that is
-64 1/2 braccia and its head was high above all the trees in a wood.
-
-THE BOA(?)
-
-This is a very large snake which entangles itself round the legs of
-the cow so that it cannot move and then sucks it, in such wise that
-it almost dries it up. In the time of Claudius the Emperor, there
-was killed, on the Vatican Hill,
-
-1250.
-
-one which had inside it a boy, entire, that it had swallowed.
-
-THE MACLI.--CAUGHT WHEN ASLEEP.
-
-This beast is born in Scandinavia. It has the shape of a great
-horse, excepting that the great length of its neck and of its ears
-make a difference. It feeds on grass, going backwards, for it has so
-long an upper lip that if it went forwards it would cover up the
-grass. Its legs are all in one piece; for this reason when it wants
-to sleep it leans against a tree, and the hunters, spying out the
-place where it is wont to sleep, saw the tree almost through, and
-then, when it leans against it to sleep, in its sleep it falls, and
-thus the hunters take it. And every other mode of taking it is in
-vain, because it is incredibly swift in running.
-
-1251.
-
-THE BISON WHICH DOES INJURY IN ITS FLIGHT.
-
-This beast is a native of Paeonia and has a neck with a mane like a
-horse. In all its other parts it is like a bull, excepting that its
-horns are in a way bent inwards so that it cannot butt; hence it has
-no safety but in flight, in which it flings out its excrement to a
-distance of 400 braccia in its course, and this burns like fire
-wherever it touches.
-
-LIONS, PARDS, PANTHERS, TIGERS.
-
-These keep their claws in the sheath, and never put them out unless
-they are on the back of their prey or their enemy.
-
-THE LIONESS.
-
-When the lioness defends her young from the hand of the hunter, in
-order not to be frightened by the spears she keeps her eyes on the
-ground, to the end that she may not by her flight leave her young
-ones prisoners.
-
-1252.
-
-THE LION.
-
-This animal, which is so terrible, fears nothing more than the noise
-of empty carts, and likewise the crowing of cocks. And it is much
-terrified at the sight of one, and looks at its comb with a
-frightened aspect, and is strangely alarmed when its face is
-covered.
-
-THE PANTHER IN AFRICA.
-
-This has the form of the lioness but it is taller on its legs and
-slimmer and long bodied; and it is all white and marked with black
-spots after the manner of rosettes; and all animals delight to look
-upon these rosettes, and they would always be standing round it if
-it were not for the terror of its face;
-
-1253.
-
-therefore knowing this, it hides its face, and the surrounding
-animals grow bold and come close, the better to enjoy the sight of
-so much beauty; when suddenly it seizes the nearest and at once
-devours it.
-
-CAMELS.
-
-The Bactrian have two humps; the Arabian one only. They are swift in
-battle and most useful to carry burdens. This animal is extremely
-observant of rule and measure, for it will not move if it has a
-greater weight than it is used to, and if it is taken too far it
-does the same, and suddenly stops and so the merchants are obliged
-to lodge there.
-
-1254.
-
-THE TIGER.
-
-This beast is a native of Hyrcania, and it is something like the
-panther from the various spots on its skin. It is an animal of
-terrible swiftness; the hunter when he finds its young ones carries
-them off hastily, placing mirrors in the place whence he takes them,
-and at once escapes on a swift horse. The panther returning finds
-the mirrors fixed on the ground and looking into them believes it
-sees its young; then scratching with its paws it discovers the
-cheat. Forthwith, by means of the scent of its young, it follows the
-hunter, and when this hunter sees the tigress he drops one of the
-young ones and she takes it, and having carried it to the den she
-immediately returns to the hunter and does
-
-1255.
-
-the same till he gets into his boat.
-
-CATOBLEPAS.
-
-It is found in Ethiopia near to the source Nigricapo. It is not a
-very large animal, is sluggish in all its parts, and its head is so
-large that it carries it with difficulty, in such wise that it
-always droops towards the ground; otherwise it would be a great pest
-to man, for any one on whom it fixes its eyes dies immediately.
-[Footnote: Leonardo undoubtedly derived these remarks as to the
-Catoblepas from Pliny, Hist. Nat. VIII. 21 (al. 32): _Apud Hesperios
-Aethiopas fons est Nigris_ (different readings), _ut plerique
-existimavere, Nili caput.-----Juxta hunc fera appellatur catoblepas,
-modica alioquin, ceterisque membris iners, caput tantum praegrave
-aegre ferens; alias internecio humani generis, omnibus qui oculos
-ejus videre, confestim morientibus._ Aelian, _Hist. An._ gives a far
-more minute description of the creature, but he says that it poisons
-beasts not by its gaze, but by its venomous breath. Athenaeus 221 B,
-mentions both. If Leonardo had known of these two passages, he would
-scarcely have omitted the poisonous breath. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)]
-
-THE BASILISK.
-
-This is found in the province of Cyrenaica and is not more than 12
-fingers long. It has on its head a white spot after the fashion of a
-diadem. It scares all serpents with its whistling. It resembles a
-snake, but does not move by wriggling but from the centre forwards
-to the right. It is said that one
-
-1256.
-
-of these, being killed with a spear by one who was on horse-back,
-and its venom flowing on the spear, not only the man but the horse
-also died. It spoils the wheat and not only that which it touches,
-but where it breathes the grass dries and the stones are split.
-
-THE WEASEL.
-
-This beast finding the lair of the basilisk kills it with the smell
-of its urine, and this smell, indeed, often kills the weasel itself.
-
-THE CERASTES.
-
-This has four movable little horns; so, when it wants to feed, it
-hides under leaves all of its body except these little horns which,
-as they move, seem to the birds to be some small worms at play. Then
-they immediately swoop down to pick them and the Cerastes suddenly
-twines round them and encircles and devours them.
-
-1257.
-
-THE AMPHISBOENA.
-
-This has two heads, one in its proper place the other at the tail;
-as if one place were not enough from which to fling its venom.
-
-THE IACULUS.
-
-This lies on trees, and flings itself down like a dart, and pierces
-through the wild beast and kills them.
-
-THE ASP.
-
-The bite of this animal cannot be cured unless by immediately
-cutting out the bitten part. This pestilential animal has such a
-love for its mate that they always go in company. And if, by mishap,
-one of them is killed the other, with incredible swiftness, follows
-him who has killed it; and it is so determined and eager for
-vengeance that it overcomes every difficulty, and passing by every
-troop it seeks to hurt none but its enemy. And it will travel any
-distance, and it is impossible to avoid it unless by crossing water
-and by very swift flight. It has its eyes turned inwards, and large
-ears and it hears better than it sees.
-
-1258.
-
-THE ICHNEUMON.
-
-This animal is the mortal enemy of the asp. It is a native of Egypt
-and when it sees an asp near its place, it runs at once to the bed
-or mud of the Nile and with this makes itself muddy all over, then
-it dries itself in the sun, smears itself again with mud, and thus,
-drying one after the other, it makes itself three or four coatings
-like a coat of mail. Then it attacks the asp, and fights well with
-him, so that, taking its time it catches him in the throat and
-destroys him.
-
-THE CROCODILE.
-
-This is found in the Nile, it has four feet and lives on land and in
-water. No other terrestrial creature but this is found to have no
-tongue, and it only bites by moving its upper jaw. It grows to a
-length of forty feet and has claws and is armed with a hide that
-will take any blow. By day it is on land and at night in the water.
-It feeds on fishes, and going to sleep on the bank of the Nile with
-its mouth open, a bird called
-
-1259.
-
-trochilus, a very small bird, runs at once to its mouth and hops
-among its teeth and goes pecking out the remains of the food, and so
-inciting it with voluptuous delight tempts it to open the whole of
-its mouth, and so it sleeps. This being observed by the ichneumon it
-flings itself into its mouth and perforates its stomach and bowels,
-and finally kills it.
-
-THE DOLPHIN.
-
-Nature has given such knowledge to animals, that besides the
-consciousness of their own advantages they know the disadvantages of
-their foes. Thus the dolphin understands what strength lies in a cut
-from the fins placed on his chine, and how tender is the belly of
-the crocodile; hence in fighting with him it thrusts at him from
-beneath and rips up his belly and so kills him.
-
-The crocodile is a terror to those that flee, and a base coward to
-those that pursue him.
-
-1260.
-
-THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.
-
-This beast when it feels itself over-full goes about seeking thorns,
-or where there may be the remains of canes that have been split, and
-it rubs against them till a vein is opened; then when the blood has
-flowed as much as he needs, he plasters himself with mud and heals
-the wound. In form he is something like a horse with long haunches,
-a twisted tail and the teeth of a wild boar, his neck has a mane;
-the skin cannot be pierced, unless when he is bathing; he feeds on
-plants in the fields and goes into them backwards so that it may
-seem, as though he had come out.
-
-THE IBIS.
-
-This bird resembles a crane, and when it feels itself ill it fills
-its craw with water, and with its beak makes an injection of it.
-
-THE STAG.
-
-These creatures when they feel themselves bitten by the spider
-called father-long-legs, eat crabs and free themselves of the venom.
-
-1261.
-
-THE LIZARD.
-
-This, when fighting with serpents eats the sow-thistle and is free.
-
-THE SWALLOW.
-
-This [bird] gives sight to its blind young ones, with the juice of
-the celandine.
-
-THE WEASEL.
-
-This, when chasing rats first eats of rue.
-
-THE WILD BOAR.
-
-This beast cures its sickness by eating of ivy.
-
-THE SNAKE.
-
-This creature when it wants to renew itself casts its old skin,
-beginning with the head, and changing in one day and one night.
-
-THE PANTHER.
-
-This beast after its bowels have fallen out will still fight with
-the dogs and hunters.
-
-1262.
-
-THE CHAMELEON.
-
-This creature always takes the colour of the thing on which it is
-resting, whence it is often devoured together with the leaves on
-which the elephant feeds.
-
-THE RAVEN.
-
-When it has killed the Chameleon it takes laurel as a purge.
-
-1263.
-
-Moderation checks all the vices. The ermine will die rather than
-besmirch itself.
-
-OF FORESIGHT.
-
-The cock does not crow till it has thrice flapped its wings; the
-parrot in moving among boughs never puts its feet excepting where it
-has first put its beak. Vows are not made till Hope is dead.
-
-Motion tends towards the centre of gravity.
-
-1264.
-
-MAGNANIMITY.
-
-The falcon never seizes any but large birds and will sooner die than
-eat [tainted] meat of bad savour.
-
-II.
-
-FABLES.
-
-Fables on animals (1265-1270).
-
-1265.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-An oyster being turned out together with other fish in the house of
-a fisherman near the sea, he entreated a rat to take him to the sea.
-The rat purposing to eat him bid him open; but as he bit him the
-oyster squeezed his head and closed; and the cat came and killed
-him.
-
-1266.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The thrushes rejoiced greatly at seeing a man take the owl and
-deprive her of liberty, tying her feet with strong bonds. But this
-owl was afterwards by means of bird-lime the cause of the thrushes
-losing not only their liberty, but their life. This is said for
-those countries which rejoice in seeing their governors lose their
-liberty, when by that means they themselves lose all succour, and
-remain in bondage in the power of their enemies, losing their
-liberty and often their life.
-
-1267.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A dog, lying asleep on the fur of a sheep, one of his fleas,
-perceiving the odour of the greasy wool, judged that this must be a
-land of better living, and also more secure from the teeth and nails
-of the dog than where he fed on the dog; and without farther
-reflection he left the dog and went into the thick wool. There he
-began with great labour to try to pass among the roots of the hairs;
-but after much sweating had to give up the task as vain, because
-these hairs were so close that they almost touched each other, and
-there was no space where fleas could taste the skin. Hence, after
-much labour and fatigue, he began to wish to return to his dog, who
-however had already departed; so he was constrained after long
-repentance and bitter tears, to die of hunger.
-
-1268.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The vain and wandering butterfly, not content with being able to fly
-at its ease through the air, overcome by the tempting flame of the
-candle, decided to fly into it; but its sportive impulse was the
-cause of a sudden fall, for its delicate wings were burnt in the
-flame. And the hapless butterfly having dropped, all scorched, at
-the foot of the candlestick, after much lamentation and repentance,
-dried the tears from its swimming eyes, and raising its face
-exclaimed: O false light! how many must thou have miserably deceived
-in the past, like me; or if I must indeed see light so near, ought I
-not to have known the sun from the false glare of dirty tallow?
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The monkey, finding a nest of small birds, went up to it greatly
-delighted. But they, being already fledged, he could only succeed in
-taking the smallest; greatly delighted he took it in his hand and
-went to his abode; and having begun to look at the little bird he
-took to kissing it, and from excess of love he kissed it so much and
-turned it about and squeezed it till he killed it. This is said for
-those who by not punishing their children let them come to mischief.
-
-1269.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A rat was besieged in his little dwelling by a weasel, which with
-unwearied vigilance awaited his surrender, while watching his
-imminent peril through a little hole. Meanwhile the cat came by and
-suddenly seized the weasel and forthwith devoured it. Then the rat
-offered up a sacrifice to Jove of some of his store of nuts, humbly
-thanking His providence, and came out of his hole to enjoy his
-lately lost liberty. But he was instantly deprived of it, together
-with his life, by the cruel claws and teeth of the lurking cat.
-
-1270.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The ant found a grain of millet. The seed feeling itself taken
-prisoner cried out to her: "If you will do me the kindness to allow
-me accomplish my function of reproduction, I will give you a hundred
-such as I am." And so it was.
-
-A Spider found a bunch of grapes which for its sweetness was much
-resorted to by bees and divers kinds of flies. It seemed to her that
-she had found a most convenient spot to spread her snare, and having
-settled herself on it with her delicate web, and entered into her
-new habitation, there, every day placing herself in the openings
-made by the spaces between the grapes, she fell like a thief on the
-wretched creatures which were not aware of her. But, after a few
-days had passed, the vintager came, and cut away the bunch of grapes
-and put it with others, with which it was trodden; and thus the
-grapes were a snare and pitfall both for the treacherous spider and
-the betrayed flies.
-
-An ass having gone to sleep on the ice over a deep lake, his heat
-dissolved the ice and the ass awoke under water to his great grief,
-and was forthwith drowned.
-
-A falcon, unable to endure with patience the disappearance of a
-duck, which, flying before him had plunged under water, wished to
-follow it under water, and having soaked his feathers had to remain
-in the water while the duck rising to the air mocked at the falcon
-as he drowned.
-
-The spider wishing to take flies in her treacherous net, was cruelly
-killed in it by the hornet.
-
-An eagle wanting to mock at the owl was caught by the wings in
-bird-lime and was taken and killed by a man.
-
-Fables on lifeless objects (1271--1274).
-
-1271.
-
-The water finding that its element was the lordly ocean, was seized
-with a desire to rise above the air, and being encouraged by the
-element of fire and rising as a very subtle vapour, it seemed as
-though it were really as thin as air. But having risen very high, it
-reached the air that was still more rare and cold, where the fire
-forsook it, and the minute particles, being brought together, united
-and became heavy; whence its haughtiness deserting it, it betook
-itself to flight and it fell from the sky, and was drunk up by the
-dry earth, where, being imprisoned for a long time, it did penance
-for its sin.
-
-1272.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The razor having one day come forth from the handle which serves as
-its sheath and having placed himself in the sun, saw the sun
-reflected in his body, which filled him with great pride. And
-turning it over in his thoughts he began to say to himself: "And
-shall I return again to that shop from which I have just come?
-Certainly not; such splendid beauty shall not, please God, be turned
-to such base uses. What folly it would be that could lead me to
-shave the lathered beards of rustic peasants and perform such menial
-service! Is this body destined for such work? Certainly not. I will
-hide myself in some retired spot and there pass my life in tranquil
-repose." And having thus remained hidden for some months, one day he
-came out into the air, and issuing from his sheath, saw himself
-turned to the similitude of a rusty saw while his surface no longer
-reflected the resplendent sun. With useless repentance he vainly
-deplored the irreparable mischief saying to himself: "Oh! how far
-better was it to employ at the barbers my lost edge of such
-exquisite keenness! Where is that lustrous surface? It has been
-consumed by this vexatious and unsightly rust."
-
-The same thing happens to those minds which instead of exercise give
-themselves up to sloth. They are like the razor here spoken of, and
-lose the keenness of their edge, while the rust of ignorance spoils
-their form.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A stone of some size recently uncovered by the water lay on a
-certain spot somewhat raised, and just where a delightful grove
-ended by a stony road; here it was surrounded by plants decorated by
-various flowers of divers colours. And as it saw the great quantity
-of stones collected together in the roadway below, it began to wish
-it could let itself fall down there, saying to itself: "What have I
-to do here with these plants? I want to live in the company of
-those, my sisters." And letting itself fall, its rapid course ended
-among these longed for companions. When it had been there sometime
-it began to find itself constantly toiling under the wheels of the
-carts the iron-shoed feet of horses and of travellers. This one
-rolled it over, that one trod upon it; sometimes it lifted itself a
-little and then it was covered with mud or the dung of some animal,
-and it was in vain that it looked at the spot whence it had come as
-a place of solitude and tranquil place.
-
-Thus it happens to those who choose to leave a life of solitary
-comtemplation, and come to live in cities among people full of
-infinite evil.
-
-1273.
-
-Some flames had already lasted in the furnace of a glass-blower,
-when they saw a candle approaching in a beautiful and glittering
-candlestick. With ardent longing they strove to reach it; and one of
-them, quitting its natural course, writhed up to an unburnt brand on
-which it fed and passed at the opposite end out by a narrow chink to
-the candle which was near. It flung itself upon it, and with fierce
-jealousy and greediness it devoured it, having reduced it almost to
-death, and, wishing to procure the prolongation of its life, it
-tried to return to the furnace whence it had come. But in vain, for
-it was compelled to die, the wood perishing together with the
-candle, being at last converted, with lamentation and repentance,
-into foul smoke, while leaving all its sisters in brilliant and
-enduring life and beauty.
-
-1274.
-
-A small patch of snow finding itself clinging to the top of a rock
-which was lying on the topmost height of a very high mountain and
-being left to its own imaginings, it began to reflect in this way,
-saying to itself: "Now, shall not I be thought vain and proud for
-having placed myself--such a small patch of snow--in so lofty a
-spot, and for allowing that so large a quantity of snow as I have
-seen here around me, should take a place lower than mine? Certainly
-my small dimensions by no means merit this elevation. How easily may
-I, in proof of my insignificance, experience the same fate as that
-which the sun brought about yesterday to my companions, who were
-all, in a few hours, destroyed by the sun. And this happened from
-their having placed themselves higher than became them. I will flee
-from the wrath of the sun, and humble myself and find a place
-befitting my small importance." Thus, flinging itself down, it began
-to descend, hurrying from its high home on to the other snow; but
-the more it sought a low place the more its bulk increased, so that
-when at last its course was ended on a hill, it found itself no less
-in size than the hill which supported it; and it was the last of the
-snow which was destroyed that summer by the sun. This is said for
-those who, humbling themselves, become exalted.
-
-Fables on plants (1275-1279).
-
-1275.
-
-The cedar, being desirous of producing a fine and noble fruit at its
-summit, set to work to form it with all the strength of its sap. But
-this fruit, when grown, was the cause of the tall and upright
-tree-top being bent over.
-
-The peach, being envious of the vast quantity of fruit which she saw
-borne on the nut-tree, her neighbour, determined to do the same, and
-loaded herself with her own in such a way that the weight of the
-fruit pulled her up by the roots and broke her down to the ground.
-
-The nut-tree stood always by a road side displaying the wealth of
-its fruit to the passers by, and every one cast stones at it.
-
-The fig-tree, having no fruit, no one looked at it; then, wishing to
-produce fruits that it might be praised by men, it was bent and
-broken down by them.
-
-The fig-tree, standing by the side of the elm and seeing that its
-boughs were bare of fruit, yet that it had the audacity to keep the
-Sun from its own unripe figs with its branches, said to it: "Oh elm!
-art thou not ashamed to stand in front of me. But wait till my
-offspring are fully grown and you will see where you are!" But when
-her offspring were mature, a troop of soldiers coming by fell upon
-the fig-tree and her figs were all torn off her, and her boughs cut
-away and broken. Then, when she was thus maimed in all her limbs,
-the elm asked her, saying: "O fig-tree! which was best, to be
-without offspring, or to be brought by them into so miserable a
-plight!"
-
-1276.
-
-The plant complains of the old and dry stick which stands by its
-side and of the dry stakes that surround it.
-
-One keeps it upright, the other keeps it from low company.
-
-1277.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-A nut, having been carried by a crow to the top of a tall campanile
-and released by falling into a chink from the mortal grip of its
-beak, it prayed the wall by the grace bestowed on it by God in
-allowing it to be so high and thick, and to own such fine bells and
-of so noble a tone, that it would succour it, and that, as it had
-not been able to fall under the verdurous boughs of its venerable
-father and lie in the fat earth covered up by his fallen leaves it
-would not abandon it; because, finding itself in the beak of the
-cruel crow, it had there made a vow that if it escaped from her it
-would end its life in a little hole. At these words the wall, moved
-to compassion, was content to shelter it in the spot where it had
-fallen; and after a short time the nut began to split open and put
-forth roots between the rifts of the stones and push them apart, and
-to throw out shoots from its hollow shell; and, to be brief, these
-rose above the building and the twisted roots, growing thicker,
-began to thrust the walls apart, and tear out the ancient stones
-from their old places. Then the wall too late and in vain bewailed
-the cause of its destruction and in a short time, it wrought the
-ruin of a great part of it.
-
-1278.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The privet feeling its tender boughs loaded with young fruit,
-pricked by the sharp claws and beak of the insolent blackbird,
-complained to the blackbird with pitious remonstrance entreating her
-that since she stole its delicious fruits she should not deprive it
-of the leaves with which it preserved them from the burning rays of
-the sun, and that she should not divest it of its tender bark by
-scratching it with her sharp claws. To which the blackbird replied
-with angry upbraiding: "O, be silent, uncultured shrub! Do you not
-know that Nature made you produce these fruits for my nourishment;
-do you not see that you are in the world [only] to serve me as food;
-do you not know, base creature, that next winter you will be food
-and prey for the Fire?" To which words the tree listened patiently,
-and not without tears. After a short time the blackbird was taken in
-a net and boughs were cut to make a cage, in which to imprison her.
-Branches were cut, among others from the pliant privet, to serve for
-the small rods of the cage; and seeing herself to be the cause of
-the Blackbird's loss of liberty it rejoiced and spoke as follows: "O
-Blackbird, I am here, and not yet burnt by fire as you said. I shall
-see you in prison before you see me burnt."
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The laurel and the myrtle seeing the pear tree cut down cried out
-with a loud voice: "O pear-tree! whither are you going? Where is the
-pride you had when you were covered with ripe fruits? Now you will
-no longer shade us with your mass of leaves." Then the pear-tree
-replied: "I am going with the husbandman who has cut me down and who
-will take me to the workshop of a good sculptor who by his art will
-make me take the form of Jove the god; and I shall be dedicated in a
-temple and adored by men in the place of Jove, while you are bound
-always to remain maimed and stripped of your boughs, which will be
-placed round me to do me honour.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The chesnut, seeing a man upon the fig-tree, bending its boughs down
-and pulling off the ripe fruits, which he put into his open mouth
-destroying and crushing them with his hard teeth, it tossed its long
-boughs and with a noisy rustle exclaimed: "O fig! how much less are
-you protected by nature than I. See how in me my sweet offspring are
-set in close array; first clothed in soft wrappers over which is the
-hard but softly lined husk; and not content with taking this care of
-me, and having given them so strong a shelter, on this she has
-placed sharp and close-set spines so that the hand of man cannot
-hurt me." Then the fig-tree and her offspring began to laugh and
-having laughed she said: "I know man to be of such ingenuity that
-with rods and stones and stakes flung up among your branches he will
-bereave you of your fruits; and when they are fallen, he will
-trample them with his feet or with stones, so that your offspring
-will come out of their armour, crushed and maimed; while I am
-touched carefully by their hands, and not like you with sticks and
-stones."
-
-1279.
-
-The hapless willow, finding that she could not enjoy the pleasure of
-seeing her slender branches grow or attain to the height she wished,
-or point to the sky, by reason of the vine and whatever other trees
-that grew near, but was always maimed and lopped and spoiled,
-brought all her spirits together and gave and devoted itself
-entirely to imagination, standing plunged in long meditation and
-seeking, in all the world of plants, with which of them she might
-ally herself and which could not need the help of her withes. Having
-stood for some time in this prolific imagination, with a sudden
-flash the gourd presented itself to her thoughts and tossing all her
-branches with extreme delight, it seemed to her that she had found
-the companion suited to her purpose, because the gourd is more apt
-to bind others than to need binding; having come to this conclusion
-she awaited eagerly some friendly bird who should be the mediator of
-her wishes. Presently seeing near her the magpie she said to him: "O
-gentle bird! by the memory of the refuge which you found this
-morning among my branches, when the hungry cruel, and rapacious
-falcon wanted to devour you, and by that repose which you have
-always found in me when your wings craved rest, and by the pleasure
-you have enjoyed among my boughs, when playing with your companions
-or making love--I entreat you find the gourd and obtain from her
-some of her seeds, and tell her that those that are born of them I
-will treat exactly as though they were my own flesh and blood; and
-in this way use all the words you can think of, which are of the
-same persuasive purport; though, indeed, since you are a master of
-language, I need not teach you. And if you will do me this service I
-shall be happy to have your nest in the fork of my boughs, and all
-your family without payment of any rent." Then the magpie, having
-made and confirmed certain new stipulations with the willow,--and
-principally that she should never admit upon her any snake or
-polecat, cocked his tail, and put down his head, and flung himself
-from the bough, throwing his weight upon his wings; and these,
-beating the fleeting air, now here, now there, bearing about
-inquisitively, while his tail served as a rudder to steer him, he
-came to a gourd; then with a handsome bow and a few polite words, he
-obtained the required seeds, and carried them to the willow, who
-received him with a cheerful face. And when he had scraped away with
-his foot a small quantity of the earth near the willow, describing a
-circle, with his beak he planted the grains, which in a short time
-began to grow, and by their growth and the branches to take up all
-the boughs of the willow, while their broad leaves deprived it of
-the beauty of the sun and sky. And not content with so much evil,
-the gourds next began, by their rude hold, to drag the ends of the
-tender shoots down towards the earth, with strange twisting and
-distortion.
-
-Then, being much annoyed, it shook itself in vain to throw off the
-gourd. After raving for some days in such plans vainly, because the
-firm union forbade it, seeing the wind come by it commended itself
-to him. The wind flew hard and opened the old and hollow stem of the
-willow in two down to the roots, so that it fell into two parts. In
-vain did it bewail itself recognising that it was born to no good
-end.
-
-III.
-
-JESTS AND TALES.
-
-1280.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A priest, making the rounds of his parish on Easter Eve, and
-sprinkling holy water in the houses as is customary, came to a
-painter's room, where he sprinkled the water on some of his
-pictures. The painter turned round, somewhat angered, and asked him
-why this sprinkling had been bestowed on his pictures; then said the
-priest, that it was the custom and his duty to do so, and that he
-was doing good; and that he who did good might look for good in
-return, and, indeed, for better, since God had promised that every
-good deed that was done on earth should be rewarded a hundred-fold
-from above. Then the painter, waiting till he went out, went to an
-upper window and flung a large pail of water on the priest's back,
-saying: "Here is the reward a hundred-fold from above, which you
-said would come from the good you had done me with your holy water,
-by which you have damaged my pictures."
-
-1281.
-
-When wine is drunk by a drunkard, that wine is revenged on the
-drinker.
-
-1282.
-
-Wine, the divine juice of the grape, finding itself in a golden and
-richly wrought cup, on the table of Mahomet, was puffed up with
-pride at so much honour; when suddenly it was struck by a contrary
-reflection, saying to itself: "What am I about, that I should
-rejoice, and not perceive that I am now near to my death and shall
-leave my golden abode in this cup to enter into the foul and fetid
-caverns of the human body, and to be transmuted from a fragrant and
-delicious liquor into a foul and base one. Nay, and as though so
-much evil as this were not enough, I must for a long time lie in
-hideous receptacles, together with other fetid and corrupt matter,
-cast out from human intestines." And it cried to Heaven, imploring
-vengeance for so much insult, and that an end might henceforth be
-put to such contempt; and that, since that country produced the
-finest and best grapes in the whole world, at least they should not
-be turned into wine. Then Jove made that wine drunk by Mahomet to
-rise in spirit to his brain; and that in so deleterious a manner
-that it made him mad, and gave birth to so many follies that when he
-had recovered himself, he made a law that no Asiatic should drink
-wine, and henceforth the vine and its fruit were left free.
-
-As soon as wine has entered the stomach it begins to ferment and
-swell; then the spirit of that man begins to abandon his body,
-rising as it were skywards, and the brain finds itself parting from
-the body. Then it begins to degrade him, and make him rave like a
-madman, and then he does irreparable evil, killing his friends.
-
-1283.
-
-An artizan often going to visit a great gentleman without any
-definite purpose, the gentleman asked him what he did this for. The
-other said that he came there to have a pleasure which his lordship
-could not have; since to him it was a satisfaction to see men
-greater than himself, as is the way with the populace; while the
-gentleman could only see men of less consequence than himself; and
-so lords and great men were deprived of that pleasure.
-
-1284.
-
-Franciscan begging Friars are wont, at certain times, to keep fasts,
-when they do not eat meat in their convents. But on journeys, as
-they live on charity, they have license to eat whatever is set
-before them. Now a couple of these friars on their travels, stopped
-at an inn, in company with a certain merchant, and sat down with him
-at the same table, where, from the poverty of the inn, nothing was
-served to them but a small roast chicken. The merchant, seeing this
-to be but little even for himself, turned to the friars and said:
-"If my memory serves me, you do not eat any kind of flesh in your
-convents at this season." At these words the friars were compelled
-by their rule to admit, without cavil, that this was the truth; so
-the merchant had his wish, and eat the chicken and the friars did
-the best they could. After dinner the messmates departed, all three
-together, and after travelling some distance they came to a river of
-some width and depth. All three being on foot--the friars by reason
-of their poverty, and the other from avarice--it was necessary by
-the custom of company that one of the friars, being barefoot, should
-carry the merchant on his shoulders: so having given his wooden
-shoes into his keeping, he took up his man. But it so happened that
-when the friar had got to the middle of the river, he again
-remembered a rule of his order, and stopping short, he looked up,
-like Saint Christopher, to the burden on his back and said: "Tell
-me, have you any money about you?"--"You know I have", answered the
-other, "How do you suppose that a Merchant like me should go about
-otherwise?" "Alack!" cried the friar, "our rules forbid as to carry
-any money on our persons," and forthwith he dropped him into the
-water, which the merchant perceived was a facetious way of being
-revenged on the indignity he had done them; so, with a smiling face,
-and blushing somewhat with shame, he peaceably endured the revenge.
-
-1285.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A man wishing to prove, by the authority of Pythagoras, that he had
-formerly been in the world, while another would not let him finish
-his argument, the first speaker said to the second: "It is by this
-token that I was formerly here, I remember that you were a miller."
-The other one, feeling himself stung by these words, agreed that it
-was true, and that by the same token he remembered that the speaker
-had been the ass that carried the flour.
-
-A JEST.
-
-It was asked of a painter why, since he made such beautiful figures,
-which were but dead things, his children were so ugly; to which the
-painter replied that he made his pictures by day, and his children
-by night.
-
-1286.
-
-A man saw a large sword which another one wore at his side. Said he
-"Poor fellow, for a long time I have seen you tied to that weapon;
-why do you not release yourself as your hands are untied, and set
-yourself free?" To which the other replied: "This is none of yours,
-on the contrary it is an old story." The former speaker, feeling
-stung, replied: "I know that you are acquainted with so few things
-in this world, that I thought anything I could tell you would be new
-to you."
-
-1287.
-
-A man gave up his intimacy with one of his friends because he often
-spoke ill of his other friends. The neglected friend one day
-lamenting to this former friend, after much complaining, entreated
-him to say what might be the cause that had made him forget so much
-friendship. To which he answered: "I will no longer be intimate with
-you because I love you, and I do not choose that you, by speaking
-ill of me, your friend, to others, should produce in others, as in
-me, a bad impression of yourself, by speaking evil to them of me,
-your friend. Therefore, being no longer intimate together, it will
-seem as though we had become enemies; and in speaking evil of me, as
-is your wont, you will not be blamed so much as if we continued
-intimate.
-
-1288.
-
-A man was arguing and boasting that he knew many and various tricks.
-Another among the bystanders said: "I know how to play a trick which
-will make whomsoever I like pull off his breeches." The first man--
-the boaster--said: "You won't make me pull off mine, and I bet you a
-pair of hose on it." He who proposed the game, having accepted the
-offer, produced breeches and drew them across the face of him who
-bet the pair of hose and won the bet [4].
-
-A man said to an acquaintance: "Your eyes are changed to a strange
-colour." The other replied: "It often happens, but you have not
-noticed it." "When does it happen?" said the former. "Every time
-that my eyes see your ugly face, from the shock of so unpleasing a
-sight they suddenly turn pale and change to a strange colour."
-
-A man said to another: "Your eyes are changed to a strange colour."
-The other replied: "It is because my eyes behold your strange ugly
-face."
-
-A man said that in his country were the strangest things in the
-world. Another answered: "You, who were born there, confirm this as
-true, by the strangeness of your ugly face."
-
-[Footnote: The joke turns, it appears, on two meanings of trarre and
-is not easily translated.]
-
-1289.
-
-An old man was publicly casting contempt on a young one, and boldly
-showing that he did not fear him; on which the young man replied
-that his advanced age served him better as a shield than either his
-tongue or his strength.
-
-1290.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A sick man finding himself in _articulo mortis_ heard a knock at the
-door, and asking one of his servants who was knocking, the servant
-went out, and answered that it was a woman calling herself Madonna
-Bona. Then the sick man lifting his arms to Heaven thanked God with
-a loud voice, and told the servants that they were to let her come
-in at once, so that he might see one good woman before he died,
-since in all his life he had never yet seen one.
-
-1291.
-
-A JEST.
-
-A man was desired to rise from bed, because the sun was already
-risen. To which he replied: "If I had as far to go, and as much to
-do as he has, I should be risen by now; but having but a little way
-to go, I shall not rise yet."
-
-1292.
-
-A man, seeing a woman ready to hold up the target for a jousting
-match, exclaimed, looking at the shield, and considering his spear:
-"Alack! this is too small a workman for so great a business."
-
-IV.
-
-PROPHECIES.
-
-1293.
-
-THE DIVISION OF THE PROPHECIES.
-
-First, of things relating to animals; secondly, of irrational
-creatures; thirdly of plants; fourthly, of ceremonies; fifthly, of
-manners; sixthly, of cases or edicts or quarrels; seventhly, of
-cases that are impossible in nature [paradoxes], as, for instance,
-of those things which, the more is taken from them, the more they
-grow. And reserve the great matters till the end, and the small
-matters give at the beginning. And first show the evils and then the
-punishment of philosophical things.
-
-(Of Ants.)
-
-These creatures will form many communities, which will hide
-themselves and their young ones and victuals in dark caverns, and
-they will feed themselves and their families in dark places for many
-months without any light, artificial or natural.
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1--5l are in the original written in one column,
-beginning with the text of line 11. At the end of the column is the
-programme for the arrangement of the prophecies, placed here at the
-head: Lines 56--79 form a second column, lines 80--97 a third one
-(see the reproduction of the text on the facsimile PI. CXVIII).
-
-Another suggestion for the arrangement of the prophecies is to be
-found among the notes 55--57 on page 357.]
-
-(Of Bees.)
-
-And many others will be deprived of their store and their food, and
-will be cruelly submerged and drowned by folks devoid of reason. Oh
-Justice of God! Why dost thou not wake and behold thy creatures thus
-ill used?
-
-(Of Sheep, Cows, Goats and the like.)
-
-Endless multitudes of these will have their little children taken
-from them ripped open and flayed and most barbarously quartered.
-
-(Of Nuts, and Olives, and Acorns, and Chesnuts, and such like.)
-
-Many offspring shall be snatched by cruel thrashing from the very
-arms of their mothers, and flung on the ground, and crushed.
-
-(Of Children bound in Bundles.)
-
-O cities of the Sea! In you I see your citizens--both females and
-males--tightly bound, arms and legs, with strong withes by folks who
-will not understand your language. And you will only be able to
-assuage your sorrows and lost liberty by means of tearful complaints
-and sighing and lamentation among yourselves; for those who will
-bind you will not understand you, nor will you understand them.
-
-(Of Cats that eat Rats.)
-
-In you, O cities of Africa your children will be seen quartered in
-their own houses by most cruel and rapacious beasts of your own
-country.
-
-(Of Asses that are beaten.)
-
-[Footnote 48: Compare No. 845.] O Nature! Wherefore art thou so
-partial; being to some of thy children a tender and benign mother,
-and to others a most cruel and pitiless stepmother? I see children
-of thine given up to slavery to others, without any sort of
-advantage, and instead of remuneration for the good they do, they
-are paid with the severest suffering, and spend their whole life in
-benefitting those who ill treat them.
-
-(Of Men who sleep on boards of Trees.)
-
-Men shall sleep, and eat, and dwell among trees, in the forests and
-open country.
-
-(Of Dreaming.)
-
-Men will seem to see new destructions in the sky. The flames that
-fall from it will seem to rise in it and to fly from it with terror.
-They will hear every kind of animals speak in human language. They
-will instantaneously run in person in various parts of the world,
-without motion. They will see the greatest splendour in the midst of
-darkness. O! marvel of the human race! What madness has led you
-thus! You will speak with animals of every species and they with you
-in human speech. You will see yourself fall from great heights
-without any harm and torrents will accompany you, and will mingle
-with their rapid course.
-
-(Of Christians.)
-
-Many who hold the faith of the Son only build temples in the name of
-the Mother.
-
-(Of Food which has been alive.)
-
-[84] A great portion of bodies that have been alive will pass into
-the bodies of other animals; which is as much as to say, that the
-deserted tenements will pass piecemeal into the inhabited ones,
-furnishing them with good things, and carrying with them their
-evils. That is to say the life of man is formed from things eaten,
-and these carry with them that part of man which dies . . .
-
-1294.
-
-(Of Funeral Rites, and Processions, and Lights, and Bells, and
-Followers.)
-
-The greatest honours will be paid to men, and much pomp, without
-their knowledge.
-
-[Footnote: A facsimile of this text is on PI. CXVI below on the
-right, but the writing is larger than the other notes on the same
-sheet and of a somewhat different style. The ink is also of a
-different hue, as may be seen on the original sheet at Milan.]
-
-1295.
-
-(Of the Avaricious.)
-
-There will be many who will eagerly and with great care and
-solicitude follow up a thing, which, if they only knew its
-malignity, would always terrify them.
-
-(Of those men, who, the older they grow, the more avaricious they
-become, whereas, having but little time to stay, they should become
-more liberal.)
-
-We see those who are regarded as being most experienced and
-judicious, when they least need a thing, seek and cherish it with
-most avidity.
-
-(Of the Ditch.)
-
-Many will be busied in taking away from a thing, which will grow in
-proportion as it is diminished.
-
-(Of a Weight placed on a Feather-pillow.)
-
-And it will be seen in many bodies that by raising the head they
-swell visibly; and by laying the raised head down again, their size
-will immediately be diminished.
-
-(Of catching Lice.)
-
-And many will be hunters of animals, which, the fewer there are the
-more will be taken; and conversely, the more there are, the fewer
-will be taken.
-
-(Of Drawing Water in two Buckets with a single Rope.)
-
-And many will be busily occupied, though the more of the thing they
-draw up, the more will escape at the other end.
-
-(Of the Tongues of Pigs and Calves in Sausage-skins.)
-
-Oh! how foul a thing, that we should see the tongue of one animal in
-the guts of another.
-
-(Of Sieves made of the Hair of Animals.)
-
-We shall see the food of animals pass through their skin everyway
-excepting through their mouths, and penetrate from the outside
-downwards to the ground.
-
-(Of Lanterns.)
-
-[Footnote 35: Lanterns were in Italy formerly made of horn.] The
-cruel horns of powerful bulls will screen the lights of night
-against the wild fury of the winds.
-
-(Of Feather-beds.)
-
-Flying creatures will give their very feathers to support men.
-
-(Of Animals which walk on Trees--wearing wooden Shoes.)
-
-The mire will be so great that men will walk on the trees of their
-country.
-
-(Of the Soles of Shoes, which are made from the Ox.)
-
-And in many parts of the country men will be seen walking on the
-skins of large beasts.
-
-(Of Sailing in Ships.)
-
-There will be great winds by reason of which things of the East will
-become things of the West; and those of the South, being involved in
-the course of the winds, will follow them to distant lands.
-
-(Of Worshipping the Pictures of Saints.)
-
-Men will speak to men who hear not; having their eyes open, they
-will not see; they will speak to these, and they will not be
-answered. They will implore favours of those who have ears and hear
-not; they will make light for the blind.
-
-(Of Sawyers.)
-
-There will be many men who will move one against another, holding in
-their hands a cutting tool. But these will not do each other any
-injury beyond tiring each other; for, when one pushes forward the
-other will draw back. But woe to him who comes between them! For he
-will end by being cut in pieces.
-
-(Of Silk-spinning.)
-
-Dismal cries will be heard loud, shrieking with anguish, and the
-hoarse and smothered tones of those who will be despoiled, and at
-last left naked and motionless; and this by reason of the mover,
-which makes every thing turn round.
-
-(Of putting Bread into the Mouth of the Oven and taking it out
-again.)
-
-In every city, land, castle and house, men shall be seen, who for
-want of food will take it out of the mouths of others, who will not
-be able to resist in any way.
-
-(Of tilled Land.)
-
-The Earth will be seen turned up side down and facing the opposite
-hemispheres, uncovering the lurking holes of the fiercest animals.
-
-(Of Sowing Seed.)
-
-Then many of the men who will remain alive, will throw the victuals
-they have preserved out of their houses, a free prey to the birds
-and beasts of the earth, without taking any care of them at all.
-
-(Of the Rains, which, by making the Rivers muddy, wash away the
-Land.)
-
-[Footnote 81: Compare No. 945.] Something will fall from the sky
-which will transport a large part of Africa which lies under that
-sky towards Europe, and that of Europe towards Africa, and that of
-the Scythian countries will meet with tremendous revolutions
-[Footnote 84: Compare No. 945.].
-
-(Of Wood that burns.)
-
-The trees and shrubs in the great forests will be converted into
-cinder.
-
-(Of Kilns for Bricks and Lime.)
-
-Finally the earth will turn red from a conflagration of many days
-and the stones will be turned to cinders.
-
-(Of boiled Fish.)
-
-The natives of the waters will die in the boiling flood.
-
-(Of the Olives which fall from the Olive trees, shedding oil which
-makes light.)
-
-And things will fall with great force from above, which will give us
-nourishment and light.
-
-(Of Owls and screech owls and what will happen to certain birds.)
-
-Many will perish of dashing their heads in pieces, and the eyes of
-many will jump out of their heads by reason of fearful creatures
-come out of the darkness.
-
-(Of flax which works the cure of men.)
-
-That which was at first bound, cast out and rent by many and various
-beaters will be respected and honoured, and its precepts will be
-listened to with reverence and love.
-
-(Of Books which teach Precepts.)
-
-Bodies without souls will, by their contents give us precepts by
-which to die well.
-
-(Of Flagellants.)
-
-Men will hide themselves under the bark of trees, and, screaming,
-they will make themselves martyrs, by striking their own limbs.
-
-(Of the Handles of Knives made of the Horns of Sheep.)
-
-We shall see the horns of certain beasts fitted to iron tools, which
-will take the lives of many of their kind.
-
-(Of Night when no Colour can be discerned.)
-
-There will come a time when no difference can be discerned between
-colours, on the contrary, everything will be black alike.
-
-(Of Swords and Spears which by themselves never hurt any one.)
-
-One who by himself is mild enough and void of all offence will
-become terrible and fierce by being in bad company, and will most
-cruelly take the life of many men, and would kill many more if they
-were not hindered by bodies having no soul, that have come out of
-caverns--that is, breastplates of iron.
-
-(Of Snares and Traps.)
-
-Many dead things will move furiously, and will take and bind the
-living, and will ensnare them for the enemies who seek their death
-and destruction.
-
-(Of Metals.)
-
-That shall be brought forth out of dark and obscure caves, which
-will put the whole human race in great anxiety, peril and death. To
-many that seek them, after many sorrows they will give delight, and
-to those who are not in their company, death with want and
-misfortune. This will lead to the commission of endless crimes; this
-will increase and persuade bad men to assassinations, robberies and
-treachery, and by reason of it each will be suspicious of his
-partner. This will deprive free cities of their happy condition;
-this will take away the lives of many; this will make men torment
-each other with many artifices deceptions and treasons. O monstrous
-creature! How much better would it be for men that every thing
-should return to Hell! For this the vast forests will be devastated
-of their trees; for this endless animals will lose their lives.
-
-(Of Fire.)
-
-One shall be born from small beginnings which will rapidly become
-vast. This will respect no created thing, rather will it, by its
-power, transform almost every thing from its own nature into
-another.
-
-(Of Ships which sink.)
-
-Huge bodies will be seen, devoid of life, carrying, in fierce haste,
-a multitude of men to the destruction of their lives.
-
-(Of Oxen, which are eaten.)
-
-The masters of estates will eat their own labourers.
-
-(Of beating Beds to renew them.)
-
-Men will be seen so deeply ungrateful that they will turn upon that
-which has harboured them, for nothing at all; they will so load it
-with blows that a great part of its inside will come out of its
-place, and will be turned over and over in its body.
-
-(Of Things which are eaten and which first are killed.)
-
-Those who nourish them will be killed by them and afflicted by
-merciless deaths.
-
-(Of the Reflection of Walls of Cities in the Water of their
-Ditches.)
-
-The high walls of great cities will be seen up side down in their
-ditches.
-
-(Of Water, which flows turbid and mixed with Soil and Dust; and of
-Mist, which is mixed with the Air; and of Fire which is mixed with
-its own, and each with each.)
-
-All the elements will be seen mixed together in a great whirling
-mass, now borne towards the centre of the world, now towards the
-sky; and now furiously rushing from the South towards the frozen
-North, and sometimes from the East towards the West, and then again
-from this hemisphere to the other.
-
-(The World may be divided into two Hemispheres at any Point.)
-
-All men will suddenly be transferred into opposite hemispheres.
-
-(The division of the East from the West may be made at any point.)
-
-All living creatures will be moved from the East to the West; and in
-the same way from North to South, and vice versa.
-
-(Of the Motion of Water which carries wood, which is dead.)
-
-Bodies devoid of life will move by themselves and carry with them
-endless generations of the dead, taking the wealth from the
-bystanders.
-
-(Of Eggs which being eaten cannot form Chickens.)
-
-Oh! how many will they be that never come to the birth!
-
-(Of Fishes which are eaten unborn.)
-
-Endless generations will be lost by the death of the pregnant.
-
-(Of the Lamentation on Good Friday.)
-
-Throughout Europe there will be a lamentation of great nations over
-the death of one man who died in the East.
-
-(Of Dreaming.)
-
-Men will walk and not stir, they will talk to those who are not
-present, and hear those who do not speak.
-
-(Of a Man's Shadow which moves with him.)
-
-Shapes and figures of men and animals will be seen following these
-animals and men wherever they flee. And exactly as the one moves the
-other moves; but what seems so wonderful is the variety of height
-they assume.
-
-(Of our Shadow cast by the Sun, and our Reflection in the Water at
-one and the same time.)
-
-Many a time will one man be seen as three and all three move
-together, and often the most real one quits him.
-
-(Of wooden Chests which contain great Treasures.)
-
-Within walnuts and trees and other plants vast treasures will be
-found, which lie hidden there and well guarded.
-
-(Of putting out the Light when going to Bed.)
-
-Many persons puffing out a breath with too much haste, will thereby
-lose their sight, and soon after all consciousness.
-
-(Of the Bells of Mules, which are close to their Ears.)
-
-In many parts of Europe instruments of various sizes will be heard
-making divers harmonies, with great labour to those who hear them
-most closely.
-
-(Of Asses.)
-
-The severest labour will be repaid with hunger and thirst, and
-discomfort, and blows, and goadings, and curses, and great abuse.
-
-(Of Soldiers on horseback.)
-
-Many men will be seen carried by large animals, swift of pace, to
-the loss of their lives and immediate death.
-
-In the air and on earth animals will be seen of divers colours
-furiously carrying men to the destruction of their lives.
-
-(Of the Stars of Spurs.)
-
-By the aid of the stars men will be seen who will be as swift as any
-swift animal.
-
-(Of a Stick, which is dead.)
-
-The motions of a dead thing will make many living ones flee with
-pain and lamentation and cries.
-
-(Of Tinder.)
-
-With a stone and with iron things will be made visible which before
-were not seen.
-
-1296.
-
-(Of going in Ships.)
-
-We shall see the trees of the great forests of Taurus and of Sinai
-and of the Appenines and others, rush by means of the air, from East
-to West and from North to South; and carry, by means of the air,
-great multitudes of men. Oh! how many vows! Oh! how many deaths! Oh!
-how many partings of friends and relations! Oh! how many will those
-be who will never again see their own country nor their native land,
-and who will die unburied, with their bones strewn in various parts
-of the world!
-
-(Of moving on All Saints' Day.)
-
-Many will forsake their own dwellings and carry with them all their
-belongings and will go to live in other parts.
-
-(Of All Souls' Day.)
-
-How many will they be who will bewail their deceased forefathers,
-carrying lights to them.
-
-(Of Friars, who spending nothing but words, receive great gifts and
-bestow Paradise.)
-
-Invisible money will procure the triumph of many who will spend it.
-
-(Of Bows made of the Horns of Oxen.)
-
-Many will there be who will die a painful death by means of the
-horns of cattle.
-
-(Of writing Letters from one Country to another.)
-
-Men will speak with each other from the most remote countries, and
-reply.
-
-(Of Hemispheres, which are infinite; and which are divided by an
-infinite number of Lines, so that every Man always has one of these
-Lines between his Feet.)
-
-Men standing in opposite hemispheres will converse and deride each
-other and embrace each other, and understand each other's language.
-
-(Of Priests who say Mass.)
-
-There will be many men who, when they go to their labour will put on
-the richest clothes, and these will be made after the fashion of
-aprons [petticoats].
-
-(Of Friars who are Confessors.)
-
-And unhappy women will, of their own free will, reveal to men all
-their sins and shameful and most secret deeds.
-
-(Of Churches and the Habitations of Friars.)
-
-Many will there be who will give up work and labour and poverty of
-life and goods, and will go to live among wealth in splendid
-buildings, declaring that this is the way to make themselves
-acceptable to God.
-
-(Of Selling Paradise.)
-
-An infinite number of men will sell publicly and unhindered things
-of the very highest price, without leave from the Master of it;
-while it never was theirs nor in their power; and human justice will
-not prevent it.
-
-(Of the Dead which are carried to be buried.)
-
-The simple folks will carry vast quantities of lights to light up
-the road for those who have entirely lost the power of sight.
-
-(Of Dowries for Maidens.)
-
-And whereas, at first, maidens could not be protected against the
-violence of Men, neither by the watchfulness of parents nor by
-strong walls, the time will come when the fathers and parents of
-those girls will pay a large price to a man who wants to marry them,
-even if they are rich, noble and most handsome. Certainly this seems
-as though nature wished to eradicate the human race as being useless
-to the world, and as spoiling all created things.
-
-(Of the Cruelty of Man.)
-
-Animals will be seen on the earth who will always be fighting
-against each other with the greatest loss and frequent deaths on
-each side. And there will be no end to their malignity; by their
-strong limbs we shall see a great portion of the trees of the vast
-forests laid low throughout the universe; and, when they are filled
-with food the satisfaction of their desires will be to deal death
-and grief and labour and wars and fury to every living thing; and
-from their immoderate pride they will desire to rise towards heaven,
-but the too great weight of their limbs will keep them down. Nothing
-will remain on earth, or under the earth or in the waters which will
-not be persecuted, disturbed and spoiled, and those of one country
-removed into another. And their bodies will become the sepulture and
-means of transit of all they have killed.
-
-O Earth! why dost thou not open and engulf them in the fissures of
-thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of
-heaven such a cruel and horrible monster.
-
-1297.
-
-PROPHECIES.
-
-There will be many which will increase in their destruction.
-
-(The Ball of Snow rolling over Snow.)
-
-There will be many who, forgetting their existence and their name,
-will lie as dead on the spoils of other dead creatures.
-
-(Sleeping on the Feathers of Birds.)
-
-The East will be seen to rush to the West and the South to the North
-in confusion round and about the universe, with great noise and
-trembling or fury.
-
-(In the East wind which rushes to the West.)
-
-The solar rays will kindle fire on the earth, by which a thing that
-is under the sky will be set on fire, and, being reflected by some
-obstacle, it will bend downwards.
-
-(The Concave Mirror kindles a Fire, with which we heat the oven, and
-this has its foundation beneath its roof.)
-
-A great part of the sea will fly towards heaven and for a long time
-will not return. (That is, in Clouds.)
-
-There remains the motion which divides the mover from the thing
-moved.
-
-Those who give light for divine service will be destroyed.(The Bees
-which make the Wax for Candles)
-
-Dead things will come from underground and by their fierce movements
-will send numberless human beings out of the world. (Iron, which
-comes from under ground is dead but the Weapons are made of it which
-kill so many Men.)
-
-The greatest mountains, even those which are remote from the sea
-shore, will drive the sea from its place.
-
-(This is by Rivers which carry the Earth they wash away from the
-Mountains and bear it to the Sea-shore; and where the Earth comes
-the sea must retire.)
-
-The water dropped from the clouds still in motion on the flanks of
-mountains will lie still for a long period of time without any
-motion whatever; and this will happen in many and divers lands.
-
-(Snow, which falls in flakes and is Water.)
-
-The great rocks of the mountains will throw out fire; so that they
-will burn the timber of many vast forests, and many beasts both wild
-and tame.
-
-(The Flint in the Tinder-box which makes a Fire that consumes all
-the loads of Wood of which the Forests are despoiled and with this
-the flesh of Beasts is cooked.)
-
-Oh! how many great buildings will be ruined by reason of Fire.
-
-(The Fire of great Guns.)
-
-Oxen will be to a great extent the cause of the destruction of
-cities, and in the same way horses and buffaloes.
-
-(By drawing Guns.)
-
-1298.
-
-The Lion tribe will be seen tearing open the earth with their clawed
-paws and in the caves thus made, burying themselves together with
-the other animals that are beneath them.
-
-Animals will come forth from the earth in gloomy vesture, which will
-attack the human species with astonishing assaults, and which by
-their ferocious bites will make confusion of blood among those they
-devour.
-
-Again the air will be filled with a mischievous winged race which
-will assail men and beasts and feed upon them with much noise--
-filling themselves with scarlet blood.
-
-1299.
-
-Blood will be seen issuing from the torn flesh of men, and trickling
-down the surface.
-
-Men will have such cruel maladies that they will tear their flesh
-with their own nails. (The Itch.)
-
-Plants will be seen left without leaves, and the rivers standing
-still in their channels.
-
-The waters of the sea will rise above the high peaks of the
-mountains towards heaven and fall again on to the dwellings of men.
-(That is, in Clouds.)
-
-The largest trees of the forest will be seen carried by the fury of
-the winds from East to West. (That is across the Sea.)
-
-Men will cast away their own victuals. (That is, in Sowing.)
-
-1300.
-
-Human beings will be seen who will not understand each other's
-speech; that is, a German with a Turk.
-
-Fathers will be seen giving their daughters into the power of man
-and giving up all their former care in guarding them. (When Girls
-are married.)
-
-Men will come out their graves turned into flying creatures; and
-they will attack other men, taking their food from their very hand
-or table. (As Flies.)
-
-Many will there be who, flaying their mother, will tear the skin
-from her back. (Husbandmen tilling the Earth.)
-
-Happy will they be who lend ear to the words of the Dead. (Who read
-good works and obey them.)
-
-1031.
-
-Feathers will raise men, as they do birds, towards heaven (that is,
-by the letters which are written with quills.)
-
-The works of men's hands will occasion their death. (Swords and
-Spears.)
-
-Men out of fear will cling to the thing they most fear. (That is
-they will be miserable lest they should fall into misery.)
-
-Things that are separate shall be united and acquire such virtue
-that they will restore to man his lost memory; that is papyrus
-[sheets] which are made of separate strips and have preserved the
-memory of the things and acts of men.
-
-The bones of the Dead will be seen to govern the fortunes of him who
-moves them. (By Dice.)
-
-Cattle with their horns protect the Flame from its death. (In a
-Lantern [Footnote 13: See note page 357.].)
-
-The Forests will bring forth young which will be the cause of their
-death. (The handle of the hatchet.)
-
-1302.
-
-Men will deal bitter blows to that which is the cause of their life.
-(In thrashing Grain.)
-
-The skins of animals will rouse men from their silence with great
-outcries and curses. (Balls for playing Games.)
-
-Very often a thing that is itself broken is the occasion of much
-union. (That is the Comb made of split Cane which unites the threads
-of Silk.)
-
-The wind passing through the skins of animals will make men dance.
-(That is the Bag-pipe, which makes people dance.)
-
-1303.
-
-(Of Walnut trees, that are beaten.)
-
-Those which have done best will be most beaten, and their offspring
-taken and flayed or peeled, and their bones broken or crushed.
-
-(Of Sculpture.)
-
-Alas! what do I see? The Saviour cru- cified anew.
-
-(Of the Mouth of Man, which is a Sepulchre.)
-
-Great noise will issue from the sepulchres of those who died evil
-and violent deaths.
-
-(Of the Skins of Animals which have the sense of feeling what is in
-the things written.)
-
-The more you converse with skins covered with sentiments, the more
-wisdom will you acquire.
-
-(Of Priests who bear the Host in their body.)
-
-Then almost all the tabernacles in which dwells the Corpus Domini,
-will be plainly seen walking about of themselves on the various
-roads of the world.
-
-1304.
-
-And those who feed on grass will turn night into day (Tallow.)
-
-And many creatures of land and water will go up among the stars
-(that is Planets.)
-
-The dead will be seen carrying the living (in Carts and Ships in
-various places.)
-
-Food shall be taken out of the mouth of many ( the oven's mouth.)
-
-And those which will have their food in their mouth will be deprived
-of it by the hands of others (the oven.)
-
-1305.
-
-(Of Crucifixes which are sold.)
-
-I see Christ sold and crucified afresh, and his Saints suffering
-Martyrdom.
-
-(Of Physicians, who live by sickness.)
-
-Men will come into so wretched a plight that they will be glad that
-others will derive profit from their sufferings or from the loss of
-their real wealth, that is health.
-
-(Of the Religion of Friars, who live by the Saints who have been
-dead a great while.)
-
-Those who are dead will, after a thou- sand years be those who will
-give a livelihood to many who are living.
-
-(Of Stones converted into Lime, with which prison walls are made.)
-
-Many things that have been before that time destroyed by fire will
-deprive many men of liberty.
-
-1306.
-
-(Of Children who are suckled.)
-
-Many Franciscans, Dominicans and Benedictines will eat that which at
-other times was eaten by others, who for some months to come will
-not be able to speak.
-
-(Of Cockles and Sea Snails which are thrown up by the sea and which
-rot inside their shells.)
-
-How many will there be who, after they are dead, will putrefy inside
-their own houses, filling all the surrounding air with a fetid
-smell.
-
-1307.
-
-(Of Mules which have on them rich burdens of silver and gold.)
-
-Much treasure and great riches will be laid upon four-footed beasts,
-which will convey them to divers places.
-
-1308.
-
-(Of the Shadow cast by a man at night with a light.)
-
-Huge figures will appear in human shape, and the nearer you get to
-them, the more will their immense size diminish.
-
-[Footnote page 1307: It seems to me probable that this note, which
-occurs in the note book used in 1502, when Leonardo, in the service
-of Cesare Borgia, visited Urbino, was suggested by the famous
-pillage of the riches of the palace of Guidobaldo, whose treasures
-Cesare Borgia at once had carried to Cesena (see GREGOROVIUS,
-_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_. XIII, 5, 4). ]
-
-1309.
-
-(Of Snakes, carried by Storks.)
-
-Serpents of great length will be seen at a great height in the air,
-fighting with birds.
-
-(Of great guns, which come out of a pit and a mould.)
-
-Creatures will come from underground which with their terrific noise
-will stun all who are near; and with their breath will kill men and
-destroy cities and castles.
-
-1310.
-
-(Of Grain and other Seeds.)
-
-Men will fling out of their houses those victuals which were
-intended to sustain their life.
-
-(Of Trees, which nourish grafted shoots.)
-
-Fathers and mothers will be seen to take much more delight in their
-step-children then in their own children.
-
-(Of the Censer.)
-
-Some will go about in white garments with arrogant gestures
-threatening others with metal and fire which will do no harm at all
-to them.
-
-1311.
-
-(Of drying Fodder.)
-
-Innumerable lives will be destroyed and innumerable vacant spaces
-will be made on the earth.
-
-(Of the Life of Men, who every year change their bodily substance.)
-
-Men, when dead, will pass through their own bowels.
-
-1312.
-
-(Shoemakers.)
-
-Men will take pleasure in seeing their own work destroyed and
-injured.
-
-1313.
-
-(Of Kids.)
-
-The time of Herod will come again, for the little innocent children
-will be taken from their nurses, and will die of terrible wounds
-inflicted by cruel men.
-
-V.
-
-DRAUGHTS AND SCHEMES FOR THE HUMOROUS WRITINGS.
-
-Schemes for fables, etc. (1314-1323).
-
-1314.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The crab standing under the rock to catch the fish which crept under
-it, it came to pass that the rock fell with a ruinous downfall of
-stones, and by their fall the crab was crushed.
-
-THE SAME.
-
-The spider, being among the grapes, caught the flies which were
-feeding on those grapes. Then came the vintage, and the spider was
-cut down with the grapes.
-
-The vine that has grown old on an old tree falls with the ruin of
-that tree, and through that bad companionship must perish with it.
-
-The torrent carried so much earth and stones into its bed, that it
-was then constrained to change its course.
-
-The net that was wont to take the fish was seized and carried away
-by the rush of fish.
-
-The ball of snow when, as it rolls, it descends from the snowy
-mountains, increases in size as it falls.
-
-The willow, which by its long shoots hopes as it grows, to outstrip
-every other plant, from having associated itself with the vine which
-is pruned every year was always crippled.
-
-1315.
-
-Fable of the tongue bitten by the teeth.
-
-The cedar puffed up with pride of its beauty, separated itself from
-the trees around it and in so doing it turned away towards the wind,
-which not being broken in its fury, flung it uprooted on the earth.
-
-The traveller's joy, not content in its hedge, began to fling its
-branches out over the high road, and cling to the opposite hedge,
-and for this it was broken away by the passers by.
-
-1316.
-
-The goldfinch gives victuals to its caged young. Death rather than
-loss of liberty. [Footnote: Above this text is another note, also
-referring to liberty; see No. 694.]
-
-1317.
-
-(Of Bags.)
-
-Goats will convey the wine to the city.
-
-1318.
-
-All those things which in winter are hidden under the snow, will be
-uncovered and laid bare in summer. (for Falsehood, which cannot
-remain hidden).
-
-1319.
-
-A FABLE.
-
-The lily set itself down by the shores of the Ticino, and the
-current carried away bank and the lily with it.
-
-1320.
-
-A JEST.
-
-Why Hungarian ducats have a double cross on them.
-
-1321.
-
-A SIMILE.
-
-A vase of unbaked clay, when broken, may be remoulded, but not a
-baked one.
-
-1322.
-
-Seeing the paper all stained with the deep blackness of ink, it he
-deeply regrets it; and this proves to the paper that the words,
-composed upon it were the cause of its being preserved.
-
-1323.
-
-The pen must necessarily have the penknife for a companion, and it
-is a useful companionship, for one is not good for much without the
-other.
-
-Schemes for prophecies (1324-1329).
-
-1324.
-
-The knife, which is an artificial weapon, deprives man of his nails,
-his natural weapons.
-
-The mirror conducts itself haughtily holding mirrored in itself the
-Queen. When she departs the mirror remains there ...
-
-1325.
-
-Flax is dedicated to death, and to the corruption of mortals. To
-death, by being used for snares and nets for birds, animals and
-fish; to corruption, by the flaxen sheets in which the dead are
-wrapped when they are buried, and who become corrupt in these
-winding sheets.-- And again, this flax does not separate its fibre
-till it has begun to steep and putrefy, and this is the flower with
-which garlands and decorations for funerals should be made.
-
-1326.
-
-(Of Peasants who work in shirts)
-
-Shadows will come from the East which will blacken with great colour
-darkness the sky that covers Italy.
-
-(Of the Barbers.)
-
-All men will take refuge in Africa.
-
-1327.
-
-The cloth which is held in the hand in the current of a running
-stream, in the waters of which the cloth leaves all its foulness and
-dirt, is meant to signify this &c.
-
-By the thorn with inoculated good fruit is signified those natures
-which of themselves were not disposed towards virtue, but by the aid
-of their preceptors they have the repudation of it.
-
-1328.
-
-A COMMON THING.
-
-A wretched person will be flattered, and these flatterers are always
-the deceivers, robbers and murderers of the wretched person.
-
-The image of the sun where it falls appears as a thing which covers
-the person who attempts to cover it.
-
-(Money and Gold.)
-
-Out of cavernous pits a thing shall come forth which will make all
-the nations of the world toil and sweat with the greatest torments,
-anxiety and labour, that they may gain its aid.
-
-(Of the Dread of Poverty.)
-
-The malicious and terrible [monster] will cause so much terror of
-itself in men that they will rush together, with a rapid motion,
-like madmen, thinking they are escaping her boundless force.
-
-(Of Advice.)
-
-The man who may be most necessary to him who needs him, will be
-repaid with ingratitude, that is greatly contemned.
-
-1329.
-
-(Of Bees.)
-
-They live together in communities, they are destroyed that we may
-take the honey from them. Many and very great nations will be
-destroyed in their own dwellings.
-
-1330.
-
-WHY DOGS TAKE PLEASURE IN SMELLING AT EACH OTHER.
-
-This animal has a horror of the poor, because they eat poor food,
-and it loves the rich, because they have good living and especially
-meat. And the excrement of animals always retains some virtue of its
-origin as is shown by the faeces ...
-
-Now dogs have so keen a smell, that they can discern by their nose
-the virtue remaining in these faeces, and if they find them in the
-streets, smell them and if they smell in them the virtue of meat or
-of other things, they take them, and if not, they leave them: And to
-return to the question, I say that if by means of this smell they
-know that dog to be well fed, they respect him, because they judge
-that he has a powerful and rich master; and if they discover no such
-smell with the virtue of meet, they judge that dog to be of small
-account and to have a poor and humble master, and therefore they
-bite that dog as they would his master.
-
-1331.
-
-The circular plans of carrying earth are very useful, inasmuch as
-men never stop in their work; and it is done in many ways. By one of
-these ways men carry the earth on their shoulders, by another in
-chests and others on wheelbarrows. The man who carries it on his
-shoulders first fills the tub on the ground, and he loses time in
-hoisting it on to his shoulders. He with the chests loses no time.
-[Footnote: The subject of this text has apparently no connection
-with the other texts of this section.]
-
-Irony (1332).
-
-1332.
-
-If Petrarch was so fond of bay, it was because it is of a good taste
-in sausages and with tunny; I cannot put any value on their foolery.
-[Footnote: Conte Porro has published these lines in the _Archivio
-Stor. Lombarda_ VIII, IV; he reads the concluding line thus: _I no
-posso di loro gia (sic) co' far tesauro._--This is known to be by a
-contemporary poet, as Senatore Morelli informs me.]
-
-Tricks (1333-1335).
-
-1333.
-
-We are two brothers, each of us has a brother. Here the way of
-saying it makes it appear that the two brothers have become four.
-
-1334.
-
-TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
-
-Take in each hand an equal number; put 4 from the right hand into
-the left; cast away the remainder; cast away an equal number from
-the left hand; add 5, and now you will find 13 in this [left] hand;
-that is-I made you put 4 from the right hand into the left, and cast
-away the remainder; now your right hand has 4 more; then I make you
-throw away as many from the right as you threw away from the left;
-so, throwing from each hand a quantity of which the remainder may be
-equal, you now have 4 and 4, which make 8, and that the trick may
-not be detec- ted I made you put 5 more, which made 13.
-
-TRICKS OF DIVIDING.
-
-Take any number less than 12 that you please; then take of mine
-enough to make up the number 12, and that which remains to me is the
-number which you at first had; because when I said, take any number
-less than 12 as you please, I took 12 into my hand, and of that 12
-you took such a number as made up your number of 12; and what you
-added to your number, you took from mine; that is, if you had 8 to
-go as far as to 12, you took of my 12, 4; hence this 4 transferred
-from me to you reduced my 12 to a remainder of 8, and your 8 became
-12; so that my 8 is equal to your 8, before it was made 12.
-
-[Footnote 1334: G. Govi _says in the_ 'Saggio' p. 22: _Si dilett
-Leonarda, di giuochi di prestigi e molti (?) ne descrisse, che si
-leggono poi riportati dal Paciolo nel suo libro:_ de Viribus
-Quantitatis, _e che, se non tutti, sono certo in gran parte
-invenzioni del Vinci._]
-
-1335.
-
-If you want to teach someone a subject you do not know yourself, let
-him measure the length of an object unknown to you, and he will
-learn the measure you did not know before;--Master Giovanni da Lodi.
-
-_XXI._
-
-_Letters. Personal Records. Dated Notes._
-
-_When we consider how superficial and imperfect are the accounts of
-Leonardo's life written some time after his death by Vasari and
-others, any notes or letters which can throw more light on his
-personal circumstances cannot fail to be in the highest degree
-interesting. The texts here given as Nos._ 1351--1353, _set his
-residence in Rome in quite a new aspect; nay, the picture which
-irresistibly dwells in our minds after reading these details of his
-life in the Vatican, forms a striking contrast to the contemporary
-life of Raphael at Rome._
-
-_I have placed foremost of these documents the very remarkable
-letters to the Defterdar of Syria. In these Leonardo speaks of
-himself as having staid among the mountains of Armenia, and as the
-biographies of the master tell nothing of any such distant journeys,
-it would seem most obvious to treat this passage as fiction, and so
-spare ourselves the onus of proof and discussion. But on close
-examination no one can doubt that these documents, with the
-accompanying sketches, are the work of Leonardo's own hand. Not
-merely is the character of the handwriting his, but the spelling and
-the language are his also. In one respect only does the writing
-betray any marked deviation from the rest of the notes, especially
-those treating on scientific questions; namely, in these
-observations he seems to have taken particular pains to give the
-most distinct and best form of expression to all he had to say; we
-find erasures and emendations in almost every line. He proceeded, as
-we shall see, in the same way in the sketches for letters to
-Giuliano de' Medici, and what can be more natural, I may ask, than
-to find the draft of a letter thus altered and improved when it is
-to contain an account of a definite subject, and when personal
-interests are in the scale? The finished copies as sent off are not
-known to exist; if we had these instead of the rough drafts, we
-might unhesitatingly have declared that some unknown Italian
-engineer must have been, at that time, engaged in Armenia in the
-service of the Egyptian Sultan, and that Leonardo had copied his
-documents. Under this hypothesis however we should have to state
-that this unknown writer must have been so far one in mind with
-Leonardo as to use the same style of language and even the same
-lines of thought. This explanation might--as I say--have been
-possible, if only we had the finished letters. But why should these
-rough drafts of letters be regarded as anything else than what they
-actually and obviously are? If Leonardo had been a man of our own
-time, we might perhaps have attempted to account for the facts by
-saying that Leonardo, without having been in the East himself, might
-have undertaken to write a Romance of which the scene was laid in
-Armenia, and at the desire of his publisher had made sketches of
-landscape to illustrate the text.
-
-I feel bound to mention this singular hypothesis as it has actually
-been put forward (see No. 1336 note 5); and it would certainly seem
-as though there were no other possible way of evading the conclusion
-to which these letters point, and their bearing on the life of the
-master,--absurd as the alternative is. But, if, on a question of
-such importance, we are justified in suggesting theories that have
-no foundation in probability, I could suggest another which, as
-compared with that of a Fiction by Leonardo, would be neither more
-nor less plausible; it is, moreover the only other hypothesis,
-perhaps, which can be devised to account for these passages, if it
-were possible to prove that the interpretation that the documents
-themselves suggest, must be rejected a priori; viz may not Leonardo
-have written them with the intention of mystifying those who, after
-his death, should try to decipher these manuscripts with a view to
-publishing them? But if, in fact, no objection that will stand the
-test of criticism can be brought against the simple and direct
-interpretation of the words as they stand, we are bound to regard
-Leonardo's travels in the East as an established fact. There is, I
-believe nothing in what we know of his biography to negative such a
-fact, especially as the details of his life for some few years are
-wholly unknown; nor need we be at a loss for evidence which may
-serve to explain--at any rate to some extent--the strangeness of his
-undertaking such a journey. We have no information as to Leonardo's
-history between 1482 and 1486; it cannot be proved that he was
-either in Milan or in Florence. On the other hand the tenor of this
-letter does not require us to assume a longer absence than a year or
-two. For, even if his appointment_ (offitio) _as Engineer in Syria
-had been a permanent one, it might have become untenable--by the
-death perhaps of the Defterdar, his patron, or by his removal from
-office--, and Leonardo on his return home may have kept silence on
-the subject of an episode which probably had ended in failure and
-disappointment.
-
-From the text of No. 1379 we can hardly doubt that Leonardo intended
-to make an excursion secretly from Rome to Naples, although so far
-as has hitherto been known, his biographers never allude to it. In
-another place (No. 1077) he says that he had worked as an Engineer
-in Friuli. Are we to doubt this statement too, merely because no
-biographer has hitherto given us any information on the matter? In
-the geographical notes Leonardo frequently speaks of the East, and
-though such passages afford no direct proof of his having been
-there, they show beyond a doubt that, next to the Nile, the
-Euphrates, the Tigris and the Taurus mountains had a special
-interest in his eyes. As a still further proof of the futility of
-the argument that there is nothing in his drawings to show that he
-had travelled in the East, we find on Pl. CXX a study of oriental
-heads of Armenian type,--though of course this may have been made in
-Italy.
-
-If the style of these letters were less sober, and the expressions
-less strictly to the point throughout, it miglit be possible to
-regard them as a romantic fiction instead of a narrative of fact.
-Nay, we have only to compare them with such obviously fanciful
-passages as No. 1354, Nos. 670-673, and the Fables and Prophecies.
-It is unnecessary to discuss the subject any further here; such
-explanations as the letter needs are given in the foot notes.
-
-The drafts of letters to Lodovico il Moro are very remarkable.
-Leonardo and this prince were certainly far less closely connected,
-than has hitherto been supposed. It is impossible that Leonardo can
-have remained so long in the service of this prince, because the
-salary was good, as is commonly stated. On the contrary, it would
-seem, that what kept him there, in spite of his sore need of the
-money owed him by the prince, was the hope of some day being able to
-carry out the project of casting the_ 'gran cavallo'.
-
-Drafts of Letters and Reports referring to Armenia (1336. 1337).
-
-1336.
-
-To THE DEVATDAR OF SYRIA, LIEUTENANT OF THE SACRED SULTAN OF
-BABYLON.
-
-[3] The recent disaster in our Northern parts which I am certain
-will terrify not you alone but the whole world, which
-
-[Footnote: Lines 1-52 are reproduced in facsimile on Pl. CXVI.
-
-1. _Diodario._ This word is not to be found in any Italian
-dictionary, and for a long time I vainly sought an explanation of
-it. The youthful reminiscences of my wife afforded the desired clue.
-The chief town of each Turkish Villayet, or province --such as
-Broussa, for instance, in Asia Minor, is the residence of a
-Defterdar, who presides over the financial affairs of the province.
-_Defterdar hane_ was, in former times, the name given to the
-Ministry of Finance at Constantinople; the Minister of Finance to
-the Porte is now known as the _Mallie-Nazri_ and the _Defterdars_
-are his subordinates. A _Defterdar_, at the present day is merely
-the head of the finance department in each Provincial district. With
-regard to my suggestion that Leonardo's _Diodario_ might be
-identical with the Defterdar of former times, the late M. C.
-DEFREMERIE, Arabic Professor, and Membre de l'Institut de France
-wrote to me as follows: _Votre conjecture est parfaitement fondee;
-diodario est Vequivalent de devadar ou plus exactement devatdar,
-titre d'une importante dignite en Egypt'e, sous les Mamlouks._
-
-The word however is not of Turkish, but of Perso-Arabie derivation.
-[Defter written in arab?] literally _Defter_ (Arabic) meaning
-_folio_; for _dar_ (Persian) Bookkeeper or holder is the English
-equivalent; and the idea is that of a deputy in command. During the
-Mamelook supremacy over Syria, which corresponded in date with
-Leonardo's time, the office of Defterdar was the third in importance
-in the State.
-
-_Soltano di Babilonia_. The name of Babylon was commonly applied to
-Cairo in the middle ages. For instance BREIDENBACH, _Itinerarium
-Hierosolyma_ p. 218 says: "At last we reached Babylon. But this is
-not that Babylon which stood on the further shore of the river
-Chober, but that which is called the Egyptian Babylon. It is close
-by Cairo and the twain are but one and not two towns; one half is
-called Cairo and the other Babylon, whence they are called together
-Cairo-Babylon; originally the town is said to have been named
-Memphis and then Babylon, but now it is called Cairo." Compare No.
-1085, 6.
-
-Egypt was governed from 1382 till 1517 by the Borgite or
-Tcherkessian dynasty of the Mamelook Sultans. One of the most famous
-of these, Sultan Kait Bey, ruled from 1468-1496 during whose reign
-the Gama (or Mosque) of Kait Bey and tomb of Kait Bey near the
-Okella Kait Bey were erected in Cairo, which preserve his name to
-this day. Under the rule of this great and wise prince many
-foreigners, particularly Italians, found occupation in Egypt, as may
-be seen in the 'Viaggio di Josaphat Barbaro', among other
-travellers. "Next to Leonardo (so I learn from Prof. Jac. Burckhardt
-of Bale) Kait Bey's most helpful engineer was a German who in about
-1487, superintended the construction of the Mole at Alexandria.
-Felix Fabri knew him and mentions him in his _Historia Suevorum_,
-written in 1488."
-
-3. _Il nuovo accidente accaduto_, or as Leonardo first wrote and
-then erased, _e accaduto un nuovo accidente_. From the sequel this
-must refer to an earthquake, and indeed these were frequent at that
-period, particularly in Asia Minor, where they caused immense
-mischief. See No. 1101 note.]
-
-shall be related to you in due order, showing first the effect and
-then the cause. [Footnote 4: The text here breaks off. The following
-lines are a fresh beginning of a letter, evidently addressed to the
-same person, but, as it would seem, written at a later date than the
-previous text. The numerous corrections and amendments amply prove
-that it is not a copy from any account of a journey by some unknown
-person; but, on the contrary, that Leonardo was particularly anxious
-to choose such words and phrases as might best express his own
-ideas.]
-
-Finding myself in this part of Armenia [Footnote 5: _Parti
-d'Erminia_. See No. 945, note. The extent of Armenia in Leonardo's
-time is only approximately known. In the XVth century the Persians
-governed the Eastern, and the Arabs the Southern portions. Arabic
-authors--as, for instance Abulfeda--include Cilicia and a part of
-Cappadocia in Armenia, and Greater Armenia was the tract of that
-country known later as Turcomania, while Armenia Minor was the
-territory between Cappadocia and the Euphrates. It was not till
-1522, or even 1574 that the whole country came under the dominion of
-the Ottoman Turks, in the reign of Selim I.
-
-The Mamelook Sultans of Egypt seem to have taken a particular
-interest in this, the most Northern province of their empire, which
-was even then in danger of being conquered by the Turks. In the
-autumn of 1477 Sultan Kait Bey made a journey of inspection,
-visiting Antioch and the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates with a
-numerous and brilliant escort. This tour is briefly alluded to by
-_Moodshireddin_ p. 561; and by WEIL, _Geschichte der Abbasiden_ V,
-p. 358. An anonymous member of the suite wrote a diary of the
-expedition in Arabic, which has been published by R. V. LONZONE
-(_'Viaggio in Palestina e Soria di Kaid Ba XVIII sultano della II
-dinastia mamelucca, fatto nel 1477. Testo arabo. Torino 1878'_,
-without notes or commentary). Compare the critique on this edition,
-by J. GILDEMEISTER in _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina Vereins_
-(Vol. Ill p. 246--249). Lanzone's edition seems to be no more than
-an abridged copy of the original. I owe to Professor Sche'fer,
-Membre de l'Institut, the information that he is in possession of a
-manuscript in which the text is fuller, and more correctly given.
-The Mamelook dynasty was, as is well known, of Circassian origin,
-and a large proportion of the Egyptian Army was recruited in
-Circassia even so late as in the XVth century. That was a period of
-political storms in Syria and Asia Minor and it is easy to suppose
-that the Sultan's minister, to whom Leonardo addresses his report as
-his superior, had a special interest in the welfare of those
-frontier provinces. Only to mention a few historical events of
-Sultan Kait Bey's reign, we find that in 1488 he assisted the
-Circassians to resist the encroachments of Alaeddoulet, an Asiatic
-prince who had allied himself with the Osmanli to threaten the
-province; the consequence was a war in Cilicia by sea and land,
-which broke out in the following year between the contending powers.
-Only a few years earlier the same province had been the scene of the
-so-called Caramenian war in which the united Venetian, Neapolitan
-and Sclavonic fleets had been engaged. (See CORIALANO CIPPICO,
-_Della guerra dei Veneziani nell' Asia dal_ 1469--1474. Venezia
-1796, p. 54) and we learn incidentally that a certain Leonardo
-Boldo, Governor of Scutari under Sultan Mahmoud,--as his name would
-indicate, one of the numerous renegades of Italian birth--played an
-important part in the negotiations for peace.
-
-_Tu mi mandasti_. The address _tu_ to a personage so high in office
-is singular and suggests personal intimacy; Leonardo seems to have
-been a favourite with the Diodario. Compare lines 54 and 55.
-
-I have endeavoured to show, and I believe that I am also in a
-position to prove with regard to these texts, that they are draughts
-of letters actually written by Leonardo; at the same time I must not
-omit to mention that shortly after I had discovered
-
-these texts in the Codex Atlanticus and published a paper on the
-subject in the _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst (Vol. XVI)_, Prof.
-Govi put forward this hypothesis to account for their origin:
-
-_"Quanto alle notizie sul monte Tauro, sull'Armenia e sull' Asia
-minore che si contengono negli altri frammenti, esse vennero prese
-da qualche geografro o viaggiatore contemporaneo. Dall'indice
-imperfetto che accompagna quei frammenti, si potrebbe dedurre che
-Leonardo volesse farne un libro, che poi non venne compiuto. A ogni
-modo, non e possibile di trovare in questi brani nessun indizio di
-un viaggio di Leonardo in oriente, ne della sua conversione alla
-religione di Maometto, come qualcuno pretenderebbe. Leonardo amava
-con passione gli studi geografici, e nel suoi scritti s'incontran
-spesso itinerart, indicazioni, o descrizioni di luoghi, schizzi di
-carte e abbozzi topografici di varie regioni, non e quindi strano
-che egli, abile narratore com'era, si fosse proposto di scrivere una
-specie di Romanzo in forma epistolare svolgendone Pintreccio
-nell'Asia Minore, intorno alla quale i libri d'allora, e forse
-qualche viaggiatore amico suo, gli avevano somministrato alcuni
-elementi piu o meno_ fantastici. (See Transunti della Reale
-Accademia dei Lincei Voi. V Ser. 3).
-
-It is hardly necessary to point out that Prof. Govi omits to name
-the sources from which Leonardo could be supposed to have drawn his
-information, and I may leave it to the reader to pronounce judgment
-on the anomaly which is involved in the hypothesis that we have here
-a fragment of a Romance, cast in the form of a correspondence. At
-the same time, I cannot but admit that the solution of the
-difficulties proposed by Prof. Govi is, under the circumstances,
-certainly the easiest way of dealing with the question. But we
-should then be equally justified in supposing some more of
-Leonardo's letters to be fragments of such romances; particularly
-those of which the addresses can no longer be named. Still, as
-regards these drafts of letters to the Diodario, if we accept the
-Romance theory, as pro- posed by Prof. Govi, we are also compelled
-to assume that Leonardo purposed from the first to illustrate his
-tale; for it needs only a glance at the sketches on PI. CXVI to CXIX
-to perceive that they are connected with the texts; and of course
-the rest of Leonardo's numerous notes on matters pertaining to the
-East, the greater part of which are here published for the first
-time, may also be somehow connected with this strange romance.
-
-7. _Citta de Calindra (Chalindra)_. The position of this city is so
-exactly determined, between the valley of the Euphrates and the
-Taurus range that it ought to be possible to identify it. But it can
-hardly be the same as the sea port of Cilicia with a somewhat
-similar name Celenderis, Kelandria, Celendria, Kilindria, now the
-Turkish Gulnar. In two Catalonian Portulans in the Bibliotheque
-Natio- nale in Paris-one dating from the XV'h century, by Wilhelm
-von Soler, the other by Olivez de Majorca, in l584-I find this place
-called Calandra. But Leonardo's Calindra must certainly have lain
-more to the North West, probably somewhere in Kurdistan. The fact
-that the geographical position is so care- fully determined by
-Leonardo seems to prove that it was a place of no great importance
-and little known. It is singular that the words first written in 1.
-8 were divisa dal lago (Lake Van?), altered afterwards to
-dall'Eitfrates.
-
-Nostri confini, and in 1. 6 proposito nostro. These refer to the
-frontier and to the affairs of the Mamelook Sultan, Lines 65 and 66
-throw some light on the purpose of Leonardo's mission.
-
-8. _I_ corni del gra mote Tauro. Compare the sketches PI.
-CXVI-CXVIII. So long as it is im- possible to identify the situation
-of Calindra it is most difficult to decide with any certainty which
-peak of the Taurus is here meant; and I greatly regret that I had no
-foreknowledge of this puzzling topographical question when, in 1876,
-I was pursuing archaeological enquiries in the Provinces of Aleppo
-and Cilicia, and had to travel for some time in view of the imposing
-snow-peaks of Bulghar Dagh and Ala Tepessi.
-
-9-10. The opinion here expressed as to the height of the mountain
-would be unmeaning, unless it had been written before Leonardo moved
-to Milan, where Monte Rosa is so conspicuous an object in the
-landscape. 4 _ore inanzi_ seems to mean, four hours before the sun's
-rays penetrate to the bottom of the valleys.]
-
-to carry into effect with due love and care the task for which you
-sent me [Footnote: ][6]; and to make a beginning in a place which
-seemed to me to be most to our purpose, I entered into the city of
-Calindrafy[7], near to our frontiers. This city is situated at the
-base of that part of the Taurus mountains which is divided from the
-Euphrates and looks towards the peaks of the great Mount Taurus [8]
-to the West [9]. These peaks are of such a height that they seem to
-touch the sky, and in all the world there is no part of the earth,
-higher than its summit[10], and the rays of the sun always fall upon
-it on its East side, four hours before day-time, and being of the
-whitest stone [Footnote 11:_Pietra bianchissima_. The Taurus
-Mountains consist in great part of limestone.] it shines
-resplendently and fulfils the function to these Armenians which a
-bright moon-light would in the midst of the darkness; and by its
-great height it outreaches the utmost level of the clouds by a space
-of four miles in a straight line. This peak is seen in many places
-towards the West, illuminated by the sun after its setting the third
-part of the night. This it is, which with you [Footnote 14:
-_Appresso di voi_. Leonardo had at first written _noi_ as though his
-meaning had,been: This peak appeared to us to be a comet when you
-and I observed it in North Syria (at Aleppo? at Aintas?). The
-description of the curious reflection in the evening, resembling the
-"Alpine-glow" is certainly not an invented fiction, for in the next
-lines an explanation of the phenomenon is offered, or at least
-attempted.] we formerly in calm weather had supposed to be a comet,
-and appears to us in the darkness of night, to change its form,
-being sometimes divided in two or three parts, and sometimes long
-and sometimes short. And this is caused by the clouds on the horizon
-of the sky which interpose between part of this mountain and the
-sun, and by cutting off some of the solar rays the light on the
-mountain is intercepted by various intervals of clouds, and
-therefore varies in the form of its brightness.
-
-THE DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK [Footnote 19: The next 33 lines are
-evidently the contents of a connected Report or Book, but not of one
-which he had at hand; more probably, indeed, of one he purposed
-writing.].
-
-The praise and confession of the faith [Footnote 20: _Persuasione di
-fede_, of the Christian or the Mohammedan faith? We must suppose the
-latter, at the beginning of a document addressed to so high a
-Mohammedan official. _Predica_ probably stands as an abbreviation
-for _predicazione_ (lat. _praedicatio_) in the sense of praise or
-glorification; very probably it may mean some such initial doxology
-as we find in Mohammedan works. (Comp. 1. 40.)].
-
-The sudden inundation, to its end.
-
-[23] The destruction of the city.
-
-[24]The death of the people and their despair.
-
-The preacher's search, his release and benevolence [Footnote 28: The
-phraseology of this is too general for any conjecture as to its
-meaning to be worth hazarding.]
-
-Description of the cause of this fall of the mountain [Footnote 30:
-_Ruina del monte_. Of course by an earthquake. In a catalogue of
-earthquakes, entitled _kechf aussalssaleb an auasf ezzel-zeleh_, and
-written by Djelal eddin].
-
-The mischief it did.
-
-[32] Fall of snow.
-
-The finding of the prophet [33].
-
-His prophesy.
-
-[35] The inundation of the lower portion of Eastern Armenia, the
-draining of which was effected by the cutting through the Taurus
-Mountains.
-
-How the new prophet showed [Footnote 40:_Nova profeta, 1. 33,
-profeta_. Mohammed. Leonardo here refers to the Koran:
-
-In the name of the most merciful God.--When the earth shall be
-shaken by an earthquake; and the earth shall cast forth her burdens;
-and a man shall say, what aileth her? On that day the earth shall
-declare her tidings, for that thy Lord will inspire her. On that day
-men shall go forward in distinct classes, that they may behold their
-works. And whoever shall have wrought good of the weight of an ant,
-shall behold the same. And whoever shall have wrought evil of the
-weight of an ant, shall behold the same. (The Koran, translated by
-G. Sale, Chapter XCIX, p. 452).] that this destruction would happen
-as he had foretold.
-
-Description of the Taurus Mountains [43] and the river Euphrates.
-
-Why the mountain shines at the top, from half to a third of the
-night, and looks like a comet to the inhabitants of the West after
-the sunset, and before day to those of the East.
-
-Why this comet appears of variable forms, so that it is now round
-and now long, and now again divided into two or three parts, and now
-in one piece, and when it is to be seen again.
-
-OF THE SHAPE OF THE TAURUS MOUNTAINS [Footnote 53-94: The facsimile
-of this passage is given on Pl. CXVII.].
-
-I am not to be accused, Oh Devatdar, of idleness, as your chidings
-seem to hint; but your excessive love for me, which gave rise to the
-benefits you have conferred on me [Footnote 55] is that which has
-also compelled me to the utmost painstaking in seeking out and
-diligently investigating the cause of so great and stupendous an
-effect. And this could not be done without time; now, in order to
-satisfy you fully as to the cause of so great an effect, it is
-requisite that I should explain to you the form of the place, and
-then I will proceed to the effect, by which I believe you will be
-amply satisfied.
-
-[Footnote 36: _Tagliata di Monte Tauro_. The Euphrates flows through
-the Taurus range near the influx of the Kura Shai; it rushes through
-a rift in the wildest cliffs from 2000 to 3000 feet high and runs on
-for 90 miles in 300 falls or rapids till it reaches Telek, near
-which at a spot called Gleikash, or the Hart's leap, it measures
-only 35 paces across. Compare the map on Pl. CXIX and the
-explanation for it on p. 391.]
-
-[Footnote 54: The foregoing sketch of a letter, lines 5. 18, appears
-to have remained a fragment when Leonardo received pressing orders
-which caused him to write immediately and fully on the subject
-mentioned in line 43.]
-
-[Footnote 59: This passage was evidently intended as an improvement
-on that immediately preceding it. The purport of both is essentially
-the same, but the first is pitched in a key of ill-disguised
-annoyance which is absent from the second. I do not see how these
-two versions can be reconciled with the romance-theory held by Prof.
-Govi.] Do not be aggrieved, O Devatdar, by my delay in responding to
-your pressing request, for those things which you require of me are
-of such a nature that they cannot be well expressed without some
-lapse of time; particularly because, in order to explain the cause
-of so great an effect, it is necessary to describe with accuracy the
-nature of the place; and by this means I can afterwards easily
-satisfy your above-mentioned request. [Footnote 62: This passage was
-evidently intended as an improvement on that immediately preceding
-it. The purport of both is essentially the same, but the first is
-pitched in a key of ill-disguised annoyance which is absent from the
-second. I do not see how these two versions can be reconciled with
-the romance-theory held by Prof. Govi.]
-
-I will pass over any description of the form of Asia Minor, or as to
-what seas or lands form the limits of its outline and extent,
-because I know that by your own diligence and carefulness in your
-studies you have not remained in ignorance of these matters [65];
-and I will go on to describe the true form of the Taurus Mountain
-which is the cause of this stupendous and harmful marvel, and which
-will serve to advance us in our purpose [66]. This Taurus is that
-mountain which, with many others is said to be the ridge of Mount
-Caucasus; but wishing to be very clear about it, I desired to speak
-to some of the inhabitants of the shores of the Caspian sea, who
-give evidence that this must be the true Caucasus, and that though
-their mountains bear the same name, yet these are higher; and to
-confirm this in the Scythian tongue Caucasus means a very high
-[Footnote 68: Caucasus; Herodot Kaoxaais; Armen. Kaukaz.] peak, and
-in fact we have no information of there being, in the East or in the
-West, any mountain so high. And the proof of this is that the
-inhabitants of the countries to the West see the rays of the sun
-illuminating a great part of its summit for as much as a quarter of
-the longest night. And in the same way, in those countries which lie
-to the East.
-
-OF THE STRUCTURE AND SIZE OF MOUNT TAURUS.
-
-[Footnote 73: The statements are of course founded on those of the
-'inhabitants' spoken of in 1. 67.] The shadow of this ridge of the
-Taurus is of such a height that when, in the middle of June, the Sun
-is at its meridian, its shadow extends as far as the borders of
-Sarmatia, twelve days off; and in the middle of December it extends
-as far as the Hyperborean mountains, which are at a month's journey
-to the North [75]. And the side which faces the wind is always free
-from clouds and mists, because the wind which is parted in beating
-on the rock, closes again on the further side of that rock, and in
-its motion carries with it the clouds from all quarters and leaves
-them where it strikes. And it is always full of thunderbolts from
-the great quantity of clouds which accumulate there, whence the rock
-is all riven and full of huge debris [Footnote 77: Sudden storms are
-equally common on the heights of Ararat. It is hardly necessary to
-observe that Ararat cannot be meant here. Its summit is formed like
-the crater of Vesuvius. The peaks sketched on Pl. CXVI-CXVIII are
-probably views of the same mountain, taken from different sides.
-Near the solitary peak, Pl. CXVIII these three names are written
-_goba, arnigasar, caruda_, names most likely of different peaks. Pl.
-CXVI and CXVII are in the original on a single sheet folded down the
-middle, 30 centimetres high and 43 1/2 wide. On the reverse of one
-half of the sheet are notes on _peso_ and _bilancia_ (weight and
-balance), on the other are the 'prophecies' printed under Nos. 1293
-and 1294. It is evident from the arrangement that these were written
-subsequently, on the space which had been left blank. These pages
-are facsimiled on Pl. CXVIII. In Pl. CXVI-CXVIII the size is smaller
-than in the original; the map of Armenia, Pl. CXVIII, is on Pl. CXIX
-slightly enlarged. On this map we find the following names,
-beginning from the right hand at the top: _pariardes mo_ (for
-Paryadres Mons, Arm. Parchar, now Barchal or Kolai Dagh; Trebizond
-is on its slope).
-
-_Aquilone_ --North, _Antitaurus Antitaurus psis mo_ (probably meant
-for Thospitis = Lake Van, Arm. Dgov Vanai, Tospoi, and the Mountain
-range to the South); _Gordis mo_ (Mountains of Gordyaea), the birth
-place of the Tigris; _Oriente_ --East; _Tigris_, and then, to the
-left, _Eufrates_. Then, above to the left _Argeo mo_ (now Erdshigas,
-an extinct volcano, 12000 feet high); _Celeno mo_ (no doubt Sultan
-Dagh in Pisidia). Celeno is the Greek town of KeAouvat-- see Arian
-I, 29, I--now the ruins of Dineir); _oriente_ --East; _africo
-libezco_ (for libeccio--South West). In the middle of the Euphrates
-river on this small map we see a shaded portion surrounded by
-mountains, perhaps to indicate the inundation mentioned in l. 35.
-The affluent to the Euphrates shown as coming with many windings
-from the high land of 'Argeo' on the West, is the Tochma Su, which
-joins the main river at Malatie. I have not been able to discover
-any map of Armenia of the XVth or XVIth century in which the course
-of the Euphrates is laid down with any thing like the correctness
-displayed in this sketch. The best I have seen is the Catalonian
-Portulan of Olivez de Majorca, executed in 1584, and it is far
-behind Leonardo's.]. This mountain, at its base, is inhabited by a
-very rich population and is full of most beautiful springs and
-rivers, and is fertile and abounding in all good produce,
-particularly in those parts which face to the South. But after
-mounting about three miles we begin to find forests of great fir
-trees, and beech and other similar trees; after this, for a space of
-three more miles, there are meadows and vast pastures; and all the
-rest, as far as the beginning of the Taurus, is eternal snows which
-never disappear at any time, and extend to a height of about
-fourteen miles in all. From this beginning of the Taurus up to the
-height of a mile the clouds never pass away; thus we have fifteen
-miles, that is, a height of about five miles in a straight line; and
-the summit of the peaks of the Taurus are as much, or about that.
-There, half way up, we begin to find a scorching air and never feel
-a breath of wind; but nothing can live long there; there nothing is
-brought forth save a few birds of prey which breed in the high
-fissures of Taurus and descend below the clouds to seek their prey.
-Above the wooded hills all is bare rock, that is, from the clouds
-upwards; and the rock is the purest white. And it is impossible to
-walk to the high summit on account of the rough and perilous ascent.
-
-1337.
-
-[Footnote: 1337. On comparing this commencement of a letter l. 1-2
-with that in l. 3 and 4 of No. 1336 it is quite evident that both
-refer to the same event. (Compare also No. 1337 l. 10-l2 and 17 with
-No. 1336 l. 23, 24 and 32.) But the text No. 1336, including the
-fragment l. 3-4, was obviously written later than the draft here
-reproduced. The _Diodario_ is not directly addressed--the person
-addressed indeed is not known--and it seems to me highly probable
-that it was written to some other patron and friend whose name and
-position are not mentioned.]
-
-Having often made you, by my letters, acquainted with the things
-which have happened, I think I ought not to be silent as to the
-events of the last few days, which--[2]...
-
-Having several times--
-
-Having many times rejoiced with you by letters over your prosperous
-fortunes, I know now that, as a friend you will be sad with me over
-the miserable state in which I find myself; and this is, that during
-the last few days I have been in so much trouble, fear, peril and
-loss, besides the miseries of the people here, that we have been
-envious of the dead; and certainly I do not believe that since the
-elements by their separation reduced the vast chaos to order, they
-have ever combined their force and fury to do so much mischief to
-man. As far as regards us here, what we have seen and gone through
-is such that I could not imagine that things could ever rise to such
-an amount of mischief, as we experienced in the space of ten hours.
-In the first place we were assailed and attacked by the violence and
-fury of the winds [10]; to this was added the falling of great
-mountains of snow which filled up all this valley, thus destroying a
-great part of our city [Footnote 11: _Della nostra citta_ (Leonardo
-first wrote _di questa citta_). From this we may infer that he had
-at some time lived in the place in question wherever it might be.].
-And not content with this the tempest sent a sudden flood of water
-to submerge all the low part of this city [12]; added to which there
-came a sudden rain, or rather a ruinous torrent and flood of water,
-sand, mud, and stones, entangled with roots, and stems and fragments
-of various trees; and every kind of thing flying through the air
-fell upon us; finally a great fire broke out, not brought by the
-wind, but carried as it would seem, by ten thousand devils, which
-completely burnt up all this neighbourhood and it has not yet
-ceased. And those few who remain unhurt are in such dejection and
-such terror that they hardly have courage to speak to each other, as
-if they were stunned. Having abandoned all our business, we stay
-here together in the ruins of some churches, men and women mingled
-together, small and great [Footnote 17: _Certe ruine di chiese_.
-Either of Armenian churches or of Mosques, which it was not unusual
-to speak of as churches.
-
-_Maschi e femmini insieme unite_, implies an infringement of the
-usually strict rule of the separation of the sexes.], just like
-herds of goats. The neighbours out of pity succoured us with
-victuals, and they had previously been our enemies. And if
-
-[Footnote 18: _I vicini, nostri nimici_. The town must then have
-stood quite close to the frontier of the country. Compare 1336. L.
-7. _vicini ai nostri confini_. Dr. M. JORDAN has already published
-lines 4-13 (see _Das Malerbuch, Leipzig_, 1873, p. 90:--his reading
-differs from mine) under the title of "Description of a landscape
-near Lake Como". We do in fact find, among other loose sheets in the
-Codex Atlanticus, certain texts referring to valleys of the Alps
-(see Nos. 1030, 1031 and note p. 237) and in the arrangement of the
-loose sheets, of which the Codex Atlanticus has been formed, these
-happen to be placed close to this text. The compiler stuck both on
-the same folio sheet; and if this is not the reason for Dr. JORDAN'S
-choosing such a title (Description &c.) I cannot imagine what it can
-have been. It is, at any rate, a merely hypothetical statement. The
-designation of the population of the country round a city as "the
-enemy" (_nemici_) is hardly appropriate to Italy in the time of
-Leonardo.]
-
-it had not been for certain people who succoured us with victuals,
-all would have died of hunger. Now you see the state we are in. And
-all these evils are as nothing compared with those which are
-promised to us shortly.
-
-I know that as a friend you will grieve for my misfortunes, as I, in
-former letters have shown my joy at your prosperity ...
-
-Notes about events observed abroad (1338-1339).
-
-1338.
-
-BOOK 43. OF THE MOVEMENT OF AIR ENCLOSED IN WATER.
-
-I have seen motions of the air so furious that they have carried,
-mixed up in their course, the largest trees of the forest and whole
-roofs of great palaces, and I have seen the same fury bore a hole
-with a whirling movement digging out a gravel pit, and carrying
-gravel, sand and water more than half a mile through the air.
-
-[Footnote: The first sixteen lines of this passage which treat of
-the subject as indicated on the title line have no place in this
-connexion and have been omitted.]
-
-[Footnote 2: _Ho veduto movimenti_ &c. Nothing of the kind happened
-in Italy during Leonardo's lifetime, and it is therefore extremely
-probable that this refers to the natural phenomena which are so
-fully described in the foregoing passage. (Compare too, No. 1021.)
-There can be no doubt that the descriptions of the Deluge in the
-Libro di Pittura (Vol. I, No. 607-611), and that of the fall of a
-mountain No. 610, l. 17-30 were written from the vivid impressions
-derived from personal experience. Compare also Pl. XXXIV-XL.]
-
-1339.
-
-[Footnote: It may be inferred from the character of the writing,
-which is in the style of the note in facsimile Vol. I, p. 297, that
-this passage was written between 1470 and 1480. As the figure 6 at
-the end of the text indicates, it was continued on another page, but
-I have searched in vain for it. The reverse of this leaf is coloured
-red for drawing in silver point, but has not been used for that
-purpose but for writing on, and at about the same date. The passages
-are given as Nos. 1217, 1218, 1219, 1162 and No. 994 (see note page
-218). The text given above is obviously not a fragment of a letter,
-but a record of some personal experience. No. 1379 also seems to
-refer to Leonardo's journeys in Southern Italy.]
-
-Like a whirling wind which rushes down a sandy and hollow valley,
-and which, in its hasty course, drives to its centre every thing
-that opposes its furious course ...
-
-No otherwise does the Northern blast whirl round in its tempestuous
-progress ...
-
-Nor does the tempestuous sea bellow so loud, when the Northern blast
-dashes it, with its foaming waves between Scylla and Charybdis; nor
-Stromboli, nor Mount Etna, when their sulphurous flames, having been
-forcibly confined, rend, and burst open the mountain, fulminating
-stones and earth through the air together with the flames they
-vomit.
-
-Nor when the inflamed caverns of Mount Etna [Footnote 13: Mongibello
-is a name commonly given in Sicily to Mount Etna (from Djebel,
-Arab.=mountain). Fr. FERRARA, _Descrizione dell' Etna con la storia
-delle eruzioni_ (Palermo, 1818, p. 88) tells us, on the authority of
-the _Cronaca del Monastero Benedettino di Licordia_ of an eruption
-of the Volcano with a great flow of lava on Sept. 21, 1447. The next
-records of the mountain are from the years 1533 and 1536. A. Percy
-neither does mention any eruptions of Etna during the years to which
-this note must probably refer _Memoire des tremblements de terre de
-la peninsule italique, Vol. XXII des Memoires couronnees et Memoires
-des savants etrangers. Academie Royal de Belgique_).
-
-A literal interpretation of the passage would not, however, indicate
-an allusion to any great eruption; particularly in the connection
-with Stromboli, where the periodical outbreaks in very short
-intervals are very striking to any observer, especially at night
-time, when passing the island on the way from Naples to Messina.],
-rejecting the ill-restained element vomit it forth, back to its own
-region, driving furiously before it every obstacle that comes in the
-way of its impetuous rage ...
-
-Unable to resist my eager desire and wanting to see the great ... of
-the various and strange shapes made by formative nature, and having
-wandered some distance among gloomy rocks, I came to the entrance of
-a great cavern, in front of which I stood some time, astonished and
-unaware of such a thing. Bending my back into an arch I rested my
-left hand on my knee and held my right hand over my down-cast and
-contracted eye brows: often bending first one way and then the
-other, to see whether I could discover anything inside, and this
-being forbidden by the deep darkness within, and after having
-remained there some time, two contrary emotions arose in me, fear
-and desire--fear of the threatening dark cavern, desire to see
-whether there were any marvellous thing within it ...
-
-Drafts of Letters to Lodovico il Moro (1340-1345).
-
-1340.
-
-[Footnote: The numerous corrections, the alterations in the figures
-(l. 18) and the absence of any signature prove that this is merely
-the rough draft of a letter to Lodovico il Moro. It is one of the
-very few manuscripts which are written from left to right--see the
-facsimile of the beginning as here reproduced. This is probably the
-final sketch of a document the clean of which copy was written in
-the usual manner. Leonardo no doubt very rarely wrote so, and this
-is probably the reason of the conspicuous dissimilarity in the
-handwriting, when he did. (Compare Pl. XXXVIII.) It is noteworthy
-too that here the orthography and abbreviations are also
-exceptional. But such superficial peculiarities are not enough to
-stamp the document as altogether spurious. It is neither a forgery
-nor the production of any artist but Leonardo himself. As to this
-point the contents leave us no doubt as to its authenticity,
-particularly l. 32 (see No. 719, where this passage is repeated).
-But whether the fragment, as we here see it, was written from
-Leonardo's dictation--a theory favoured by the orthography, the
-erasures and corrections--or whether it may be a copy made for or by
-Melzi or Mazenta is comparatively unimportant. There are in the
-Codex Atlanticus a few other documents not written by Leonardo
-himself, but the notes in his own hand found on the reverse pages of
-these leaves amply prove that they were certainly in Leonardo's
-possession. This mark of ownership is wanting to the text in
-question, but the compilers of the Codex Atlanticus, at any rate,
-accepted it as a genuine document.
-
-With regard to the probable date of this projected letter see Vol.
-II, p. 3.]
-
-Most illustrious Lord, Having now sufficiently considered the
-specimens of all those who proclaim themselves skilled contrivers of
-instruments of war, and that the invention and operation of the said
-instruments are nothing different to those in common use: I shall
-endeavour, without prejudice to any one else, to explain myself to
-your Excellency showing your Lordship my secrets, and then offering
-them to your best pleasure and approbation to work with effect at
-opportune moments as well as all those things which, in part, shall
-be briefly noted below.
-
-1) I have a sort of extremely light and strong bridges, adapted to
-be most easily carried, and with them you may pursue, and at any
-time flee from the enemy; and others, secure and indestructible by
-fire and battle, easy and convenient to lift and place. Also methods
-of burning and destroying those of the enemy.
-
-2) I know how, when a place is besieged, to take the water out of
-the trenches, and make endless variety of bridges, and covered ways
-and ladders, and other machines pertaining to such expeditions.
-
-3) Item. If, by reason of the height of the banks, or the strength
-of the place and its position, it is impossible, when besieging a
-place, to avail oneself of the plan of bombardment, I have methods
-for destroying every rock or other fortress, even if it were founded
-on a rock, &c.
-
-4) Again I have kinds of mortars; most convenient and easy to carry;
-and with these can fling small stones almost resembling a storm; and
-with the smoke of these causing great terror to the enemy, to his
-great detriment and confusion.
-
-9) [8] And when the fight should be at sea I have kinds of many
-machines most efficient for offence and defence; and vessels which
-will resist the attack of the largest guns and powder and fumes.
-
-5) Item. I have means by secret and tortuous mines and ways, made
-without noise to reach a designated [spot], even if it were needed
-to pass under a trench or a river.
-
-6) Item. I will make covered chariots, safe and unattackable which,
-entering among the enemy with their artillery, there is no body of
-men so great but they would break them. And behind these, infantry
-could follow quite unhurt and without any hindrance.
-
-7) Item. In case of need I will make big guns, mortars and light
-ordnance of fine and useful forms, out of the common type.
-
-8) Where the operation of bombardment should fail, I would contrive
-catapults, mangonels, _trabocchi_ and other machines of marvellous
-efficacy and not in common use. And in short, according to the
-variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of
-offence and defence.
-
-10) In time of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction and
-to the equal of any other in architecture and the composition of
-buildings public and private; and in guiding water from one place to
-another.
-
-Item: I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze or clay, and also
-in painting whatever may be done, and as well as any other, be he
-whom he may.
-
-[32] Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to
-the immortal glory and eternal honour of the prince your father of
-happy memory, and of the illustrious house of Sforza.
-
-And if any one of the above-named things seem to any one to be
-impossible or not feasible, I am most ready to make the experiment
-in your park, or in whatever place may please your Excellency--to
-whom I commend myself with the utmost humility &c.
-
-1341.
-
-To my illustrious Lord, Lodovico, Duke of Bari, Leonardo da Vinci of
-Florence-- Leonardo.
-
-[Footnote: Evidently a note of the superscription of a letter to the
-Duke, and written, like the foregoing from left to right. The
-manuscript containing it is of the year 1493. Lodovico was not
-proclaimed and styled Duke of Milan till September 1494. The Dukedom
-of Bari belonged to the Sforza family till 1499.]
-
-1342.
-
-You would like to see a model which will prove useful to you and to
-me, also it will be of use to those who will be the cause of our
-usefulness.
-
-[Footnote: 1342. 1343. These two notes occur in the same not very
-voluminous MS. as the former one and it is possible that they are
-fragments of the same letter. By the _Modello_, the equestrian
-statue is probably meant, particularly as the model of this statue
-was publicly exhibited in this very year, 1493, on tne occasion of
-the marriage of the Emperor Maximilian with Bianca Maria Sforza.]
-
-1343.
-
-There are here, my Lord, many gentlemen who will undertake this
-expense among them, if they are allowed to enjoy the use of
-admission to the waters, the mills, and the passage of vessels and
-when it is sold to them the price will be repaid to them by the
-canal of Martesana.
-
-1344.
-
-I am greatly vexed to be in necessity, but I still more regret that
-this should be the cause of the hindrance of my wish which is always
-disposed to obey your Excellency.
-
-Perhaps your Excellency did not give further orders to Messer
-Gualtieri, believing that I had money enough.
-
-I am greatly annoyed that you should have found me in necessity, and
-that my having to earn my living should have hindered me ...
-
-[12] It vexes me greatly that having to earn my living has forced me
-to interrupt the work and to attend to small matters, instead of
-following up the work which your Lordship entrusted to me. But I
-hope in a short time to have earned so much that I may carry it out
-quietly to the satisfaction of your Excellency, to whom I commend
-myself; and if your Lordship thought that I had money, your Lordship
-was deceived. I had to feed 6 men for 56 months, and have had 50
-ducats.
-
-1345.
-
-And if any other comission is given me
-                            by any ...
-of the reward of my service. Because I am
-                            not [able] to be ...
-things assigned because meanwhile they
-                have ... to them ...
-... which they well may settle rather than I ...
-not my art which I wish to change and ...
-given some clothing if I dare a sum ...
-
-
-My Lord, I knowing your Excellency's
-               mind to be occupied ...
-to remind your Lordship of my small matters
-                  and the arts put to silence
-that my silence might be the cause of making
-                  your Lordship scorn ...
-my life in your service. I hold myself ever
-                 in readiness to obey ...
-
-[Footnote 11: See No. 723, where this passage is repeated.]
-
-Of the horse I will say nothing because
-              I know the times [are bad]
-to your Lordship how I had still to receive
-              two years' salary of the ...
-with the two skilled workmen who are constantly
-in my pay and at my cost
-that at last I found myself advanced the
-             said sum about 15 lire ...
-works of fame by which I could show to
-    those who shall see it that I have been
-everywhere, but I do not know where I
-could bestow my work [more] ...
-
-[Footnote 17: See No. 1344 l. 12.]
-I, having been working to gain my
-                       living ...
-
-I not having been informed what it is, I find
-                         myself ...
-
-[Footnote 19: In April, 1498, Leonardo was engaged in
-painting the Saletta Nigra of the Castello at Milan.
-(See G. MONGERI, _l'Arte in Milano_, 1872, p. 417.)]
-
-remember the commission to paint the
-                       rooms ...
-
-I conveyed to your Lordship only requesting
-                            you ...
-
-
-[Footnote: The paper on which this is written is torn down the
-middle; about half of each line remains.]
-
-Draft of letter to be sent to Piacenza (1346. 1347).
-
-[Footnote: 1346. 1347. Piacenza belonged to Milan. The Lord spoken
-of in this letter, is no doubt Lodovico il Moro. One may infer from
-the concluding sentence (No. 1346, l. 33. 34 and No. 1347), that
-Leonardo, who no doubt compiled this letter, did not forward it to
-Piacenza himself, but gave it to some influential patron, under
-whose name and signature a copy of it was sent to the Commission.]
-
-1346.
-
-Magnificent Commissioners of Buildings I, understanding that your
-Magnificencies have made up your minds to make certain great works
-in bronze, will remind you of certain things: first that you should
-not be so hasty or so quick to give the commission, lest by this
-haste it should become impossible to select a good model and a good
-master; and some man of small merit may be chosen, who by his
-insufficiency may cause you to be abused by your descendants,
-judging that this age was but ill supplied with men of good counsel
-and with good masters; seeing that other cities, and chiefly the
-city of the Florentines, has been as it were in these very days,
-endowed with beautiful and grand works in bronze; among which are
-the doors of their Baptistery. And this town of Florence, like
-Piacenza, is a place of intercourse, through which many foreigners
-pass; who, seeing that the works are fine and of good quality, carry
-away a good impression, and will say that that city is well filled
-with worthy inhabitants, seeing the works which bear witness to
-their opinion; and on the other hand, I say seeing so much metal
-expended and so badly wrought, it were less shame to the city if the
-doors had been of plain wood; because, the material, costing so
-little, would not seem to merit any great outlay of skill...
-
-Now the principal parts which are sought for in cities are their
-cathedrals, and of these the first things which strike the eye are
-the doors, by which one passes into these churches.
-
-Beware, gentlemen of the Commission, lest too great speed in your
-determination, and so much haste to expedite the entrusting of so
-great a work as that which I hear you have ordered, be the cause
-that that which was intended for the honour of God and of men should
-be turned to great dishonour of your judgments, and of your city,
-which, being a place of mark, is the resort and gathering-place of
-innumerable foreigners. And this dishonour would result if by your
-lack of diligence you were to put your trust in some vaunter, who by
-his tricks or by favour shown to him here should obtain such work
-from you, by which lasting and very great shame would result to him
-and to you. Thus I cannot help being angry when I consider what men
-those are who have conferred with you as wishing to undertake this
-great work without thinking of their sufficiency for it, not to say
-more. This one is a potter, that one a maker of cuirasses, this one
-is a bell-founder, another a bell ringer, and one is even a
-bombardier; and among them one in his Lordship's service, who
-boasted that he was the gossip of Messer Ambrosio Ferrere [Footnote
-26: Messer Ambrogio Ferrere was Farmer of the Customs under the
-Duke. Piacenza at that time belonged to Milan.], who has some power
-and who has made him some promises; and if this were not enough he
-would mount on horseback, and go to his Lord and obtain such letters
-that you could never refuse [to give] him the work. But consider
-where masters of real talent and fit for such work are brought when
-they have to compete with such men as these. Open your eyes and look
-carefully lest your money should be spent in buying your own
-disgrace. I can declare to you that from that place you will procure
-none but average works of inferior and coarse masters. There is no
-capable man,--[33] and you may believe me,--except Leonardo the
-Florentine, who is making the equestrian statue in bronze of the
-Duke Francesco and who has no need to bring himself into notice,
-because he has work for all his life time; and I doubt, whether
-being so great a work, he will ever finish it [34].
-
-The miserable painstakers ... with what hope may they expect a
-reward of their merit?
-
-1347.
-
-There is one whom his Lordship invited from Florence to do this work
-and who is a worthy master, but with so very much business he will
-never finish it; and you may imagine that a difference there is to
-be seen between a beautiful object and an ugly one. Quote Pliny.
-
-Letter to the Cardinal Ippolito d' Este.
-
-1348.
-
-[Footnote: This letter addressed to the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este is
-here given from Marchese G. CAMPORI'S publication: _Nuovi documenti
-per la Vita di Leonardo da Vinci. Atti e Memorie delle R. R.
-Deputazioni di Storia patria per la provincie modenesi e parmenesi,
-Vol. III._ It is the only text throughout this work which I have not
-myself examined and copied from the original. The learned discoverer
-of this letter--the only letter from Leonardo hitherto known as
-having been sent--adds these interesting remarks: _Codesto Cardinale
-nato ad Ercole I. nel 1470, arcivescovo di Strigonia a sette anni,
-poi d'Agra, aveva conseguito nel 1497 la pingue ed ambita cattedra
-di Milano, la dove avra conosciuto il Vinci, sebbene il poco amore
-ch'ei professava alle arti lasci credere che le proteste di servitu
-di Leonardo piu che a gratitudine per favori ricevuti e per opere a
-lui allogate, accennino a speranza per un favore che si aspetta.
-Notabile e ancora in questo prezioso documento la ripetuta signatura
-del grande artista 'che si scrive Vincio e Vincius, non da Vinci
-come si tiene comunemente, sebbene l'una e l'altra possano valere a
-significare cosi il casato come il paese; restando a sapere se il
-nome del paese di Vinci fosse assunto a cognome della famiglia di
-Leonardo nel qual supposto piu propriamento avrebbe a chiamarsi
-Leonardo Vinci, o Vincio (latinamente Vincius) com'egli stesso amo
-segnarsi in questa lettera, e come scrissero parecchi contenporanei
-di lui, il Casio, il Cesariano, Geoffrey Tory, il Gaurico, il
-Bandello, Raffaelle Maffei, il Paciolo. Per ultimo non lascero
-d'avvertire come la lettera del Vinci e assai ben conservata, di
-nitida e larga scrittura in forma pienemente corrispondente a quella
-dei suoi manoscritti, vergata all'uso comune da sinistra a destra,
-anziche contrariamente come fu suo costume; ma indubbiamente
-autentica e fornita della menzione e del suggello che fresca ancora
-conserva l'impronta di una testa di profilo da un picciolo antico
-cammeo._ (Compare No. 1368, note.)]
-
-Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.
-  The Lord Ippolito, Cardinal of Este
-                          at Ferrare.
-
-Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord.
-
-I arrived from Milan but a few days since and finding that my elder
-brother refuses to
-
-carry into effect a will, made three years ago when my father
-died--as also, and no less, because I would not fail in a matter I
-esteem most important--I cannot forbear to crave of your most
-Reverend Highness a letter of recommendation and favour to Ser
-Raphaello Hieronymo, at present one of the illustrious members of
-the Signoria before whom my cause is being argued; and more
-particularly it has been laid by his Excellency the Gonfaloniere
-into the hands of the said Ser Raphaello, that his Worship may have
-to decide and end it before the festival of All Saints. And
-therefore, my Lord, I entreat you, as urgently as I know how and am
-able, that your Highness will write a letter to the said Ser
-Raphaello in that admirable and pressing manner which your Highness
-can use, recommending to him Leonardo Vincio, your most humble
-servant as I am, and shall always be; requesting him and pressing
-him not only to do me justice but to do so with despatch; and I have
-not the least doubt, from many things that I hear, that Ser
-Raphaello, being most affectionately devoted to your Highness, the
-matter will issue _ad votum_. And this I shall attribute to your
-most Reverend Highness' letter, to whom I once more humbly commend
-myself. _Et bene valeat_.
-
-Florence XVIIIa 7bris 1507.
-E. V. R. D.
-
-your humble servant
-Leonardus Vincius, pictor.
-
-Draft of Letter to the Governor of Milan.
-
-1349.
-
-I am afraid lest the small return I have made for the great
-benefits, I have received from your Excellency, have not made you
-somewhat angry with me, and that this is why to so many letters
-which I have written to your Lordship I have never had an answer. I
-now send Salai to explain to your Lordship that I am almost at an
-end of the litigation I had with my brother; that I hope to find
-myself with you this Easter, and to carry with me two pictures of
-two Madonnas of different sizes. These were done for our most
-Christian King, or for whomsoever your Lordship may please. I should
-be very glad to know on my return thence where I may have to reside,
-for I would not give any more trouble to your Lordship. Also, as I
-have worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
-continue or not. I wrote to the President as to that water which the
-king granted me, and which I was not put in possession of because at
-that time there was a dearth in the canal by reason of the great
-droughts and because [Footnote:Compare Nos. 1009 and 1010. Leonardo
-has noted the payment of the pension from the king in 1505.] its
-outlets were not regulated; but he certainly promised me that when
-this was done I should be put in possession. Thus I pray your
-Lordship that you will take so much trouble, now that these outlets
-are regulated, as to remind the President of my matter; that is, to
-give me possession of this water, because on my return I hope to
-make there instruments and other things which will greatly please
-our most Christian King. Nothing else occurs to me. I am always
-yours to command. [Footnote:1349. Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de
-Chaumont, was Governor of Milan under Louis XII. Leonardo was in
-personal communication with him so early as in 1503. He was absent
-from Milan in the autumn of 1506 and from October l5l0--when he
-besieged Pope Julius II. in Bologna--till his death, which took
-place at Correggio, February 11, 1511. Francesco Vinci, Leonardo's
-uncle, died--as Amoretti tells us--in the winter of l5l0-11 (or
-according to Uzielli in 1506?), and Leonardo remained in Florence
-for business connected with his estate. The letter written with
-reference to this affair, No. 1348, is undoubtedly earlier than the
-letters Nos. 1349 and 1350. Amoretti tells us, _Memorie Storiche_,
-ch. II, that the following note existed on the same leaf in MS. C.
-A. I have not however succeeded in finding it. The passage runs
-thus: _Jo sono quasi al fine del mio letizio che io o con mie
-fratetgli ... Ancora ricordo a V. Excia la facenda che o cum Ser
-Juliana mio Fratello capo delli altri fratelli ricordandoli come se
-offerse di conciar le cose nostre fra noi fratelli del comune della
-eredita de mio Zio, e quelli costringa alla expeditione, quale
-conteneva la lettera che lui me mando._]
-
-Drafts of Letters to the Superintendent of Canals and to Fr. Melzi.
-
-1350.
-
-Magnificent President, I am sending thither Salai, my pupil, who is
-the bearer of this, and from him you will hear by word of mouth the
-cause of my...
-
-Magnificent President, I...
-
-Magnificent President:--Having ofttimes remembered the proposals
-made many times to me by your Excellency, I take the liberty of
-writing to remind your Lordship of the promise made to me at my last
-departure, that is the possession of the twelve inches of water
-granted to me by the most Christian King. Your Lordship knows that I
-did not enter into possession, because at that time when it was
-given to me there was a dearth of water in the canal, as well by
-reason of the great drought as also because the outlets were not
-regulated; but your Excellency promised me that as soon as this was
-done, I should have my rights. Afterwards hearing that the canal was
-complete I wrote several times to your Lordship and to Messer
-Girolamo da Cusano,who has in his keeping the deed of this gift; and
-so also I wrote to Corigero and never had a reply. I now send
-thither Salai, my pupil, the bearer of this, to whom your Lordship
-may tell by word of mouth all that happened in the matter about
-which I petition your Excellency. I expect to go thither this Easter
-since I am nearly at the end of my lawsuit, and I will take with me
-two pictures of our Lady which I have begun, and at the present time
-have brought them on to a very good end; nothing else occurs to me.
-
-My Lord the love which your Excellency has always shown me and the
-benefits that I have constantly received from you I have hitherto...
-
-I am fearful lest the small return I have made for the great
-benefits I have received from your Excellency may not have made you
-somewhat annoyed with me. And this is why, to many letters which I
-have written to your Excellency I have never had an answer. I now
-send to you Salai to explain to your Excellency that I am almost at
-the end of my litigation with my brothers, and that I hope to be
-with you this Easter and carry with me two pictures on which are two
-Madonnas of different sizes which I began for the most Christian
-King, or for whomsoever you please. I should be very glad to know
-where, on my return from this place, I shall have to reside, because
-I do not wish to give more trouble to your Lordship; and then,
-having worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to
-be continued or not. I write to the President as to the water that
-the king granted me of which I had not been put in possession by
-reason of the dearth in the canal, caused by the great drought and
-because its outlets were not regulated; but he promised me certainly
-that as soon as the regulation was made, I should be put in
-possession of it; I therefore pray you that, if you should meet the
-said President, you would be good enough, now that the outlets are
-regulated, to remind the said President to cause me to be put in
-possession of that water, since I understand it is in great measure
-in his power. Nothing else occurs to me; always yours to command.
-
-Good day to you Messer Francesco. Why, in God's name, of all the
-letters I have written to you, have you never answered one. Now wait
-till I come, by God, and I shall make you write so much that perhaps
-you will become sick of it.
-
-Dear Messer Francesco. I am sending thither Salai to learn from His
-Magnificence the President to what end the regulation of the water
-has come since, at my departure this regulation of the outlets of
-the canal had been ordered, because His Magnificence the President
-promised me that as soon as this was done I should be satisfied. It
-is now some time since I heard that the canal was in order, as also
-its outlets, and I immediately wrote to the President and to you,
-and then I repeated it, and never had an answer. So you will have
-the goodness to answer me as to that which happened, and as I am not
-to hurry the matter, would you take the trouble, for the love of me,
-to urge the President a little, and also Messer Girolamo Cusano, to
-whom you will commend me and offer my duty to his Magnificence.
-
-[Footnote: 1350. 28-36. Draft of a letter to Francesco Melzi, born
-l493--a youth therefore of about 17 in 1510. Leonardo addresses his
-young friend as "Messer", as being the son of a noble house. Melzi
-practised art under Leonardo as a dilettante and not as a pupil,
-like Cesare da Sesto and others (See LERMOLIEFF, _Die Galerien_ &c.,
-p. 476).]
-
-Drafts of a letter to Giuliano de' Medici (1351-1352).
-
-135l.
-
-[Most illustrious Lord. I greatly rejoice most Illustrious Lord at
-your...]
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most illustrious Lord, by the desired
-restoration of your health, that it almost had the effect that [my
-own health recovered]--[I have got through my illness]--my own
-illness left me-- --of your Excellency's almost restored health. But
-I am extremely vexed that I have not been able completely to satisfy
-the wishes of your Excellency, by reason of the wickedness of that
-deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone which could be done for him
-by me and by which I might be of use to him; and in the first place
-his allowances were paid to him before the time, which I believe he
-would willingly deny, if I had not the writing signed by myself and
-the interpreter. And I, seeing that he did not work for me unless he
-had no work to do for others, which he was very careful in
-solliciting, invited him to dine with me, and to work afterwards
-near me, because, besides the saving of expense, he
-
-[Footnote 1351. 1353: It is clear from the contents of this notes
-that they refer to Leonardo's residence in Rome in 1513-1515. Nor
-can there be any doubt that they were addressed to Leonardo's patron
-at the time: Giuliano de' Medici, third son of Lorenzo the
-Magnificent and brother of Pope Leo X (born 1478). In 1512 he became
-the head of the Florentine Republic. The Pope invited him to Rome,
-where he settled; in 1513 he was named patrician with much splendid
-ceremonial. The medal struck in honour of the event bears the words
-MAG. IVLIAN. MEDICES. Leonardo too uses the style "Magnifico", in
-his letter. Compare also No. 1377.
-
-GlNO CAPPONI (_Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_, Vol. III, p.
-139) thus describes the character of Giuliano de' Medici, who died
-in 1516: _Era il migliore della famiglia, di vita placida, grande
-spenditore, tenendo intorno a se uomini ingegnosi, ed ogni nuova
-cosa voleva provare._
-
-See too GREGOROVIUS, _Geschichte der Stadi Rom_, VIII (book XIV.
-III, 2): _Die Luftschlosser furstlicher Grosse, wozu ihn der Papst
-hatte erheben wollen zerfielen. Julian war der edelste aller
-damaligen Medici, ein Mensch von innerlicher Richtung, unbefriedigt
-durch das Leben, mitten im Sonnenglanz der Herrlichkeit Leo's X.
-eine dunkle Gestalt die wie ein Schatten voruberzog._ Giuliano lived
-in the Vatican, and it may be safely inferred from No. 1352 l. 2,
-and No. 1353 l. 4, that Leonardo did the same.
-
-From the following unpublished notice in the Vatican archives, which
-M. Eug. Muntz, librarian of the Ecole des Beaux arts, Paris, has
-done me the favour to communicate to me, we get a more accurate view
-of Leonardo's relation to the often named GIORGIO TEDESCO:
-
-_Nota delle provisione_ (sic) _a da pagare per me in nome del nostro
-ill. S. Bernardo Bini e chompa di Roma, e prima della illma sua
-chonsorte ogni mese d. 800.
-
-A Ldo da Vinci per sua provisione d. XXXIII, e piu d. VII al detto
-per la provisione di Giorgio tedescho, che sono in tutto d. 40.
-
-From this we learn, that seven ducats formed the German's monthly
-wages, but according to No. 1353 l. 7 he pretended that eight ducats
-had been agreed upon.]
-
-would acquire the Italian language. He always promised, but would
-never do so. And this I did also, because that Giovanni, the German
-who makes the mirrors, was there always in the workshop, and wanted
-to see and to know all that was being done there and made it known
-outside ... strongly criticising it; and because he dined with those
-of the Pope's guard, and then they went out with guns killing birds
-among the ruins; and this went on from after dinner till the
-evening; and when I sent Lorenzo to urge him to work he said that he
-would not have so many masters over him, and that his work was for
-your Excellency's Wardrobe; and thus two months passed and so it
-went on; and one day finding Gian Niccolo of the Wardrobe and asking
-whether the German had finished the work for your Magnificence, he
-told me this was not true, but only that he had given him two guns
-to clean. Afterwards, when I had urged him farther, be left the
-workshop and began to work in his room, and lost much time in making
-another pair of pincers and files and other tools with screws; and
-there he worked at mills for twisting silk which he hid when any one
-of my people went in, and with a thousand oaths and mutterings, so
-that none of them would go there any more.
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the desired
-restoration of your health, that my own illness almost left me. But
-I am greatly vexed at not having been able to completely satisfy
-your Excellency's wishes by reason of the wickedness of that German
-deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone by which I could have hope
-to please him; and secondly I invited him to lodge and board with
-me, by which means I should constantly see the work he was doing and
-with greater ease correct his errors while, besides this, he would
-learn the Italian tongue, by means of which be could with more ease
-talk without an interpreter; his moneys were always given him in
-advance of the time when due. Afterwards he wanted to have the
-models finished in wood, just as they were to be in iron, and wished
-to carry them away to his own country. But this I refused him,
-telling him that I would give him, in drawing, the breadth, length,
-height and form of what he had to do; and so we remained in
-ill-will.
-
-The next thing was that he made himself another workshop and pincers
-and tools in his room where he slept, and there he worked for
-others; afterwards he went to dine with the Swiss of the guard,
-where there are idle fellows, in which he beat them all; and most
-times they went two or three together with guns, to shoot birds
-among the ruins, and this went on till evening.
-
-At last I found how this master Giovanni the mirror-maker was he who
-had done it all, for two reasons; the first because he had said that
-my coming here had deprived him of the countenance and favour of
-your Lordship which always... The other is that he said that his
-iron-workers' rooms suited him for working at his mirrors, and of
-this he gave proof; for besides making him my enemy, he made him
-sell all he had and leave his workshop to him, where he works with a
-number of workmen making numerous mirrors to send to the fairs.
-
-1352.
-
-I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the wished for
-recovery of your health, that my own ills have almost left me; and I
-say God be praised for it. But it vexes me greatly that I have not
-been able completely to satisfy your Excellency's wishes by reason
-of the wickedness of that German deceiver, for whom I left nothing
-undone by which I could hope to please him; and secondly I invited
-him to lodge and board with me, by which means I should see
-constantly the work he was doing, for which purpose I would have a
-table fixed at the foot of one of these windows, where he could work
-with the file and finish the things made below; and so I should
-constantly see the work he might do, and it could be corrected with
-greater ease.
-
-Draft of letter written at Rome.
-
-1353.
-
-This other hindered me in anatomy, blaming it before the Pope; and
-likewise at the hospital; and he has filled [4] this whole Belvedere
-with workshops for mirrors; and he did the same thing in Maestro
-Giorgio's room. He said that he had been promised [7] eight ducats
-every month, beginning with the first day, when he set out, or at
-latest when he spoke with you; and that you agreed.
-
-Seeing that he seldom stayed in the workshop, and that he ate a
-great deal, I sent him word that, if he liked I could deal with him
-separately for each thing that he might make, and would give him
-what we might agree to be a fair valuation. He took counsel with his
-neighbour and gave up his room, selling every thing, and went to
-find...
-
-Miscellaneous Records (1354. 1355).
-
-1354.
-
-[Footnote: A puzzling passage, meant, as it would seem, for a jest.
-Compare the description of Giants in Dante, _Inf_. XXI and XXII.
-Perhaps Leonardo had the Giant Antaeus in his mind. Of him the myth
-relates that he was a son of Ge, that he fed on lions; that he
-hunted in Libya and killed the inhabitants. He enjoyed the
-peculiarity of renewing his strength whenever he fell and came in
-contact with his mother earth; but that Hercules lifted him up and
-so conquered and strangled him. Lucan gives a full account of the
-struggle. Pharsalia IV, 617. The reading of this passage, which is
-very indistinctly written, is in many places doubtful.]
-
-Dear Benedetto de' Pertarti. When the proud giant fell because of
-the bloody and miry state of the ground it was as though a mountain
-had fallen so that the country shook as with an earthquake, and
-terror fell on Pluto in hell. From the violence of the shock he lay
-as stunned on the level ground. Suddenly the people, seeing him as
-one killed by a thunderbolt, turned back; like ants running wildly
-over the body of the fallen oak, so these rushing over his ample
-limbs.......... them with frequent wounds; by which, the giant being
-roused and feeling himself almost covered by the multitude, he
-suddenly perceives the smarting of the stabs, and sent forth a roar
-which sounded like a terrific clap of thunder; and placing his hands
-on the ground he raised his terrible face: and having lifted one
-hand to his head he found it full of men and rabble sticking to it
-like the minute creatures which not unfrequently are found there;
-wherefore with a shake of his head he sends the men flying through
-the air just as hail does when driven by the fury of the winds. Many
-of these men were found to be dead; stamping with his feet.
-
-And clinging to his hair, and striving to hide in it, they behaved
-like sailors in a storm, who run up the ropes to lessen the force of
-the wind [by taking in sail].
-
-News of things from the East.
-
-Be it known to you that in the month of June there appeared a Giant,
-who came from the Lybian desert... mad with rage like ants....
-struck down by the rude.
-
-This great Giant was born in Mount Atlas and was a hero ... and had
-to fight against the Egyptians and Arabs, Medes and Persians. He
-lived in the sea on whales, grampuses and ships.
-
-Mars fearing for his life took refuge under the... of Jove.
-
-And at the great fall it seemed as though the whole province quaked.
-
-1355.
-
-This spirit returns to the brain whence it had departed, with a loud
-voice and with these words, it moved...
-
-And if any man though he may have wisdom or goodness .........
-
-[Footnote: This passage, very difficult to decipher, is on the
-reverse of a drawing at Windsor, Pl. CXXII, which possibly has some
-connection with it. The drawing is slightly reduced in this
-reproduction; the original being 25 cm. high by 19 cm. wide.]
-
-O blessed and happy spirit whence comest thou? Well have I known
-this man, much against my will. This one is a receptacle of
-villainy; he is a perfect heap of the utmost ingratitude combined
-with every vice. But of what use is it to fatigue myself with vain
-words? Nothing is to be found in them but every form of sin ... And
-if there should be found among them any that possesses any good,
-they will not be treated differently to myself by other men; and in
-fine, I come to the conclusion that it is bad if they are hostile,
-and worse if they are friendly.
-
-Miscellaneous drafts of letters and personal records (1356--1368).
-
-1356.
-
-All the ills that are or ever were, if they could be set to work by
-him, would not satisfy the desires of his iniquitous soul; and I
-could not in any length of time describe his nature to you, but I
-conclude...
-
-1357.
-
-I know one who, having promised me much, less than my due, being
-disappointed of his presumptuous desires, has tried to deprive me of
-all my friends; and as he has found them wise and not pliable to his
-will, he has menaced me that, having found means of denouncing me,
-he would deprive me of my benefactors. Hence I have informed your
-Lordship of this, to the end [that this man who wishes to sow the
-usual scandals, may find no soil fit for sowing the thoughts and
-deeds of his evil nature] so that he, trying to make your Lordship,
-the instrument of his iniquitous and maliceous nature may be
-disappointed of his desire.
-
-1358.
-
-[Footnote: Below this text we read gusstino--Giustino and in another
-passage on the same page Justin is quoted (No. 1210, 1. 48). The two
-have however no real connection.]
-
-And in this case I know that I shall make few enemies seeing that no
-one will believe what I can say of him; for they are but few whom
-his vices have disgusted, and he only dislikes those men whose
-natures are contrary to those vices. And many hate their fathers,
-and break off friendship with those who reprove their vices; and he
-will not permit any examples against them, nor any advice.
-
-If you meet with any one who is virtuous do not drive him from you;
-do him honour, so that he may not have to flee from you and be
-reduced to hiding in hermitages, or caves or other solitary places
-to escape from your treachery; if there is such an one among you do
-him honour, for these are our Saints upon earth; these are they who
-deserve statues from us, and images; but remember that their images
-are not to be eaten by you, as is still done in some parts of India
-[Footnote 15: In explanation of this passage I have received the
-following communication from Dr. G. W. LEITNER of Lahore: "So far as
-Indian customs are known to us, this practice spoken of by Leonardo
-as 'still existing in some parts of India' is perfectly unknown; and
-it is equally opposed to the spirit of Hinduism, Mohammedanism and
-Sikhism. In central Thibet the ashes of the dead, when burnt, are
-mixed with dough, and small figures--usually of Buddha--are stamped
-out of them and some are laid in the grave while others are
-distributed among the relations. The custom spoken of by Leonardo
-may have prevailed there but I never heard of it." Possibly Leonardo
-refers here to customs of nations of America.] where, when the
-images have according to them, performed some miracle, the priests
-cut them in pieces, being of wood, and give them to all the people
-of the country, not without payment; and each one grates his portion
-very fine, and puts it upon the first food he eats; and thus
-believes that by faith he has eaten his saint who then preserves him
-from all perils. What do you think here, Man, of your own species?
-Are you so wise as you believe yourselves to be? Are these things to
-be done by men?
-
-1359.
-
-As I told you in past days, you know that I am without any....
-Francesco d'Antonio. Bernardo di Maestro Jacopo.
-
-1360.
-
-Tell me how the things happened.
-
-1361.
-
-j lorezo\\\ 2 inbiadali\\\ 3 inferri de\\\ 4in lorezo\\\ 5[inno
-abuil]\\ 6 in acocatu\\\ 7 per la sella\\\ 8colte di lor\\\ 9v
-cavallott\\\ I0el uiagg\\\ IIal\\\ I2a lurez\\\ 13in biada\\\
-14inferri\\\ 15abuss\\\ 16in viagg\\\ 17alorz\\\ [Footnote: This
-seems to be the beginning of a letter, but only the first words of
-the lines have been preserved, the leaf being torn down the middle.
-No translation is possible.]
-
-1362.
-
-And so may it please our great Author that I may demonstrate the
-nature of man and his customs, in the way I describe his figure.
-
-[Footnote: A preparatory note for the passage given as No. 798, 11.
-41--42.]
-
-1363.
-
-This writing distinctly about the kite seems to be my destiny,
-because among the first recollections of my infancy, it seemed to me
-that, as I was in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth
-with its tail, and struck me several times with its tail inside my
-lips.
-
-[Footnote: This note probably refers to the text No. 1221.]
-
-1364.
-
-[When I did well, as a boy you used to put me in prison. Now if I do
-it being grown up, you will do worse to me.]
-
-1365.
-
-Tell me if anything was ever done.
-
-1366.
-
-Tell me if ever I did a thing which me ....
-
-1367.
-
-Do not reveal, if liberty is precious to you; my face is the prison
-of love.
-
-[Footnote: This note seems to be a quotation.]
-
-1368.
-
-Maestro Leonardo of Florence.
-
-[Footnote: So Leonardo writes his name on a sheet with sundry short
-notes, evidently to try a pen. Compare the signature with those in
-Nos. 1341, 1348 and 1374 (see also No. 1346, l. 33). The form
-"Lionardo" does not occur in the autographs. The Portrait of the
-Master in the Royal Library at Turin, which is reproduced--slightly
-diminished--on Pl. I, has in the original two lines of writing
-underneath; one in red chalk of two or three words is partly
-effaced: _lionardo it... lm_ (or _lai_?); the second written in
-pencil is as follows: _fatto da lui stesso assai vecchio_. In both
-of these the writing is very like the Master's, but is certainly
-only an imitation.]
-
-Notes bearing Dates (1369--1378).
-
-1369.
-
-The day of Santa Maria _della Neve_ [of the Snows] August the 2nd
-1473. [Footnote: W. An. I. 1368. 1369. This date is on a drawing of
-a rocky landscape. See _Chronique des Arts_ 1881 no. 23: _Leonard de
-Vinci a-t-il ete au Righi le 5 aout 1473_? letter by H. de
-Geymuller. The next following date in the MSS. is 1478 (see No.
-663).
-
-1370.
-
-On the 2nd of April 1489, book entitled 'Of the human figure'.
-[Footnote: While the letters in the MS. notes of 1473 and 1478 are
-very ornate, this note and the texts on anatomy on the same sheet
-(for instance No. 805) are in the same simple hand as we see on Pl.
-CXVI and CXIX. No 1370 is the only dated note of the years between
-1480 and 1489, and the characters are in all essential points
-identical with those that we see in the latest manuscripts written
-in France (compare the facsimiles on Pl. CXV and p. 254), so that it
-is hardly possible to determine exactly the date of a manuscript
-from the style of the handwriting, if it does not betray the
-peculiarities of style as displayed in the few notes dated previous
-to l480.--Compare the facsimile of the manuscripts 1479 on Pl.LXII,
-No. 2; No. 664, note, Vol. I p. 346. This shows already a marked
-simplicity as compared with the calligraphy of I478.
-
-The text No. 720 belongs to the year 1490; No. 1510 to the year
-1492; No. 1459, No. 1384 and No. 1460 to the year 1493; No. 1463,
-No. 1517, No. 1024, 1025 and 1461 to the year 1494; Nos. 1523 and
-1524 to the year 1497.
-
-1371.
-
-On the 1st of August 1499, I wrote here of motion and of weight.
-
-[Footnote:1371. _Scrissi qui_. Leonardo does not say where; still we
-may assume that it was not in Milan. Amoretti writes, _Memorie
-Storiche_, chap. XIX: _Sembra pertanto che non nel 1499 ma nel 1500,
-dopo il ritorno e la prigionia del duca, sia da qui partito Lionardo
-per andare a Firenze; ed e quindi probabile, che i mesi di governo
-nuovo e incerto abbia passati coll' amico suo Francesco Melzi a
-Vaprio, ove meglio che altrove studiar potea la natura, e
-soprattutta le acque, e l'Adda specialmente, che gia era stato
-l'ogetto delle sue idrostatiche ricerche_. At that time Melzi was
-only six years of age. The next date is 1502; to this year belong
-No. 1034, 1040, 1042, 1048 and 1053. The note No. 1525 belongs to
-the year 1503.]
-
-1372.
-
-On the 9th of July 1504, Wednesday, at seven o'clock, died Ser Piero
-da Vinci, notary at the Palazzo del Podesta, my father, --at seven
-o'clock, being eighty years old, leaving behind ten sons and two
-daughters.
-
-[Footnote: This statement of Ser Piero's age contradicts that of the
-_Riassunto della portata di Antonio da Vinci_ (Leonardo's
-grandfather), who speaks of Ser Piero as being thirty years old in
-1457; and that of the _Riassunto della portata di Ser Piero e
-Francesco_, sons of Antonia da Vinci, where Ser Piero is mentioned
-as being forty in 1469. These documents were published by G.
-UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a L. da Vinci, Firenze_, 1872, pp. 144
-and 146. Leonardo was, as is well known, a natural son. His mother
-'La Catarina' was married in 1457 to Acchattabriga di Piero del
-Vaccha da Vinci. She died in 1519. Leonardo never mentions her in
-the Manuscripts. In the year of Leonardo's birth Ser Piero married
-Albiera di Giovanni Amadoci, and after her death at the age of
-thirty eight he again married, Francesca, daughter of Ser Giovanni
-Lanfredi, then only fifteen. Their children were Leonardo's
-halfbrothers, Antonio (b. 1476), Ser Giuliano (b. 1479), Lorenzo (b.
-1484), a girl, Violante (b. 1485), and another boy Domenico (b.
-1486); Domenico's descendants still exist as a family. Ser Piero
-married for the third time Lucrezia di Guglielmo Cortigiani by whom
-he had six children: Margherita (b. 1491), Benedetto (b. 1492),
-Pandolfo (b. 1494), Guglielmo (b. 1496), Bartolommeo (b. 1497), and
-Giovanni) date of birth unknown). Pierino da Vinci the sculptor
-(about 1520-1554) was the son of Bartolommeo, the fifth of these
-children. The dates of their deaths are not known, but we may infer
-from the above passage that they were all still living in 1505.]
-
-1373.
-
-On Wednesday at seven o'clock died Ser Piero da Vinci on the 9th of
-July 1504.
-
-[Footnote: This and the previous text it may be remarked are the
-only mention made by Leonardo of his father; Nos. 1526, 1527 and No.
-1463 are of the year 1504.]
-
-1374.
-
-Begun by me, Leonardo da Vinci, on the l2th of July 1505.
-
-[Footnote: Thus he writes on the first page of the MS. The title is
-on the foregoing coversheet as follows: _Libro titolato
-disstrafformatione coe_ (cioe) _d'un corpo nvn_ (in un) _altro sanza
-diminuitione e acresscemento di materia._]
-
-1375.
-
-Begun at Milan on the l2th of September 1508.
-
-[Footnote: No. 1528 and No. 1529 belong to the same year. The text
-Vol. I, No. 4 belongs to the following year 1509 (1508 old style);
-so also does No. 1009.-- Nos. 1022, 1057 and 1464 belong to 1511.]
-
-1376.
-
-On the 9th of January 1513.
-
-[Footnote: No. 1465 belongs to the same year. No. 1065 has the next
-date 1514.]
-
-1377.
-
-The Magnifico Giuliano de' Medici left Rome on the 9th of January
-1515, just at daybreak, to take a wife in Savoy; and on the same day
-fell the death of the king of France.
-
-[Footnote: Giuliano de Medici, brother to Pope Leo X.; see note to
-Nos. 1351-1353. In February, 1515, he was married to Filiberta,
-daughter of Filippo, Duke of Savoy, and aunt to Francis I, Louis
-XII's successor on the throne of France. Louis XII died on Jan. 1st,
-and not on Jan. 9th as is here stated.-- This addition is written in
-paler ink and evidently at a later date.]
-
-1378.
-
-On the 24th of June, St John's day, 1518 at Amboise, in the palace
-of...
-
-[Footnote: _Castello del clli_. The meaning of this word is obscure;
-it is perhaps not written at full length.]
-
-_XXII._
-
-_Miscellaneous Notes._
-
-_The incidental memoranda scattered here and there throughout the
-MSS. can have been for the most part intelligible to the writer
-only; in many cases their meaning and connection are all the more
-obscure because we are in ignorance about the persons with whom
-Leonardo used to converse nor can we say what part he may have
-played in the various events of his time. Vasari and other early
-biographers give us a very superficial and far from accurate picture
-of Leonardo's private life. Though his own memoranda, referring for
-the most part to incidents of no permanent interest, do not go far
-towards supplying this deficiency, they are nevertheless of some
-importance and interest as helping us to solve the numerous
-mysteries in which the history of Leonardo's long life remains
-involved. We may at any rate assume, from Leonardo's having
-committed to paper notes on more or less trivial matters on his
-pupils, on his house-keeping, on various known and unknown
-personages, and a hundred other trifies--that at the time they must
-have been in some way important to him._
-
-_I have endeavoured to make these 'Miscellaneous Notes' as complete
-as possible, for in many cases an incidental memorandum will help to
-explain the meaning of some other note of a similar kind. The first
-portion of these notes (Nos. l379--l457), as well as those referring
-to his pupils and to other artists and artificers who lived in his
-house (1458--1468,) are arranged in chronological order. A
-considerable proportion of these notes belong to the period between
-1490 and 1500, when Leonardo was living at Milan under the patronage
-of Lodovico il Moro, a time concerning which we have otherwise only
-very scanty information. If Leonardo did really--as has always been
-supposed,--spend also the greater part of the preceding decade in
-Milan, it seems hardly likely that we should not find a single note
-indicative of the fact, or referring to any event of that period, on
-the numerous loose leaves in his writing that exist. Leonardo's life
-in Milan between 1489 and 1500 must have been comparatively
-uneventful. The MSS. and memoranda of those years seem to prove that
-it was a tranquil period of intellectual and artistic labour rather
-than of bustling court life. Whatever may have been the fate of the
-MSS. and note books of the foregoing years--whether they were
-destroyed by Leonardo himself or have been lost--it is certainly
-strange that nothing whatever exists to inform us as to his life and
-doings in Milan earlier than the consecutive series of manuscripts
-which begin in the year 1489._
-
-_There is nothing surprising in the fact that the notes regarding
-his pupils are few and meagre. Excepting for the record of money
-transactions only very exceptional circumstances would have prompted
-him to make any written observations on the persons with whom he was
-in daily intercourse, among whom, of course, were his pupils. Of
-them all none is so frequently mentioned as Salai, but the character
-of the notes does not--as it seems to me--justify us in supposing
-that he was any thing more than a sort of factotum of Leonardo's
-(see 1519, note)._
-
-_Leonardo's quotations from books and his lists of titles supply
-nothing more than a hint as to his occasional literary studies or
-recreations. It was evidently no part of his ambition to be deeply
-read (see Nrs. 10, 11, 1159) and he more than once expressly states
-(in various passages which will be found in the foregoing sections)
-that he did not recognise the authority of the Ancients, on
-scientific questions, which in his day was held paramount.
-Archimedes is the sole exception, and Leonardo frankly owns his
-admiration for the illustrious Greek to whose genius his own was so
-much akin (see No. 1476). All his notes on various authors,
-excepting those which have already been inserted in the previous
-section, have been arranged alphabetically for the sake of
-convenience (1469--1508)._
-
-_The passages next in order contain accounts and inventories
-principally of household property. The publication of these--often
-very trivial entries--is only justifiable as proving that the
-wealth, the splendid mode of life and lavish expenditure which have
-been attributed to Leonardo are altogether mythical; unless we put
-forward the very improbable hypothesis that these notes as to money
-in hand, outlay and receipts, refer throughout to an exceptional
-state of his affairs, viz. when he was short of money._
-
-_The memoranda collected at the end (No. 1505--1565) are, in the
-original, in the usual writing, from left to right. Besides, the
-style of the handwriting is at variance with what we should expect
-it to be, if really Leonardo himself had written these notes. Most
-of them are to be found in juxtaposition with undoubtedly authentic
-writing of his. But this may be easily explained, if we take into
-account the fact, that Leonardo frequently wrote on loose sheets. He
-may therefore have occasionally used paper on which others had made
-short memoranda, for the most part as it would seem, for his use. At
-the end of all I have given Leonardo's will from the copy of it
-preserved in the Melzi Library. It has already been printed by
-Amoretti and by Uzielli. It is not known what has become of the
-original document._
-
-Memoranda before 1500 (1379-l413).
-
-1379.
-
-Find Longhi and tell him that you wait for him at Rome and will go
-with him to Naples; make you pay the donation [Footnote 2: _Libro di
-Vitolone_ see No. 1506 note.] and take the book by Vitolone, and the
-measurements of the public buildings. [3] Have two covered boxes
-made to be carried on mules, but bed-covers will be best; this makes
-three, of which you will leave one at Vinci. [4] Obtain
-the.............. from Giovanni Lombardo the linen draper of Verona.
-Buy handkerchiefs and towels,.... and shoes, 4 pairs of hose, a
-jerkin of... and skins, to make new ones; the lake of Alessandro.
-[Footnote: 7 and fol. It would seem from the text that Leonardo
-intended to have instructions in painting on paper. It is hardly
-necessary to point out that the Art of illuminating was quite
-separate from that of painting.]
-
-Sell what you cannot take with you. Get from Jean de Paris the
-method of painting in tempera and the way of making white [Footnote:
-The mysterious looking words, quite distinctly written, in line 1:
-_ingol, amor a, ilopan a_ and on line 2: _enoiganod al_ are
-obviously in cipher and the solution is a simple one; by reading
-them backwards we find for _ingol_: logni-probably _longi_,
-evidently the name of a person; for _amor a_: _a Roma_, for _ilopan
-a_: _a Napoli_. Leonardo has done the same in two passages treating
-on some secrets of his art Nos. 641 and 729, the only other places
-in which we find this cipher employed; we may therefore conclude
-that it was for the sake of secrecy that he used it.
-
-There can be no doubt, from the tenor of this passage, that Leonardo
-projected a secret excursion to Naples. Nothing has hitherto been
-known of this journey, but the significance of the passage will be
-easily understood by a reference to the following notes, from which
-we may infer that Leonardo really had at the time plans for
-travelling further than Naples. From lines 3, 4 and 7 it is evident
-that he purposed, after selling every thing that was not easily
-portable, to leave a chest in the care of his relations at Vinci.
-His luggage was to be packed into two trunks especially adapted for
-transport by mules. The exact meaning of many sentences in the
-following notes must necessarily remain obscure. These brief remarks
-on small and irrelevant affairs and so forth are however of no
-historical value. The notes referring to the preparations for his
-journey are more intelligible.]
-
-salt, and how to make tinted paper; sheets of paper folded up; and
-his box of colours; learn to work flesh colours in tempera, learn to
-dissolve gum lac, linseed ... white, of the garlic of Piacenza; take
-'de Ponderibus'; take the works of Leonardo of Cremona. Remove the
-small furnace ... seed of lilies and of... Sell the boards of the
-support. Make him who stole it, give you the ... learn levelling and
-how much soil a man can dig out in a day.
-
-1380.
-
-This was done by Leone in the piazza of the castle with a chain and
-an arrow. [Footnote: This note must have been made in Milan; as we
-know from the date of the MS.]
-
-1381.
-
-NAMES OF ENGINEERS.
-
-Callias of Rhodes, Epimachus the Athenian, Diogenes, a philosopher,
-of Rhodes, Calcedonius of Thrace, Febar of Tyre, Callimachus the
-architect, a master of fires. [Footnote: Callias, Architect of
-Aradus, mentioned by Vitruvius (X, 16, 5).--Epimachus, of Athens,
-invented a battering-enginee for Demetrius Poliorketes (Vitruvius X,
-16, 4).--Callimachus, the inventor of the Corinthian capital (Vitr.
-IV, I, 9), and of the method of boring marble (Paus. I, 26, 7), was
-also famous for his casts in bronze (Plin. XXXIV, 8, 19). He
-invented a lamp for the temple of Athene Polias, on the Acropolis of
-Athens (Paus. I, 26, 7)--The other names, here mentioned, cannot be
-identified.]
-
-1382.
-
-Ask maestro Lodovico for 'the conduits of water'. [Footnote:
-Condotti d'acqua. Possibly a book, a MS. or a map.]
-
-1383.
-
-... at Pistoja, Fioravante di Domenico at Florence is my most
-beloved friend, as though he were my [brother]. [Footnote: On the
-same sheet is the text No. 663.]
-
-1384.
-
-On the 16th day of July.
-
-Caterina came on 16th day of July, 1493.
-
-Messer Mariolo's Morel the Florentin, has a big horse with a fine
-neck and a beautiful head.
-
-The white stallion belonging to the falconer has fine hind quarters;
-it is behind the Comasina Gate.
-
-The big horse of Cermonino, of Signor Giulio. [Footnote: Compare
-Nos. 1522 and 1517. Caterina seems to have been his housekeeper.]
-
-1385.
-
-OF THE INSTRUMENT.
-
-Any one who spends one ducat may take the instrument; and he will
-not pay more than half a ducat as a premium to the inventor of the
-instrument and one grosso to the workman every year. I do not want
-sub-officials. [Footnote: Refers perhaps to the regulation of the
-water in the canals.]
-
-1386.
-
-Maestro Giuliano da Marliano has a fine herbal. He lives opposite to
-Strami the Carpenters. [Footnote: Compare No. 616, note. 4.
-legnamiere (milanese dialect) = legnajuolo.]
-
-1387.
-
-Christofano da Castiglione who lives at the Pieta has a fine head.
-
-1388.
-
-Work of ... of the stable of Galeazzo; by the road of Brera
-[Footnote 4: Brera, see No. 1448, II, 13]; benefice of Stanghe
-[Footnote 5:Stanghe, see No. 1509.]; benefice of Porta Nuova;
-benefice of Monza; Indaco's mistake; give first the benefices; then
-the works; then ingratitude, indignity and lamentations.
-
-1389.
-
-Chiliarch--captain of 1000.
-
-Prefects--captains.
-
-A legion, six thousand and sixty three men.
-
-1390.
-
-A nun lives at La Colomba at Cremona; she works good straw plait,
-and a friar of Saint Francis. [Footnote: _La Colomba_ is to this day
-the name of a small house at Cremona, decorated with frescoes.]
-
-1391.
-
-Needle,--Niccolao,--thread,--Ferrando, -lacopo
-Andrea,--canvas,--stone,--colours, --brushes,--pallet,--sponge,--the
-panel of the Duke.
-
-1392.
-
-Messer Gian Domenico Mezzabarba and Messer Giovanni Franceso
-Mezzabarba. By the side of Messer Piero d'Anghiera.
-
-1393.
-
-Conte Francesco Torello.
-
-1394.
-
-Giuliano Trombetta,--Antonio di Ferrara, --Oil of .... [Footnote:
-Near this text is the sketch of a head drawn in red chalk.]
-
-1395.
-
-Paul was snatched up to heaven. [Footnote: See the facsimile of this
-note on Pl. XXIII No. 2.]
-
-1396.
-
-Giuliano da Maria, physician, has a steward without hands.
-
-1397.
-
-Have some ears of corn of large size sent from Florence.
-
-1398.
-
-See the bedstead at Santa Maria. Secret.
-
-1399.
-
-Arrigo is to have 11 gold Ducats. Arrigo is to have 4 gold ducats in
-the middle of August.
-
-1400.
-
-Give your master the instance of a captain who does not himself win
-the victory, but the soldiers do by his counsels; and so he still
-deserves the reward.
-
-1401.
-
-Messer Pier Antonio.
-
-1402.
-
-Oil,--yellow,--Ambrosio,--the mouth, --the farmhouse.
-
-1403.
-
-My dear Alessandro from Parma, by the hand of ...
-
-1404.
-
-Giovannina, has a fantastic face,--is at Santa Caterina, at the
-Hospital. [Footnote: Compare the text on the same page: No. 667.]
-
-1405.
-
-24 tavole make 1 perch. 4 trabochi make 1 tavola. 4 braccia and a
-half make a trabocco. A perch contains 1936 square braccia, or 1944.
-
-1406.
-
-The road of Messer Mariolo is 13 1/4 braccia wide; the House of
-Evangelista is 75.
-
-It enters 7 1/2 braccia in the house of Mariolo. [Footnote: On this
-page and that which faces it, MS.I2 7la, are two diagrams with
-numerous reference numbers, evidently relating to the measurements
-of a street.]
-
-1407.
-
-I ask at what part of its curved motion the moving cause will leave
-the thing moved and moveable.
-
-Speak to Pietro Monti of these methods of throwing spears.
-
-1408.
-
-Antonio de' Risi is at the council of Justice.
-
-1409.
-
-Paolo said that no machine that moves another .... [Footnote: The
-passage, of which the beginning is here given, deals with questions
-in mechanics. The instances in which Leonardo quotes the opinions of
-his contemporaries on scientific matters are so rare as to be worth
-noticing. Compare No. 901. ]
-
-1410.
-
-Caravaggio. [Footnote: _Caravaggio_, a village not far from the Adda
-between Milan and Brescia, where Polidoro and Michelangelo da
-Caravaggio were born. This note is given in facsimile on Pl. XIII,
-No. I (above, to the left). On Pl. XIII, No. 2 above to the right we
-read _cerovazo_.]
-
-1411.
-
-Pulleys,--nails,--rope,--mercury,--cloth, Monday.
-
-1412.
-
-MEMORANDUM.
-
-Maghino, Speculus of Master Giovanni the Frenchman; Galenus on
-utility.
-
-1413.
-
-Near to Cordusio is Pier Antonio da Tossano and his brother
-Serafino. [Footnote: This note is written between lines 23 and 24 of
-the text No. 710. Corduso, Cordusio (_curia ducis_) = Cordus in the
-Milanese dialect, is the name of a Piazza between the Via del
-Broletto and the Piazza de' Mercanti at Milan.. In the time of il
-Moro it was the centre of the town. The persons here named were
-members of the noble Milanese family de'Fossani; Ambrogio da
-Possano, the contemporary painter, had no connection with them.]
-
-1414.
-
-Memoranda after 1500 (1414--1434)
-
-1414.
-
-Paul of Vannochio at Siena ... The upper chamber for the apostles.
-
-[4] Buildings by Bramante.
-
-The governor of the castle made a prisoner.
-
-[6] Visconti carried away and his son killed. [Footnote 6: Visconti.
-_Chi fosse quel Visconte non sapremmo indovinare fra tanti di questo
-nome. Arluno narra che allora atterrate furono le case de' Viconti,
-de' Castiglioni, de' Sanseverini, e de' Botta e non e improbabile
-che ne fossero insultati e morti i padroni. Molti Visconti annovera
-lo stesso Cronista che per essersi rallegrati del ritorno del duca
-in Milano furono da' Francesi arrestati, e strascinati in Francia
-come prigionieri di stato; e fra questi Messer Francesco Visconti, e
-suo figliuolo Battista_. (AMORETTI, Mem. Stor. XIX.).]
-
-Giovanni della Rosa deprived of his money.
-
-Borgonzio began ....; and moreover his fortunes fled. [Footnote 8:
-Borgonzio o Brugonzio Botta fu regolatore delle ducali entrate sotto
-il Moro, alla cui fuga la casa sua fu pur messa a sacco da'
-partitanti francesi. (AMORETTI, l. c.)]
-
-The Duke has lost the state, property and liberty and none of his
-entreprises was carried out by him.
-
-[Footnote: l. 4--10 This passage evidently refers to events in Milan
-at the time of the overthrow of Ludovico il Moro. Amoretti published
-it in the '_Memorie Storiche_' and added copious notes.]
-
-1415.
-
-Ambrosio Petri, St. Mark, 4 boards for the window, 2 ..., 3 the
-saints of chapels, 5 the Genoese at home.
-
-1416.
-
-Piece of tapestry,--pair of compasses,-- Tommaso's book,--the book
-of Giovanni Benci,--the box in the custom-house,--to cut the
-cloth,--the sword-belt,--to sole the boots, --a light hat,--the cane
-from the ruined houses,--the debt for the table linen,
---swimming-belt,--a book of white paper for drawing,--charcoal.--How
-much is a florin ...., a leather bodice.
-
-1417.
-
-Borges shall get for you the Archimedes from the bishop of Padua,
-and Vitellozzo the one from Borgo a San Sepolcro [Footnote 3: Borgo
-a San Sepolcro, where Luca Paciolo, Leonardo's friend, was born.]
-
-[Footnote: Borges. A Spanish name.]
-
-1418.
-
-Marzocco's tablet.
-
-1419.
-
-Marcello lives in the house of Giacomo da Mengardino.
-
-1420.
-
-Where is Valentino?--boots,--boxes in the
-custom-house,...,--[Footnote 5: Carmine. A church and monastery at
-Florence.] the monk at the Carmine,--squares,--[Footnotes 7 and 8:
-Martelli, Borgherini; names of Florentine families. See No. 4.]
-Piero Martelli,--[8] Salvi Borgherini,--send back the bags,--a
-support for the spectacles,--[Footnote 11: San Gallo; possibly
-Giuliano da San Gallo, the Florentine architect.] the nude study of
-San Gallo,--the cloak. Porphyry,--groups,--square,--[Footnote 16:
-Pandolfini, see No. 1544 note.] Pandolfino. [Footnote: Valentino.
-Cesare Borgia is probably meant. After being made Archbishop of
-Valence by Alexander VI he was commonly called Valentinus or
-Valentino. With reference to Leonardo's engagements by him see pp.
-224 and 243, note.]
-
-1421.
-
-Concave mirrors; philosophy of Aristotle;[Footnote 2: _Avicenna_
-(Leonardo here writes it Avinega) the Arab philosopher, 980-1037,
-for centuries the unimpeachable authority on all medical questions.
-Leonardo possibly points here to a printed edition: _Avicennae
-canonum libri V, latine_ 1476 _Patavis._ Other editions are, Padua
-1479, and Venice 1490.] the books of Avicenna Italian and Latin
-vocabulary; Messer Ottaviano Palavicino or his Vitruvius [Footnote
-3: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]. bohemian knives;
-Vitruvius[Footnote 6: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]; go
-every Saturday to the hot bath where you will see naked men;
-
-'Meteora' [Footnote 7: _Meteora._ See No. 1448, 25.],
-
-Archimedes, on the centre of gravity; [Footnote 9: The works of
-Archimedes were not printed during Leonardo's life-time.] anatomy
-[Footnote 10: Compare No. 1494.] Alessandro Benedetto; The Dante of
-Niccolo della Croce; Inflate the lungs of a pig and observe whether
-they increase in width and in length, or in width diminishing in
-length.
-
-[Footnote 14: _Johannes Marliani sua etate philosophorum et
-medicorum principis et ducalis phisic. primi de proportione motuum
-velocitate questio subtilissima incipit ex ejusdem Marliani
-originali feliciter extracta, M(ilano)_ 1482.
-
-Another work by him has the title: _Marlianus mediolanensis. Questio
-de caliditate corporum humanorum tempore hiemis ed estatis et de
-antiparistasi ad celebrem philosophorum et medicorum universitatem
-ticinensem._ 1474.] Marliano, on Calculation, to Bertuccio.
-Albertus, on heaven and earth [Footnote 15: See No. 1469, 1. 7.],
-[from the monk Bernardino]. Horace has written on the movements of
-the heavens.
-
-[Footnote: _Filosofia d'Aristotele_ see No. 1481 note.]
-
-1422.
-
-Of the three regular bodies as opposed to some commentators who
-disparage the Ancients, who were the originators of grammar and the
-sciences and ...
-
-1423.
-
-The room in the tower of Vaneri.
-
-[Footnote: This note is written inside the sketch of a plan of a
-house. On the same page is the date 1513 (see No. 1376).]
-
-1424.
-
-The figures you will have to reserve for the last book on shadows
-that they may appear in the study of Gerardo the illuminator at San
-Marco at Florence.
-
-[Go to see Melzo, and the Ambassador, and Maestro Bernardo].
-
-[Footnote: L. 1-3 are in the original written between lines 3 and 4
-of No. 292. But the sense is not clear in this connection. It is
-scarcely possible to devine the meaning of the following sentence.
-
-2. 3. _Gherardo_ Miniatore, a famous illuminator, 1445-1497, to whom
-Vasari dedicated a section of his Lives (Vol. II pp. 237-243, ed.
-Sansoni 1879).
-
-5. _Bernardo_, possibly the painter Bernardo Zenale.]
-
-1425.
-
-Hermes the philosopher.
-
-1426.
-
-Suisset, viz. calculator,--Tisber, --Angelo Fossobron,--Alberto.
-
-1427.
-
-The structure of the drawbridge shown me by Donnino, and why _c_ and
-_d_ thrust downwards.
-
-[Footnote: The sketch on the same page as this text represents two
-poles one across the other. At the ends of the longest are the
-letter _c_ and _d_. The sense of the passage is not rendered any
-clearer.]
-
-1428.
-
-The great bird will take its first flight;-- on the back of his
-great swan,--filling the universe with wonders; filling all writings
-with his fame and bringing eternal glory to his birthplace.
-
-[Footnote: This seems to be a speculation about the flying machine
-(compare p. 271).]
-
-1429.
-
-This stratagem was used by the Gauls against the Romans, and so
-great a mortality ensued that all Rome was dressed in mourning.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo perhaps alludes to the Gauls under Brennus, who
-laid his sword in the scale when the tribute was weighed.]
-
-1430.
-
-Alberto da Imola;--Algebra, that is, the demonstration of the
-equality of one thing to another.
-
-1431.
-
-Johannes Rubicissa e Robbia.
-
-1432.
-
-Ask the wife of Biagio Crivelli how the capon nurtures and hatches
-the eggs of the hen,--he being drunk.
-
-1433.
-
-The book on Water to Messer Marco Antonio.
-
-[Footnote: Possibly Marc-Antonio della Torre, see p. 97.]
-
-1434.
-
-Have Avicenna's work on useful inventions translated; spectacles
-with the case, steel and fork and...., charcoal, boards, and paper,
-and chalk and white, and wax;.... .... for glass, a saw for bones
-with fine teeth, a chisel, inkstand ........ three herbs, and Agnolo
-Benedetto. Get a skull, nut,--mustard.
-
-Boots,--gloves, socks, combs, papers, towels, shirts,....
-shoe-tapes,--..... shoes, penknife, pens. A skin for the chest.
-
-[Footnote: 4. Lapis. Compare Condivi, _Vita di Michelagnolo
-Buonarotti_, Chap. XVIII.: _Ma egli_ (Michelangelo) _non avendo che
-mostrare, prese una penna (percioche in quel tempo il lapis non era
-in uso) e con tal leggiadria gli dipinse una mano ecc._ The incident
-is of the year l496.--Lapis means pencil, and chalk (_matita_).
-Between lines 7 and 8 are the texts given as Nos. 819 and No. 7.]
-
-Undated memoranda (1435-1457).
-
-1435.
-
-The book of Piero Crescenze,--studies from the nude by Giovanni
-Ambrosio,--compasses, --the book of Giovanni Giacomo.
-
-1436.
-
-MEMORARDUM.
-
-To make some provisions for my garden, --Giordano, _De
-Ponderibus_[Footnote 3: _Giordano_. Jordanus Nemorarius, a
-mathematician of the beginning of the XIIIth century. No particulars
-of his life are known. The title of his principal work is:
-_Arithmetica decem libris demonstrata_, first published at Paris
-1496. In 1523 appeared at Nuremberg: _Liber Jordani Nemorarii de
-ponderibus, propositiones XIII et earundem demonstrationes,
-multarumque rerum rationes sane pulcherrimas complectens, nunc in
-lucem editus._],--the peacemaker, the flow and ebb of the sea,--have
-two baggage trunks made, look to Beltraffio's [Footnote 6:
-_Beltraffio_, see No. 465, note 2.
-
-There are sketches by the side of lines 8 and 10.] lathe and have
-taken the stone,--out leave the books belonging to Messer Andrea the
-German,-- make scales of a long reed and weigh the substance when
-hot and again when cold. The mirror of Master Luigi; _A b_ the flow
-and ebb of the water is shown at the mill of Vaprio,--a cap.
-
-1437.
-
-Giovanni Fabre,--Lazaro del Volpe,-- the common,--Ser Piero.
-
-[Footnote: These names are inserted on a plan of plots of land
-adjoining the Arno.]
-
-1438.
-
-[Lactantius], [the book of Benozzo], groups,--to bind the book,--a
-lantern,--Ser Pecantino,--Pandolfino.--[Rosso]--a square, --small
-knives,--carriages,--curry combs-- cup.
-
-1439.
-
-Quadrant of Carlo Marmocchi,--Messer Francesco Araldo,--Ser
-Benedetto d'Accie perello,--Benedetto on arithmetic,--Maestro Paulo,
-physician,--Domenico di Michelino,-- ...... of the Alberti,--Messer
-Giovanni Argimboldi.
-
-1440.
-
-Colours, formula,--Archimedes,--Marcantonio.
-
-Tinned iron,--pierced iron.
-
-1441.
-
-See the shop that was formerly Bartolommeo's, the stationer.
-
-[Footnote: 6. _Marc Antonio_, see No. 1433.]
-
-1442.
-
-The first book is by Michele di Francesco Nabini; it treats on
-science.
-
-1443.
-
-Messer Francesco, physician of Lucca, with the Cardinal Farnese.
-
-[Footnote: _Alessandro Farnese_, afterwards Pope Paul III was
-created in 1493 Cardinal di San Cosimo e San Damiano, by Alexander
-VI.]
-
-1444.
-
-Pandolfino's book [Footnote 1: _Pandolfino, Agnolo_, of Florence. It
-is to this day doubtful whether he or L. B. Alberti was the author
-of the famous work '_Del Governo della Famiglia_'. It is the more
-probable that Leonardo should have meant this work by the words _il
-libro_, because no other book is known to have been written by
-Pandolfino. This being the case this allusion of Leonardo's is an
-important evidence in favour of Pandolfino's authorship (compare No.
-1454, line 3).],--knives,--a pen for ruling,--to have the vest
-dyed,--The library at St.-Mark's,--The library at Santo
-Spirito,--Lactantius of the Daldi [Footnote 7: The works of
-Lactantius were published very often in Italy during Leonardo's
-lifetime. The first edition published in 1465 "_in monastero
-sublacensi_" was also the first book printed in Italy.],--Antonio
-Covoni,--A book by Maestro Paolo Infermieri, --Boots, shoes and
-hose,--(Shell)lac, --An apprentice to do the models for me. Grammar,
-by Lorenzo de Medici,--Giovanni del Sodo,--Sansovino, [Footnote 15:
-_Sansovino_, Andrea--the _sculptor_; 1460-1529.]--a ruler,--a very
-sharp knife,--Spectacles,--fractions....,
---repair.........,--Tomaso's book,-- Michelagnolo's little chain;
-Learn the multiplication of roots from Maestro Luca;--my map of the
-world which Giovanni Benci has [Footnote 25: Leonardo here probably
-alludes to the map, not executed by him (See p. 224), which is with
-the collection of his MSS. at Windsor, and was published in the
-_Archaeologia_ Vol. XI (see p. 224).];-Socks,--clothes from the
-customhouse-officier,--Red Cordova leather,--The map of the world,
-of Giovanni Benci,--a print, the districts about Milan--Market book.
-
-Get the Friar di Brera to show you [the book] '_de Ponderibus_'
-[Footnote 11: _Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until
-1571 it was the monastery of the order of the Umiliati and
-afterwards of the Jesuits.
-
-_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.],--
-
-Of the measurement of San Lorenzo,--
-
-I lent certain groups to Fra Filippo de Brera, [Footnote 13:
-_Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until 1571 it was the
-monastery of the order of the Umiliati and afterwards of the
-Jesuits.
-
-_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.]--
-
-Memorandum: to ask Maestro Giovannino as to the mode in which the
-tower of Ferrara is walled without loopholes,--
-
-Ask Maestro Antonio how mortars are placed on bastions by day or by
-night,--
-
-Ask Benedetto Portinari how the people go on the ice in Flanders,--
-
-On proportions by Alchino, with notes by Marliano, from Messer
-Fazio,--
-
-The measurement of the sun, promised me by Maestro Giovanni, the
-Frenchman,--
-
-The cross bow of Maestro Gianetto,--
-
-The book by Giovanni Taverna that Messer Fazio,--
-
-You will draw Milan [21],--
-
-The measurement of the canal, locks and supports, and large boats;
-and the expense,--
-
-Plan of Milan [Footnote 23: _Fondamento_ is commonly used by
-Leonardo to mean ground-plan. See for instance p. 53.],--
-
-Groups by Bramante [Footnote 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No.
-600, note 9.],--
-
-The book on celestial phenomena by Aristoteles, in Italian [Footnote
-25: _Meteora_. By this Leonardo means no doubt the four books. He
-must refer here to a MS. translation, as no Italian translation is
-known to have been published (see No. 1477 note).],--
-
-Try to get Vitolone, which is in the library at Pavia [Footnote 26:
-_Vitolone_ see No. 1506, note.
-
-_Libreria di Pavia_. One of the most famous of Italian libraries.
-After the victory of Novara in April 1500, Louis XII had it conveyed
-to France, '_come trofeo di vittoria_'!] and which treats of
-Mathematics,--He had a master [learned] in waterworks and get him to
-explain the repairs and the costs, and a lock and a canal and a mill
-in the Lombard fashion.
-
-A grandson of Gian Angelo's, the painter has a book on water which
-was his fathers.
-
-Paolino Scarpellino, called Assiolo has great knowledge of water
-works.
-
-[Footnote 12: _Sco Lorenzo_. A church at Milan, see pp. 39, 40 and
-50.]
-
-[Footnote 13. 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No. 600, note 9.]
-
-[Footnote 16: The _Portinari_ were one of the great merchant-
-families of Florence.]
-
-1449.
-
-Francesco d'Antonio at Florence.
-
-1450.
-
-Giuliano Condi[1],--Tomaso Ridolfi,-- Tomaso Paganelli,--Nicolo del
-Nero,--Simone Zasti,--Nasi,--the heir of Lionardo Manelli,
---Guglielmo di Ser Martino,--Bartolomeo del Tovaglia,--Andrea
-Arrigucci,-- Nicolo Capponi,--Giovanni Portinari.
-
-[Footnote: I. _Guiliano Gondi_. Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's
-father, lived till 1480, in a house belonging to Giuliano Gondi. In
-1498 this was pulled down to make room for the fine Palazzo built on
-the Piazza San Firenze by Giuliano di San Gallo, which still exists.
-In the _Riassunto del Catasto di Ser Piero da Vinci_, 1480, Leonardo
-is not mentioned; it is evident therefore that he was living
-elsewhere. It may be noticed incidentally that in the _Catasto di
-Giuliano Gondi_ of the same year the following mention is made of
-his four eldest sons:
-
-_Lionardo mio figliuolo d'eta d'anni 29, non fa nulla, Giovambatista
-d'eta d'anni 28 in Ghostantinopoli, Billichozo d'eta d'anni 24 a
-Napoli, Simone d'eta d'anni 23 in Ungheria._
-
-He himself was a merchant of gold filigree (_facciamo lavorare una
-bottegha d'arte di seta ... facciamo un pocho di trafico a Napoli_}.
-As he was 59 years old in 1480, he certainly would not have been
-alive at the time of Leonardo's death. But Leonardo must have been
-on intimate terms with the family till the end of his life, for in a
-letter dated June 1. 1519, in which Fr. Melzi, writing from Amboise,
-announces Leonardo's death to Giuliano da Vinci at Florence (see p.
-284), he says at the end "_Datemene risposta per i Gondi_" (see
-UZIELLI, _Ricerche_, passim).
-
-Most of the other names on the list are those of well-known
-Florentine families.]
-
-1451.
-
-Pandolfino.
-
-1452.
-
-Vespuccio will give me a book of Geometry.
-
-[Footnote: See No. 844, note, p. 130.]
-
-1453.
-
-Marcantonio Colonna at Santi Apostoli.
-
-[Footnote: In July 1506 Pope Julius II gave Donna Lucrezia della
-Rovere, the daughter of his sister Lucchina, in marriage to the
-youthful Marcantonio Colonna, who, like his brothers Prospero and
-Fabrizio, became one of the most famous Captains of his family. He
-gave to him Frascati and made him a present of the palazzo he had
-built, when Cardinal, near the church of Santi Apostoli which is now
-known as the Palazzo Colonna (see GREGOROVIUS, _Gesch. der Stadt
-Rom._ Vol. VIII, book XIV I, 3. And COPPI, _Mem. Colonnesi_ p.
-251).]
-
-1454.
-
-A box, a cage,-- A square, to make the bird [Footnote 2: Vasari
-states that Leonardo invented mechanical birds which moved through
-the air. Compare No. 703.],-- Pandolfino's book, mortar [?],-- Small
-knives, Venieri for the
-
-[Footnote: Much of No. 1444 is repeated in this memorandum.]
-
-Pen for ruling,        stone,--star,--
-
-To have the vest dyed, Alfieri's tazza,--
-
-The Libraries,         the book on celestial
-                       phenomena,--
-
-Lactantius of the      go to the house of
-Daldi,--               the Pazzi,
-
-Book from Maestro      small box,--
-Paolo Infermieri,--
-
-Boots, shoes and       small gimlet,--
-hose,
-
-Lac,                   .......,--
-
-An apprentice for      .....,--
-models,
-
-Grammar of Lo-         the amount of the
-renzo de' Medici,      ...
-
-Giovanni del Sodo      .....
-for...,--the broken
-
-Sansovino,             the....
-
-Piero di Cosino        the wings,--
-
-[Footnote 16: _Pier di Cosimo_ the well known Florentine painter
-1462-1521. See VASARI, _Vite_ (Vol. IV, p. 134 ed. Sansoni 1880)
-about Leonardo's influence on Piero di Cosimo's style of painting.]
-
-Filippo and Lorenzo [Footnote 17: _Filippo e Lorenzo_; probably the
-painters Filippino Lippi and Lorenzo di Credi. L. di Credi's
-pictures and Vasari's history of that painter bear ample evidence to
-his intimate relations with Leonardo.],--A ruler-,-- Spectacles,--to
-do the..... again,--Tomaso's book,--Michelagnolo's chain,--The
-multiplication of roots,--Of the bow and strinch,--The map of the
-world from Benci,-- Socks,--The clothes from the custom-house
-officier,--Cordova leather,--Market books, --waters of
-Cronaca,--waters of Tanaglino..., --the caps,--Rosso's mirror; to
-see him make it,--1/3 of which I have 5/6,--on the celestial
-phenomena, by Aristotle [Footnote 36: _Meteora_. See No. 1448,
-25.],--boxes of Lorenzo di Pier Francesco [Footnote 37: _Lorenzo di
-Pier Francesco_ and his brother _Giovanni_ were a lateral branch of
-the _Medici_ family and changed their name for that of
-Popolani.],--Maestro Piero of the Borgo,--To have my book
-bound,--Show the book to Serigatto,-- and get the rule of the clock
-[Footnote 41: Possibly this refers to the clock on the tower of the
-Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. In February 1512 it had been repaired,
-and so arranged as to indicate the hours after the French manner
-(twelve hours a. m. and as many p. m.).],--
-ring,--nutmeg,--gum,--the square,--Giovan' Batista at the piazza,
-de' Mozzi,--Giovanni Benci has my book and jaspers,--brass for the
-spectacles.
-
-1455.
-
-Search in Florence for......
-
-1456.
-
-Bernardo da Ponte ... Val di Lugano ... many veins for anatomical
-demonstration.
-
-[Footnote: This fragmentary note is written on the margin of a
-drawing of two legs.]
-
-1457.
-
-Paolo of Tavechia, to see the marks in the German stones.
-
-[Footnote: This note occurs on a pen and ink drawing made by
-Leonardo as a sketch for the celebrated large cartoon in the
-possession of the Royal Academy of Arts, in London. This cartoon is
-commonly supposed to be identical with that described and lauded by
-Vasari, which was exhibited in Florence at the time and which now
-seems to be lost. Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, in his valuable
-paper (read before the Royal Soc. of Literature, June 28, 1882) "On
-the St. Anne of Leonardo da Vinci", has adduced proof that the
-cartoon now in the Royal Academy was executed earlier at Milan. The
-note here given, which is written on the sheet containing the study
-for the said cartoon, has evidently no reference to the drawing on
-which it is written but is obviously of the same date. Though I have
-not any opening here for discussing this question of the cartoon, it
-seemed to me important to point out that the character of the
-writing in this note does not confirm the opinion hitherto held that
-the Royal Academy cartoon was the one described by Vasari, but, on
-the contrary, supports the hypothesis put forward by Mr. Marks.]
-
-Notes on pupils (1458-1468.)
-
-1458.
-
-Giacomo came to live with me on St.-Mary Magdalen's[Footnote: _Il di
-della Maddalena._ July 22.] day, 1490, aged 10 years. The second day
-I had two shirts cut out for him, a pair of hose, and a jerkin, and
-when I put aside some money to pay for these things he stole 4
-_lire_ the money out of the purse; and I could never make him
-confess, though I was quite certain of the fact.--Thief, liar,
-obstinate, glutton.
-
-The day after, I went to sup with Giacomo Andrea, and the said
-Giacomo supped for two and did mischief for four; for he brake 3
-cruets, spilled the wine, and after this came to sup where I ....
-
-Item: on the 7th day of September he stole a silver point of the
-value of 22 soldi from Marco[Footnote 6: _Marco_, probably
-Leonardo's pupil Marco d'Oggionno; 1470 is supposed to be the date
-of his birth and 1540 of his death.
-
-_Che stava con meco._ We may infer from this that he left the master
-shortly after this, his term of study having perhaps expired.] who
-was living with me, 4 _lire_ this being of silver; and he took it
-from his studio, and when the said Marco had searched for it a long
-while he found it hidden in the said Giacomo's box 4 _lire_.
-
-Item: on the 26th January following, I, being in the house of Messer
-Galeazzo da San Severino [Footnote 9: Galeazzo. See No. 718 note.],
-was arranging the festival for his jousting, and certain footmen
-having undressed to try on some costumes of wild men for the said
-festival, Giacomo went to the purse of one of them which lay on the
-bed with other clothes, 2 lire 4 S, and took out such money as was
-in it.
-
-Item: when I was in the same house, Maestro Agostino da Pavia gave
-to me a Turkish hide to have (2 lire.) a pair of short boots made of
-it; this Giacomo stole it of me within a month and sold it to a
-cobbler for 20 soldi, with which money, by his own confession, he
-bought anise comfits.
-
-Item: again, on the 2nd April, Giovan Antonio [Footnote 16: Giovan
-Antonio, probably Beltraffio, 1467 to 1516.] having left a silver
-point on a drawing of his, Giacomo stole it, and this was of the
-value of 24 soldi (1 lira 4 S.)
-
-The first year-
-
-A cloak, 2 lire,
-6 shirts, 4 lire,
-3 jerkins, 6 lire,
-4 pairs of hose, 7 lire 8 soldi,
-1 lined doublet, 5 lire,
-24 pairs of shoes, 6 lire 5 soldi,
-A cap, 1 lira,
-laces, 1 lira.
-
-[Footnote: Leonardo here gives a detailed account not only of the
-loss he and others incurred through Giacomo but of the wild tricks
-of the youth, and we may therefore assume that the note was not made
-merely as a record for his own use, but as a report to be forwarded
-to the lad's father or other responsible guardian.]
-
-1459.
-
-On the last day but one of September;
-
-Thursday the 27th day of September Maestro Tommaso came back and
-worked for himself until the last day but one of February. On the
-18th day of March, 1493, Giulio, a German, came to live with
-me,--Lucia, Piero, Leonardo.
-
-On the 6th day of October.
-
-1460.
-
-1493. On the 1st day of November we settled accounts. Giulio had to
-pay 4 months; and Maestro Tommaso 9 months; Maestro Tommaso
-afterwards made 6 candlesticks, 10 days' work; Giulio some
-fire-tongs 15 days work. Then he worked for himself till the 27th
-May, and worked for me at a lever till the 18th July; then for
-himself till the 7th of August, and for one day, on the fifteenth,
-for a lady. Then again for me at 2 locks until the 20th of August.
-
-1461.
-
-On the 23rd day of August, 12 lire from Pulisona. On the 14th of
-March 1494, Galeazzo came to live with me, agreeing to pay 5 lire a
-month for his cost paying on the l4th day of each month.
-
-His father gave me 2 Rhenish florins.
-
-On the l4th of July, I had from Galeazzo 2 Rhenish florins.
-
-1462.
-
-On the 15th day of September Giulio began the lock of my studio
-1494.
-
-1463.
-
-Saturday morning the 3rd of August 1504 Jacopo the German came to
-live with me in the house, and agreed with me that I should charge
-him a carlino a day.
-
-1464.
-
-1511. On the 26th of September Antonio broke his leg; he must rest
-40 days.
-
-[Footnote: This note refers possibly to Beltraffio.]
-
-1465.
-
-I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September, 1513, with
-Giovanni [Footnote 2: _Giovan;_ it is not likely that Leonardo
-should have called Giovan' Antonio Beltraffio at one time Giovanni,
-as in this note and another time Antonio, as in No. 1464 while in
-No. 1458 l. 16 we find _Giovan'Antonio_, and in No. 1436, l.6
-_Beltraffio_. Possibly the Giovanni here spoken of is Leonardo's
-less known pupil Giovan Pietrino (see No. 1467, 5).], Francesco di
-Melzi [Footnote 2,3: _Francesco de' Melzi_ is often mentioned, see
-Nos. 1350.], Salai [Footnote 3: _Salai_. See No. 1519 note.],
-Lorenzo and il Fanfoia.
-
-[Footnote 4: _Lorenzo_. See No. 1351, l. 10 (p. 408). Amoretti gives
-the following note in _Mem. Stor. XXIII:_ 1505. _Martedi--sera a di
-14 d'aprile. Venne Lorenzo a stare con mecho: disse essere d'eta
-d'anni 17 .. a di 15 del detto aprile ebbi scudi 25 d'oro dal
-chamerlingo di Santa Maria nuova._ This, he asserts is derived from
-a MS. marked S, in quarto. This MS. seems to have vanished and left
-no trace behind; Amoretti himself had not seen it, but copied from a
-selection of extracts made by Oltrocchi before the Leonardo MSS.
-were conveyed to Paris on the responsibility of the first French
-Republic. Lorenzo, by this, must have been born in 1487. The
-sculptor Lorenzetto was born in 1490. Amoretti has been led by the
-above passage to make the following absurd observations:
-
-_Cotesto Lorenzo, che poi gli fu sempre compagno, almeno sin che
-stette in Italia, sarebb' egli Lorenzo Lotto bergamasco? Sappiamo
-essere stato questo valente dipintore uno de'bravi scolari del
-Vinci_ (?).
-
-_Il Fafoia_, perhaps a nickname. Cesare da Sesto, Leonardo's pupil,
-seems to have been in Rome in these years, as we learn from a
-drawing by him in the Louvre.
-
-1466.
-
-On the 3rd day of January.
-
-Benedetto came on the 17th of October; he stayed with me two months
-and 13 days of last year, in which time he earned 38 lire, 18 soldi
-and 8 dinari; he had of this 26 lire and 8 soldi, and there remains
-to be paid for the past year 12 lire 10 soldi.
-
-Giodatti (?) came on the 8th day of September, at 4 soldi a month,
-and stayed with me 3 months and 24 days, and earned 59 lire 14 soldi
-and 8 dinari; he has had 43 lire, 4 soldi, there remains to pay 16
-lire, 10 soldi and 8 dinari.
-
-Benedetto, 24 grossoni.
-
-[Footnote: This seems to be an account for two assistants. The name
-of the second is scarcely legible. The year is not given. The note
-is nevertheless of chronological value. The first line tells us the
-date when the note was registered, January 3d, and the observations
-that follow refer to events of the previous month 'of last year'
-_(dell'anno passato)_. Leonardo cannot therefore have written thus
-in Florence where the year was, at that period, calculated as
-beginning in the month of March (see Vol. I, No. 4, note 2). He must
-then have been in Milan. What is more important is that we thus
-learn how to date the beginning of the year in all the notes written
-at Milan. This clears up Uzielli's doubts: _A Milano facevasi
-cominciar l'anno ab incarnatione, cioe il 25 Marzo e a nativitate,
-cioe il 25 Decembre. Ci sembra probabile che Leonardo dovesse
-prescegliere lo stile che era in uso a Firenze._ (_Ricerche_, p. 84,
-note.)]
-
-1467.
-
-Gian Maria 4,
-Benedetto 4,
-Gian Pietro [5] 3,
-Salai 3,
-Bartolomeo 3,
-Gherardo 4.
-
-1468.
-
-Salai, 20 lire,
-Bonifacio, 2 lire,
-Bartolomeo, 4 lire,
-Arrigo [Harry], 15 lire.
-
-Quotations and notes on books and authors (1469-1508).
-
-1469.
-
-Book on Arithmetic [Footnote 1: _"La nobel opera de arithmethica ne
-la qual se tracta tute cosse amercantia pertinente facta & compilata
-per Piero borgi da Veniesia", in-40. In fine: "Nela inclita cita di
-Venetia a corni. 2 augusto. 1484. fu imposto fine ala presente
-opera." Segn. a--p. quaderni. V'ha pero un' altra opera simile di
-Filippo Calandro, 1491. E da consultarsi su quest' ultimo, Federici:
-Memorie Trevigiane, Fiore di virtu: pag. 73. "Libricciuolo composto
-di bello stile verso il 1320 e piu volte impresso nel secolo XV
-(ristampato poi anche piu tardi). Gli accademici della Crusca lo
-ammettono nella serie dei testi di lingua. Vedasi Gamba, Razzolini,
-Panzer, Brunet, Lechi, ecc._ (G. D'A.)], 'Flowers of Virtue',
-
-Pliny [Footnote 2: _"Historia naturale di C. Plinio Secondo,
-tradocta di lingua latina in fiorentina per Christophoro Laudino &
-Opus Nicolai Jansonis gallici imp. anno salutis M.CCCC.LXXVI.
-Venetiis" in-fol.--Diogene Laertio. Incomincia: "El libro de la vita
-de philosophi etc.: Impressum Venetiis" per Bernardinum Celerium de
-Luere, 1480", in-40_ (G. D'A.).], 'Lives of the Philosophers',
-
-The Bible [Footnote 3: _"La Bibia volgare historiata (per Nicolo di
-Mallermi) Venecia ... M.CCCC.LXXI in kalende di Augusto (per
-Vindelino de Spira)" 2 vol. in-fol. a 2 col. di 50 lin,; od altra
-ediz. della stessa versione del Mallermi, Venetia 1471, e sempre:
-"Venecia per Gabriel de Piero 1477," in-fol.; 2 vol.; Ottavio Scotto
-da Modoetia 1481," "Venetia 1487 per Joan Rosso Vercellese," "1490
-Giovanni Ragazo di Monteferato a instantia di Luchanthonio di
-Giunta, ecc."--Lapidario Teofrasto? Mandebille: "Le grand
-lapidaire," versione italiana ms.?... Giorgio Agricola non puo
-essere, perche nato nel 1494, forse Alberto Magno: de mineralibus.
-Potrebbe essere una traduzione del poema latino (Liber lapidum seu
-de gemmis) di Marbordio Veterio di Rennes (morto nel 1123 da lui
-stesso tradotto in francese dal greco di Evao re d'Arabia celebre
-medico che l'aveva composto per l'imperatore Tiberio. Marbodio
-scrisse il suo prima per Filippo Augusto re di Francia. Vi sono
-anche traduzioni in prosa. "Il lapidario o la forza e la virtu delle
-pietre preziose, delle Erbe e degli Animali."_ (G. D'A.)],
-'Lapidary',
-
-'On warfare' [Footnote 4: _Il Vegezio? ... Il Frontino? ... Il
-Cornazzano?... Noi crediamo piuttosto il Valturio. Questo libro
-doveva essere uno de'favoriti di Leonardo poiche libro di scienza e
-d'arte nel tempo stesso._], 'Epistles of Filelfo',
-
-[Footnote: The late Marchese Girolamo d'Adda published a highly
-valuable and interesting disquisition on this passage under the
-title: _Leonardo da Vinci e la sua Libreria, note di un bibliofilo
-(Milano 1873. Ed. di soli 75 esemplari_; privately printed). In the
-autumn of 1880 the Marchese d'Adda showed me a considerable mass of
-additional notes prepared for a second edition. This, as he then
-intended, was to come out after the publication of this work of
-mine. After the much regretted death of the elder Marchese, his son,
-the Marchese Gioachino d'Adda was so liberal as to place these MS.
-materials at my disposal for the present work, through the kind
-intervention of Signor Gustavo Frizzoni. The following passages,
-with the initials G. d'A. are prints from the valuable notes in that
-publication, the MS. additions I have marked. I did not however
-think myself justified in reproducing here the acute and interesting
-observations on the contents of most of the rare books here
-enumerated.]
-
-[Footnote: 1467. 5. See No. 1465, 2.]
-
-The first decade, [5] 'On the preservation of health', The third
-decade, [6] Ciecho d'Ascoli, The fourth decade, [7] Albertus Magnus,
-Guido, [8] New treatise on rhetorics, Piero Crescentio, [9]
-Cibaldone, 'Quadriregio', [10] Aesop,
-
-Donato, [Footnote 11: "_Donatus latine & italice: Impressum Venetiis
-impensis Johannis Baptistae de Sessa anno_ 1499, _in_-4deg.".-- "_El
-Psalterio de David in lingua volgare (da Malermi Venetia nel
-M.CCCC.LXXVI,_" in-fol. s. n._ (G. D'A.)] Psalms,
-
-Justinus, [Footnote 12: Compare No. 1210, 48.--_La versione di
-Girolamo Squarzafico:_ "_Il libro di Justino posto diligentemente in
-materna lingua. Venetia ale spesse (sic) di Johane de Colonia &
-Johane Gheretze_ ... l477," _in-fol._--"_Marsilii Ficini, Theologia
-platonica, sive de animarum immortalitate, Florentine, per Ant.
-Misconimum_ 1482," _in-fol., ovvero qualche versione italiana di
-questo stesso libro, ms._ (G. D'A.)] 'On the immortality of the
-soul,
-
-Guido [Footnote 13: _Forse_ "_la Historia Trojana Guidonis_" _od il
-_"_manipulus_" _di_ "_Guido da Monterocherii_"_ ma piu probabilmente
-_"_Guido d'Arezzo_"_ il di cui libro: _"_Micrologus, seu disciplina
-artis musicae_"_ poteva da Leonardo aversi ms.; di questi ne
-esistono in molto biblioteche, e fu poi impresso nel 1784 dal
-Gerbert._
-
-_Molte sono le edizione dei sonetti di Burchiello Fiorentino,
-impresse nel secolo XV. La prima e piu rara e recercata:_
-"_Incominciano li sonetti, ecc. (per Christoforo Arnaldo)_"_, in_-4deg.
-_senza numeri, richiami o segnature, del_ 1475, _e fors' anche del_
-1472, _secondo Morelli e Dibdin, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Burchiello,
-
-'Doctrinale' [Footnote 14: _Versione italiana det "Doctrinal de
-Sapience" di Guy de Roy, e foris'anche l'originale in lingua
-francese.--_
-
-_Di Pulci Luigi, benche nell' edizione:_ "_Florentiae_ 1479" _in_-4deg.
-si dica: _"_Il Driadeo composto in rima octava per Lucio Pulcro_"_
-Altre ediz, del secolo XV, _"_Florentie Miscomini_ 1481, _in_-40,
-_Firenze, apud S. Jacob, de Ripoli,_ 1483,_" _in_-4deg. _e "Antoni de
-Francesco,_ 1487," _in_-4deg. _e Francesco di Jacopo_ 1489,_in_-4deg. _ed
-altre ancora di Venezia e senza alcuna nota ecc._ (G. D'A.)]
-Driadeo,
-
-Morgante [Footnote 15: _Una delle edizioni del Morgante impresse nel
-secolo XV, ecc.--_
-
-_Quale delle opere di Francesco Petrarca, sarebbe malagevole
-l'indovinare, ma probabilmente il Canzoniere._ (G. D'A.)] Petrarch.
-
-John de Mandeville [Footnote 16: _Sono i viaggi del cavaliere_
-"_Mandeville_" _gentiluomo inglese. Scrisse il suo libro in lingua
-francese. Fu stampato replicatamente nel secolo XV in francese, in
-inglese ed in italiano ed in tedesco; del secolo XV ne annoverano
-forse piu di 27 edizioni, di cui ne conosciamo_ 8 _in francese,
-quattro in latino, sei in tedesco e molte altre in volgare._ (G.
-D'A.)]
-
-'On honest recreation' [Footnote 17: _Il Platina (Bartolomeo Sacchi)
-la versione italiana_ "_de la honesta voluptate, & valetudine (& de
-li obsonnii) Venetia (senza nome di tipografo)_ 1487," _piccolo
-in_-4deg. _gotico._ (G. D'A.)--Compare No. 844, 21.]
-
-Manganello, [Footnote 18: _Il Manganello: Satira eccessivamente
-vivace contro le donne ad imitazione della Sesta di Giovenale.
-Manganello non e soltanto il titolo del libricino, sua ben anche il
-nome dell'autore ch'era un_ "_milanese_". _Di questo libercolo
-rarissimo, che sembra impresso a Venezia dallo Zoppino (Nicolo
-d'Aristotile detto il), senza data, ma dei primissimi anni del
-secolo XVI, e forse piu antico, come vedremo in appresso, non se ne
-conoscono fra biblioteche pubbliche e private che due soli esemplari
-in Europa._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-The Chronicle of Isidoro, [Footnote 19: "_Cronica desidero_",
-_sembra si deggia leggere piuttosto_ "_cronico disidoro_"_; ed in
-questo caso s'intenderebbe la_ "_cronica d'Isidoro_" _tanto in voga
-a quel tempo_ "_Comenza la Cronica di Sancto Isidoro menore con
-alchune additione cavate del testo & istorie de la Bibia & del libro
-di Paulo Oroso .... Impresso in Ascoli in casa del reverendo misser
-Pascale ..... per mano di Guglielmo de Linis de Alamania
-M.CCCC.LXXVII_" _in_-4deg. _di_ 157 _ff. E il primo libro impresso ad
-Ascoli e l'edizione principe di questa cronica in oggi assai rara.
-Non lo e meno l'edizione di Cividal del Friuli_, 1480, _e quella ben
-anche di Aquila_, 1482, _sempre in-_4deg.. _Vedasi Panzer, Hain, Brunet
-e P. Dechamps._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-The Epistles of Ovid, [Footnote 20: "_Le pistole di Ovidio tradotte
-in prosa. Napoli Sixt. Riessinger_", _in_-4deg., _oppure:_ "_Epistole
-volgarizzate_ 1489," _in_-4deg. _a due col._ "_impresse ne la cita
-(sic) di Bressa per pre: Baptista de Farfengo,_" _(in ottave) o:_
-"_El libro dele Epistole di Ovidio in rima volgare per messere
-Dominico de Monticelli toschano. Brescia Farfengo_," _in_-4deg. _got.
-(in rima volgare)_, 1491, _ed anche la versione di Luca Pulci.
-Firenze, Mischomini_, 1481, _in_-4deg.. (G. D'A.) ]
-
-Epistles of Filelfo, [Footnote 21: See l. 4.]
-
-Sphere, [Footnote 22: "_Jo: de Sacrobusto_," _o_ "_Goro Dati_," _o_
-"_Tolosano da Colle_" _di cui molteplici edizioni del secolo XV._
-(G. D'A.)]
-
-The Jests of Poggio, [Footnote 23: _Tre edizioni delle facezie del
-Poggio abbiamo in lingua italiana della fine del secolo XV, tutte
-senza data. "Facetie de Poggio fiorentino traducte de latino in
-vulgare ornatissimo," in-40, segn. a--e in caratteri romani;
-l'altra: "Facetie traducte de latino in vulgare," in-40, caratteri
-gotici, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Chiromancy, [Footnote 24: "_Die Kunst
-Cyromantia etc, in tedesco. 26 ff. di testo e figure il tutte
-eseguito su tavole di legno verso la fine del secolo XV da Giorgio
-Schapff". Dibdin, Heinecken, Sotheby e Chatto ne diedero una lunga
-descrizione; i primi tre accompagnati da fac-simili. La data 1448
-che si legge alla fine del titolo si riferisce al periodo della
-composizione del testo, non a quello della stampa del volume benche
-tabellario. Altri molti libri di Chiromanzia si conoscono di quel
-tempo e sarebbe opera vana il citarli tutti._ (G. D'A.)]
-
-Formulary of letters, [Footnote 25: _Miniatore Bartolomeo.
-"Formulario de epistole vulgare missive e responsive, & altri fiori
-de ornali parlamenti al principe Hercule d'Esti ecc. composto ecc.
-Bologna per Ugo di Rugerii," in-40, del secolo XV. Altra edizione di
-"Venetia Bernardino di Novara, 1487" e "Milano per Joanne Angelo
-Scinzenzeler 1500," in-40._ (G. D'A.)
-
-Five books out of this list are noted by Leonardo in another MS.
-(Tr. 3): _donato, -- lapidario, -- plinio, -- abacho, -- morgante._]
-
-1470.
-
-Nonius Marcellus, Festus Pompeius, Marcus Varro.
-
-[Footnote: Nonius Marcellus and Sextus Pompeius Festus were Roman
-grammarians of about the fourth century A. D. Early publications of
-the works of Marcellus are: _De proprietate sermonis, Romae_ (about
-1470), and 1471 (place of publication unknown). _Compendiosa
-doctrina, ad filium, de proprietate sermonum._ Venice, 1476. BRUNET,
-_Manuel du libraire_ (IV, p. 97) notes: _Le texte de cet ancien
-grammairien a ete reimprime plusieurs fois a la fin du XVe siecle,
-avec ceux de Pomponius Festus et de Terentius Varro. La plus
-ancienne edition qui reunisse ces trois auteurs est celle de Parme,
-1480 ... Celles de Venise, 1483, 1490, 1498, et de Milan, 1500,
-toutes in-fol., ont peu de valeur._]
-
-1471.
-
-Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello Merciaio has from maestro
-Maffeo;--there for seven years the earth rises and for seven years
-it sinks;--Enquire at the stationers about Vitruvius.
-
-1472.
-
-See 'On Ships' Messer Battista, and Frontinus 'On Acqueducts'
-[Footnote 2: 2. _Vitruvius de Arch., et Frontinus de Aquedoctibus._
-Florence, 1513.--This is the earliest edition of Frontinus.--The
-note referring to this author thus suggests a solution of the
-problem of the date of the Leicester Manuscript.].
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1113, 25.]
-
-1473.
-
-Anaxagoras: Every thing proceeds from every thing, and every thing
-becomes every thing, and every thing can be turned into every thing
-else, because that which exists in the elements is composed of those
-elements.
-
-1474.
-
-The Archimedes belonging to the Bishop of Padua.
-
-[Footnote: See No. 1421, 1. 3, 6 and Vol. I, No. 343.]
-
-1475.
-
-Archimedes gave the quadrature of a polygonal figure, but not of the
-circle. Hence Archimedes never squared any figure with curved sides.
-He squared the circle minus the smallest portion that the intellect
-can conceive, that is the smallest point visible.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 1504.]
-
-1476.
-
-If any man could have discovered the utmost powers of the cannon, in
-all its various forms and have given such a secret to the Romans,
-with what rapidity would they have conquered every country and have
-vanquished every army, and what reward could have been great enough
-for such a service! Archimedes indeed, although he had greatly
-damaged the Romans in the siege of Syracuse, nevertheless did not
-fail of being offered great rewards from these very Romans; and when
-Syracuse was taken, diligent search was made for Archimedes; and he
-being found dead greater lamentation was made for him by the Senate
-and people of Rome than if they had lost all their army; and they
-did not fail to honour him with burial and with a statue. At their
-head was Marcus Marcellus. And after the second destruction of
-Syracuse, the sepulchre of Archimedes was found again by Cato[25],
-in the ruins of a temple. So Cato had the temple restored and the
-sepulchre he so highly honoured.... Whence it is written that Cato
-said that he was not so proud of any thing he had done as of having
-paid such honour to Archimedes.
-
-[Footnote: Where Leonardo found the statement that Cato had found
-and restored the tomb of Archimedes, I do not know. It is a merit
-that Cicero claims as his own (Tusc. V, 23) and certainly with a
-full right to it. None of Archimedes' biographers --not even the
-diligent Mazzucchelli, mentions any version in which Cato is named.
-It is evidently a slip of the memory on Leonardo's part. Besides,
-according to the passage in Cicero, the grave was not found _'nelle
-ruine d'un tempio'_--which is highly improbable as relating to a
-Greek--but in an open spot (H. MULLER-STRUBING).--See too, as to
-Archimedes, No. 1417.
-
-Leonardo says somewhere in MS. C.A.: _Architronito e una macchina di
-fino rame, invenzlon d' Archimede_ (see _'Saggio'_, p. 20).]
-
-1477.
-
-Aristotle, Book 3 of the Physics, and Albertus Magnus, and Thomas
-Aquinas and the others on the rebound of bodies, in the 7th on
-Physics, on heaven and earth.
-
-1478.
-
-Aristotle says that if a force can move a body a given distance in a
-given time, the same force will move half the same body twice as far
-in the same time.
-
-1479.
-
-Aristotle in Book 3 of the Ethics: Man merits praise or blame solely
-in such matters as lie within his option to do or not to do.
-
-1480.
-
-Aristotle says that every body tends to maintain its nature.
-
-1481.
-
-On the increase of the Nile, a small book by Aristotle. [Footnote:
-_De inundatione Nili_, is quoted here and by others as a work of
-Aristotle. The Greek original is lost, but a Latin version of the
-beginning exists (Arist. Opp. IV p. 213 ed. Did. Par.).
-
-In his quotations from Aristotle Leonardo possibly refers to one of
-the following editions: _Aristotelis libri IV de coelo et mundo; de
-anima libri III; libri VIII physi- corum; libri de generatione et
-corruptione; de sensu et sensato... omnia latine, interprete
-Averroe, Venetiis 1483_ (first Latin edition). There is also a
-separate edition of _Liber de coelo et mundo_, dated 1473.]
-
-1482.
-
-Avicenna will have it that soul gives birth to soul as body to body,
-and each member to itself.
-
-[Footnote: Avicenna, see too No. 1421, 1. 2.]
-
-1483.
-
-Avicenna on liquids.
-
-1484.
-
-Roger Bacon, done in print. [Footnote: The earliest printed edition
-known to Brunet of the works of Roger Bacon, is a French
-translation, which appeared about fourty years after Leonardo's
-death.]
-
-1485.
-
-Cleomedes the philosopher.
-
-[Footnote: Cleomede. A Greek mathematician of the IVth century B. C.
-We have a Cyclic theory of Meteorica by him. His works were not
-published before Leonardo's death.]
-
-1486.
-
-CORNELIUS CELSUS.
-
-The highest good is wisdom, the chief evil is suffering in the body.
-Because, as we are composed of two things, that is soul and body, of
-which the first is the better, the body is the inferior; wisdom
-belongs to the better part, and the chief evil belongs to the worse
-part and is the worst of all. As the best thing of all in the soul
-is wisdom, so the worst in the body is suffering. Therefore just as
-bodily pain is the chief evil, wisdom is the chief good of the soul,
-that is with the wise man; and nothing else can be compared with it.
-
-[Footnote: _Aulus Cornelius Celsus_, a Roman physician, known as the
-Roman Hippocrates, probably contemporary with Augustus. Only his
-eight Books 'De Medicina', are preserved. The earliest editions are:
-_Cornelius Celsus, de medicina libr. VIII._, Milan 1481 Venice 1493
-and 1497.]
-
-1487.
-
-Demetrius was wont to say that there was no difference between the
-speech and words of the foolish and ignorant, and the noises and
-rumblings of the wind in an inflated stomach. Nor did he say so
-without reason, for he saw no difference between the parts whence
-the noise issued; whether their lower parts or their mouth, since
-one and the other were of equal use and importance.
-
-[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 10.]
-
-1488.
-
-Maestro Stefano Caponi, a physician, lives at the piscina, and has
-Euclid _De Ponderibus_.
-
-1489.
-
-5th Book of Euclid. First definition: a part is a quantity of less
-magnitude than the greater magnitude when the less is contained a
-certain number of times in the greater.
-
-A part properly speaking is that which may be multiplied, that is
-when, being multiplied by a certain number, it forms exactly the
-whole. A common aggregate part ...
-
-Second definition. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a
-less, when the greater is measured by the less.
-
-By the first we define the lesser [magnitude] and by the second the
-greater is defined. A part is spoken
-
-1490.
-
-of in relation to the whole; and all their relations lie between
-these two extremes, and are called multiples.
-
-1491.
-
-Hippocrates says that the origin of men's sperm derives from the
-brain, and from the lungs and testicles of our parents, where the
-final decocture is made, and all the other limbs transmit their
-substance to this sperm by means of expiration, because there are no
-channels through which they might come to the sperm.
-
-[Footnote: The works of Hippocrates were printed first after
-Leonardo's death.]
-
-1492.
-
-Lucretius in his third [book] 'De Rerum Natura'. The hands, nails
-and teeth were (165) the weapons of ancient man.
-
-They also use for a standard a bunch of grass tied to a pole (167).
-
-[Footnote: _Lucretius, de rerum natura libri VI_ were printed first
-about 1473, at Verona in 1486, at Brescia in 1495, at Venice in 1500
-and in 1515, and at Florence in 1515. The numbers 165 and 167 noted
-by Leonardo at the end of the two passages seem to indicate pages,
-but if so, none of the editions just mentioned can here be meant,
-nor do these numbers refer to the verses in the poems of Lucretius.]
-
-1493.
-
-Ammianus Marcellinus asserts that seven hundred thousand volumes of
-books were burnt in the siege of Alexandria in the time of Julius
-Cesar.
-
-[Footnote: _Ammiani Marcellini historiarum libri qui extant XIII_,
-published at Rome in 1474.]
-
-1494.
-
-Mondino says that the muscles which raise the toes are in the
-outward side of the thigh, and he adds that there are no muscles in
-the back [upper side] of the feet, because nature desired to make
-them light, so as to move with ease; and if they had been fleshy
-they would be heavier; and here experience shows ...
-
-[Footnote: _"Mundini anatomia. Mundinus, Anothomia (sic). Mundini
-praestantissimorum doctorum almi studii ticiensis (sic) cura
-diligentissime emendata. Impressa Papiae per magistrum Antonium de
-Carfano 1478," in-fol.; ristampata: "Bononiae Johan. de Noerdlingen,
-1482," in-fol.; "Padova per Mattheum Cerdonis de Vuindischgretz,
-1484," in-40; "Lipsia, 1493," in-40; "Venezia, 1494," in-40 e ivi
-"1498," con fig. Queste figure per altro non sono, come si e
-preteso, le prime che fossero introdotte in un trattato di Notamia.
-Nel 'fasciculus Medicinae' di Giovanni Ketham, che riproduce
-l''Anatomia' del Mundinus, impresso pure a Venezia da J. e G. de
-Gregoriis, 1491, in-fol., contengonsi intagli in legno (si vogliono
-disegnati non gia incisi da Andrea Mantegna) di grande dimensione, e
-che furono piu volte riprodotti negli anni successivi. Quest'
-edizione del "fasciculus" del 1491, sta fra nostri libri e potrebbe
-benissimo essere il volume d'Anatomia notato da Leonardo._ (G.
-D'A.)]
-
-1495.
-
-Of the error of those who practice without knowledge;--[3] See first
-the 'Ars poetica' of Horace [5].
-
-[Footnote: A 3-5 are written on the margin at the side of the title
-line of the text given, entire as No. 19]
-
-1496.
-
-The heirs of Maestro Giovanni Ghiringallo have the works of
-Pelacano.
-
-1497.
-
-The catapult, as we are told by Nonius and Pliny, is a machine
-devised by those &c.
-
-[Footnote: _Plinius_, see No. 946.]
-
-1498.
-
-I have found in a history of the Spaniards that in their wars with
-the English Archimedes of Syracuse who at that time was living at
-the court of Ecliderides, King of the Cirodastri. And in maritime
-warfare he ordered that the ships should have tall masts, and that
-on their tops there should be a spar fixed [Footnote 6: Compare No.
-1115.] of 40 feet long and one third of a foot thick. At one end of
-this was a small grappling iron and at the other a counterpoise; and
-there was also attached 12 feet of chain; and, at the end of this
-chain, as much rope as would reach from the chain to the base of the
-top, where it was fixed with a small rope; from this base it ran
-down to the bottom of the mast where a very strong spar was attached
-and to this was fastened the end of the rope. But to go on to the
-use of his machine; I say that below this grappling iron was a fire
-[Footnote 14: Compare No. 1128.] which, with tremendous noise, threw
-down its rays and a shower of burning pitch; which, pouring down on
-the [enemy's] top, compelled the men who were in it to abandon the
-top to which the grappling-iron had clung. This was hooked on to the
-edges of the top and then suddenly the cord attached at the base of
-the top to support the cord which went from the grappling iron, was
-cut, giving way and drawing in the enemy's ship; and if the
-anchor--was cast ...
-
-[Footnote: Archimedes never visited Spain, and the names here
-mentioned cannot be explained. Leonardo seems to quote here from a
-book, perhaps by some questionable mediaeval writer. Prof. C. Justi
-writes to me from Madrid, that Spanish savants have no knowledge of
-the sources from which this story may have been derived.]
-
-1499.
-
-Theophrastus on the ebb and flow of the tide, and of eddies, and on
-water. [Footnote: The Greek philosophers had no opportunity to study
-the phenomenon of the ebb and flow of the tide and none of them
-wrote about it. The movement of the waters in the Euripus however
-was to a few of them a puzzling problem.]
-
-1500.
-
-Tryphon of Alexandria, who spent his life at Apollonia, a city of
-Albania (163). [Footnote: Tryphon of Alexandria, a Greek Grammarian
-of the time of Augustus. His treatise TtaOY Aeijecu appeared first
-at Milan in 1476, in Constantin Laskaris's Greek Grammar.]
-
-1501.
-
-Messer Vincenzio Aliprando, who lives near the Inn of the Bear, has
-Giacomo Andrea's Vitruvius.
-
-1502.
-
-Vitruvius says that small models are of no avail for ascertaining
-the effects of large ones; and I here propose to prove that this
-conclusion is a false one. And chiefly by bringing forward the very
-same argument which led him to this conclusion; that is, by an
-experiment with an auger. For he proves that if a man, by a certain
-exertion of strength, makes a hole of a given diameter, and
-afterwards another hole of double the diameter, this cannot be made
-with only double the exertion of the man's strength, but needs much
-more. To this it may very well be answered that an auger
-
-1503.
-
-of double the diameter cannot be moved by double the exertion, be-
-cause the superficies of a body of the same form but twice as large
-has four times the extent of the superficies of the smaller, as is
-shown in the two figures a and n.
-
-1504.
-
-OF SQUARING THE CIRCLE, AND WHO IT WAS THAT FIRST DISCOVERED IT BY
-ACCIDENT.
-
-Vitruvius, measuring miles by means of the repeated revolutions of
-the wheels which move vehicles, extended over many Stadia the lines
-of the circumferences of the circles of these wheels. He became
-aware of them by the animals that moved the vehicles. But he did not
-discern that this was a means of finding a square equal to a circle.
-This was first done by Archimedes of Syracuse, who by multiplying
-the second diameter of a circle by half its circumference produced a
-rectangular quadrilateral equal figure to the circle [Footnote 10:
-Compare No. 1475.].
-
-[Footnote: _Vitruvius_, see also Nos. 1113 and 343.]
-
-1505.
-
-Virgil says that a blank shield is devoid of merit because among the
-people of Athens the true recognition confirmed by testimonies ...
-
-[Footnote: The end of the text cannot be deciphered.]
-
-1506.
-
-In Vitolone there are 805 conclusions [problems] in perspective.
-
-[Footnote: _(Witelo, Vitellion, Vitellon) Vitellione. E da vedersi
-su questo ottico prospettico del secolo XIII Luca Pacioli, Paolo
-Lomazzo, Leonardo da Vinci, ecc. e fra i moderni il Graesse, il
-Libri, il Brunet, e le Memorie pubblicate dal principe Boncompagni,
-e 'Sur l' orthographe du nom et sur la patrie de Witelo (Vitellion)
-note de Maximilien Curtze, professeur a Thorn', ove sono descritti i
-molti codici esistenti nelle biblioteche d' Europa. Bernardino Baldi
-nelle sue 'Vite de'matematici', manoscritto presso il principe
-Boncompagni, ha una biografia del Vitellione. Questo scritto del
-Baldi reca la data 25 agosto 1588. Discorsero poi di lui Federigo
-Risnerio e Giovanni di Monteregio nella prefazione dell' Alfagrano,
-Giovanni Boteone, Girolamo Cardano, 'De subtilitate', che nota gli
-errori di Vitellione. Visse, secondo il Baldi, intorno all' anno
-1269, ma secondo il Reinoldo fioriva nel 1299, avendo dedicata la
-sua opera ad un frate Guglielmo di Monteca, che visse di que' tempi.
-
-Intorno ad un manoscritto dell' ottica di Vitellione, citato da Luca
-Pacioli v'ha un secondo esemplare del Kurlz, con aggiunte del
-principe Boncompagni, e le illustrazioni del cav. Enrico Narducci.
-Nel 'Catalogo di manoscritti' posseduti da D. Baldassare de'
-principi Boncompagni, compilato da esso Narducci, Roma, 1862, sotto
-al n. 358, troviamo citato: Vitellio, 'Perspectiva', manoscritto del
-secolo XIV. La 'Prospettiva di Vitelleone' (sic) Thuringo-poloni e
-citata due volte da Paolo Lomazzo nel Trattato dell' arte della
-pittura. Vitellio o Vitello o Witelo. Il suo libro fu impresso in
-foglio a Norimberga nel 1535; la secondo edizione e del 1551, sempre
-di Norimberga, ed una terza di Basilea, 1572._ (See _Indagini
-Storiche ... sulla Libreria-Visconteo-Sforzesca del Castello di
-Pavia ... per cura di_ G. D'A., _Milano 1879. P. I. Appendice p.
-113. 114)._]
-
-1507.
-
-Vitolone, at Saint Mark's.
-
-[Footnote: _Altro codice di cotesta 'Prospettiva' del Vitolone
-troviamo notato nel 'Canone bibliographico di Nicolo V', conservato
-alla, Magliabecchiana, in copia dell' originale verosimilmente
-inviato dal Parentucelli a Cosimo de' Medici (Magliab. cod. segn. 1
-VII, 30 carte da 193 a 198). Proviene dal Convento di San Marco e lo
-aveva trascritto frate Leonardo Scruberti fiorentino, dell' ordine
-dei predicatori che fu anche bibliotecario della Medicea pubblica in
-San Marco_ (See _Indagini Storiche ... per cura di_ G. D'A. _Parte
-I, p. 97)._]
-
-1508.
-
-How this proposition of Xenophon is false.
-
-If you take away unequal quantities from unequal quantities, but in
-the same proportion, &c. [Footnote: Xenophon's works were published
-several times during Leonardo's lifetime.]
-
-Inventories and accounts (1509--1545).
-
-1509.
-
-On the 28th day of April I received from the Marchesino 103 lire and
-12 dinari. [Footnote: Instead of the indication of the year there is
-a blank space after _d'aprile_.--Marchesino Stange was one of
-Lodovico il Moro's officials.--Compare No. 1388.]
-
-1510.
-
-On the 10th day of July 1492 in 135
-Rhenish florins          1. 445
-in dinari of 6 soldi     1. 112 S 16
-in dinari of 5 1/2 soldi 1.  29 S 13
-9 in gold and 3 scudi    1.  53
-         -----------------------------
-                         1. 811 in all
-
-1511.
-
-On the first day of February, lire 1200.
-
-1512.
-
-The hall towards the court is 126 paces long and 27 braccia wide.
-
-1513.
-
-The narrow cornice above the hall lire 30.
-
-The cornice beneath that, being one for each picture, lire 7, and
-for the cost of blue, gold, white, plaster, indigo and glue 3 lire;
-time 3 days.
-
-The pictures below these mouldings with their pilasters, 12 lire
-each.
-
-I calculate the cost for smalt, blue and gold and other colours at 1
-1/2 lire.
-
-The days I calculate at 3, for the invention of the composition,
-pilasters and other things.
-
-1514.
-
-Item for each vault 7 lire
-
-outlay for blue and gold 3 1/2
-
-time, 4 days
-
-for the windows 1 1/2
-
-The cornice below the windows 16 soldi per braccio
-
-item for 24 pictures of Roman history 14 lire each
-
-The philosophers 10 lire
-
-the pilasters, one ounce of blue 10 soldi
-
-for gold 15 soldi
-
-Total 2 and 1/2 lire.
-
-1515.
-
-The cornice above lire 30
-
-The cornice below lire 7
-
-The compositions, one with another lire 13
-
-1516.
-
-Salai, 6 lire ... 4 soldi ... 10 soldi for a chain;--
-
-On the l4th of March I had 13 lire S. 4; 16 lire remain.
-
-1517.
-
-How many braccia high is the level of the walls?--
-
-123 braccia
-
-How large is the hall?
-
-How large is the garland?
-
-30 ducats.
-
-On the 29th day of January, 1494
-
-cloth for hose lire 4 S 3
-
-lining S 16
-
-making S 8
-
-to Salai S 3
-
-a jasper ring S 13
-
-a sparkling stone S 11
-
-to Caterina S 10
-
-to Caterina S 10
-
-1518.
-
-The wheel lire 7
-
-the tire lire 10
-
-the shield lire 4
-
-the cushion lire 8
-
-the ends of the axle-tree lire 2
-
-bed and frame lire 30
-
-conduit lire 10
-
-S.K.M.II.2 4a]
-
-1519.
-
-Parsley 10 parts
-
-mint 1 part
-
-thyme 1 part
-
-Vinegar ... and a little salt two pieces of canvas for Salai.
-
-[Footnote: This note, of about the year 1494, is the earliest
-mention of Salai, and the last is of the year 1513 (see No. 1465,
-3). From the various notes in the MSS. he seems to have been
-Leonardo's assistant and keeper only, and scarcely himself a
-painter. At any rate no signed or otherwise authenticated picture by
-him is known to exist. Vasari speaks somewhat doubtfully on this
-point.]
-
-1520.
-
-On Tuesday I bought wine for morning [drinking]; on Friday the 4th
-day of September the same.
-
-[Footnote: This note enables us to fix the date of the Manuscript,
-in which it is to be found. In 1495 the 4th of September fell on a
-Friday; the contents of the Manuscript do not permit us to assign it
-to a much earlier or later date (Compare No. 1522, and Note).]
-
-1521.
-
-The cistern ... at the Hospital, --2 ducats, --beans, --white maize,
---red maize, --millet, --buckwheat, --kidney beans, --beans, --peas.
-
-1522.
-
-EXPENSES OF THE INTERMENT OF CATERINA.
-
-For the 3 lbs of tapers 27 S
-For the bier 8 S
-A pall over the bier 12 S
-For bearing and placing the cross 4 S
-For bearing the body 8 S
-For 4 priests and 4 clerks 20 S
-Bell, book and sponge 2 S
-For the gravediggers 16 S
-To the senior 8 S
-For a license from the authorities 1 S
-106 S
-
-The doctor 2 S
-Sugar and candles 12 S
-120 S
-
-[Footnote:  See Nos. 1384 and 1517.]
-
-1523.
-
-Salai's cloak, the 4th of April 1497.
-4 braccia of silver cloth l. 15 S 4
-green velvet to trim it l. 9 S --
-binding l.-- S 9
-loops l.-- S 12
-the making l. 1 S 5
-binding for the front l.-- S 5
-stitching _________
-here are 13 grossoni of his l. 26 S 5
-Salai stole the soldi.
-
-1524.
-
-On Monday I bought 4 braccia of cloth lire 13 S 14 1/2 on the 17th
-of, October 1497.
-
-1525.
-
-Memorandum. That on the 8th day of April 1503, I, Leonardo da Vinci,
-lent to Vante, miniature painter 4 gold ducats, in gold. Salai
-carried them to him and gave them into his own hand, and he said he
-would repay within the space of 40 days.
-
-Memorandum. That on the same day I paid to Salai 3 gold ducats which
-he said he wanted for a pair of rose-coloured hose with their
-trimming; and there remain 9 ducats due to him--excepting that he
-owes me 20 ducats, that is 17 I lent him at Milan, and 3 at Venice.
-
-Memorandum. That I gave Salai 21 braccia of cloth to make a shirt,
-at 10 soldi the braccio, which I gave him on the 20th day of April
-1503.
-
-[Footnote: With regard to Vante or Attavante, the miniature painter
-(not Nanni as I formerly deciphered this name, which is difficult to
-read; see _Zeitschrift fur Bild. Kunst_, 1879, p. 155), and Vasari,
-Lives of Frate Giovanni da Fiesole, of Bartolommeo della Gatta, and
-of Gherardo, _miniatore._ He, like Leonardo, was one of the
-committee of artists who, in 1503, considered the erection and
-placing of Michel Angelo's David. The date of his death is not
-known; he was of the same age as Leonardo. Further details will be
-found in '_Notizie di Attavante miniatore, e di alcuni suoi lavori_'
-(Milanese's ed. of Vasari, III, 231-235).]
-
-1526.
-
-On the morning of San Peter's day, June 29th, 1504, I took io
-ducats, of which I gave one to Tommaso my servant to spend.
-
-On Monday morning 1 florin to Salai to spend on the house.
-
-On Thursday I took 1 florin for my own spending.
-
-Wednesday evening 1 florin to Tommaso, before supper.
-
-Saturday morning 1 florin to Tommaso.
-
-Monday morning 1 florin less 10 soldi.
-
-Thursday to Salai 1 florin less 10 soldi.
-
-For a jerkin, 1 florin.
-
-For a jerkin And a cap 2 florins.
-
-To the hosier, 1 florin.
-
-To Salai, 1 florin.
-
-Friday morning, the 19th of July, 1 florin, less 6 soldi. I have 7
-fl. left, and 22 in the box.
-
-Tuesday, the 23th day of July, 1 florin to Tommaso.
-
-Monday morning, to Tommaso 1 florin.
-
-[Wednesday morning 1 fl. to Tommaso.]
-
-Thursday morning the 1st day of August 1 fl. to Tommaso.
-
-Sunday, the 4th of August, 1 florin.
-
-Friday, the 9th day of August 1504, I took 10 ducats out of the box.
-
-1527.
-
-1504. On the 9th day of August, 1504, I took 10 florins in gold[2]
-... [3] on Friday the 9th day of August fifteen grossoni that is fl.
-5 S 5 ... given to me 1 florin in gold on the 12th day of August [4]
-... on the 14th of August, 32 grossoni to Tommaso. On the 18th of
-the same 5 grossoni to Salai. On the 8th of September 6 grossoni to
-the workman to spend; that is on the day of our Lady's birth. On the
-16th day of September I gave 4 grossoni to Tommaso: on a Sunday.
-
-[Footnote: In the original, the passage given as No. 1463 is written
-between lines 2 and 3 of this text, and it is possible that the
-entries in lines 3 and 4 refer to the payments of Jacopo Tedesco,
-who is there mentioned. The first words of these lines are very
-illegible.]
-
-[Footnote 7: _Al fattore._ Il Fattore, was, as is well known, the
-nick-name of Giovanni Franceso Penni, born in Florence in 1486, and
-subsequently a pupil of Raphael's. According to Vasari he was known
-by it even as a boy. Whether he is spoken of in this passage, or
-whether the word Fattore should be translated literally, I will not
-undertake to decide. The latter seems to me more probably right.]
-
-1528.
-
-On the day of October, 1508, I had 30 scudi; 13 I lent to Salai to
-make up his sister's dowry, and 17 I have left.
-
-1529.
-
-Memorandum of the money I have had from the King as my salary from
-July 1508 till April next 1509. First 100 scudi, then 70, then 50,
-then 20 and then 200 florins at 48 soldi the florin. [Footnote:
-Compare No. 1350 and 1561.]
-
-1530.
-
-Saturday the 2nd day of March I had from Santa Maria Novella 5 gold
-ducats, leaving 450. Of these I gave 2 the same day to Salai, who
-had lent them to me. [Footnote: See '_Conto corrente di Leonardo da
-Vinci con lo Spedale di S. Maria Nuova_' [1500 a 1507, 1513-1520]
-published by G. UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a Leonardo da Vinci,
-Firenze,_ 1872, pp. 164, 165, 218 and 219. The date here given by
-Leonardo does not occur in either of the accounts.]
-
-1531.
-
-Thursday, the eighth day of June, I took 17 grossoni, 18 soldi; on
-the same Thursday in the morning I gave to Salai 22 soldi for the
-expenses.
-
-1532.
-
-To Salai 4 grossoni, and for one braccio of velvet, 5 lire, and 1/2;
-viz. 10 soldi for loops of silver; Salai 14 soldi for binding, the
-making of the cloak 25 soldi. [Footnote: Compare No. 1523.]
-
-1533.
-
-I gave to Salai 93 lire 6 soldi, of which I have had 67 lire and
-there remain 26 lire 6 soldi.
-
-1534.
-
-To Salai S 42
-
-2 dozen of laces S 8
-
-for papers S 3 d 8
-
-a pair of shoes S 14
-
-for velvet S 14
-
-a sword and knife S 21
-
-to the barber S 11
-
-to Paolo for a ... S 20
-
-For having his fortune told S 6
-
-1535.
-
-On Friday morning,
-one florin to Salai to
-spend; 3 soldi received
-
-bread S.. d
-
-wine S.. d
-
-grapes S.. d
-
-mushrooms S.. d
-
-fruit S.. d
-
-[Footnote 6: Compare Nos. 1545, l. 4 and 5,
-with similar entries for horse's fodder.]
-bran S.. d
-
-at the barber's S.. d
-
-for shoes S.. d
-
-1536.
-
-On Thursday morning one florin.
-
-1537.
-
-On Saint Ambrose's day from the morning to Thursday 36 soldi.
-
-1538.
-
-The moneys I have had from Ser Matteo;
-first 20 grassoni, then on 13 occasions 3 f.
-and then 61 grassoni, then 3, and then 33;
-46 soldi 12 grossoni.
-
-1539.
-
-For paper S 18
-
-for canvas S 30
-
-for paper S 10 d 19
-
-Total S 73
-
-1540.
-
-20 pounds of German
-blue, at one ducat the pound lire 80 S  d
-
-60 pounds of white, S..
-the pound lire 15 S  d
-
-1 1/2 pound at 4 S the pound lire 6 S  d
-
-2 pounds of cinnabar at
-S 18 the pound lire 1 S 16 d
-
-6 pounds of green at S 12
-the pound lire 3 S 12 d
-
-4 pounds of yellow at S 12
-the pound lire 2 S 8 d
-
-1 pound of minium at S 8
-the pound lire 0 S 8 d
-
-4 pounds of ... at S 2
-the pound lire 0 S 8 d
-
-6 pounds of ochre at S 1
-the pound lire 0 S 6 d
-
-black ... at S 2 the pound
-for 20 lire 2 S 0 d
-
-wax to make the stars
-29 pounds at S--the pound lire 0 S 0 d
-
-40 pounds of oil for painting
-at 5 soldi the pound lire 10 S 0 d
-
-Altogether lire 120 d 18
-without the gold. 18
-
-tin for putting on the gold 120 18
-
-58
-
-1541.
-
-Two large hatchets and one very small one, 8 brass spoons, 4
-tablecloths, 2 towels, 15 small napkins, 2 coarse napkins, 2 coarse
-cloths, 2 wrappers, 3 pairs of sheets, 2 pairs new and 1 old.
-
-1542.
-
-Bed 7 0 S
-
-ring 7 0
-
-crockery 2 5
-
-gardener 1 2
-
-..... 2 8
-
-porters 2 1
-
-glasses 1
-
-fuel 3 6
-
-a lock 1
-
-Section title: Miscellaneous Notes.
-
-1543.
-
-New tin-ware          3 pairs of sheets
-6 small bowls,          each of 4 breadths,
-6 bowls,              2 small sheets,
-2 large dishes,       2 tablecloths and 1/2,
-2 dishes medium size, 16 coarse cloths,
-2 small ones          8 shirts,
-  Old tin-ware        9 napkins,
-3 small bowls,        2 hand-towels.
-4 bowls,
-3 square stones,
-2 small bowls,
-1 large bowl,
-1 platter,
-4 candlesticks,
-1 small candlestick.
-
-1544.
-
-Hose        S 40
-straw       S 60
-wheat       S 42
-wine        S 54
-bread       S 18
-meat        S 54
-eggs        S  5
-salad       S  3
-the Barber  S 2 d 6
-horses      S 1
-
-1545.
-
-   Sunday
-
-meat        S 10 d
-wine        S 12 d
-bran        S  5 d 4
-herbs       S 10 d
-buttermilk  S  4 d 4
-melon       S  3 d
-bread       S  3 d 1
-____________________
-   Monday   S  9   8
-____________________
-.....       S  6 d
-wine        S 12 d
-bran        S  9 d 4
-buttermilk  S  4 d 4
-herbs       S  8 d
-____________________
-     Tuesday S    d
-_____________________
-meat         S  0 d 8
-wine         S 12 d
-bread        S  3 d
-meal         S  5 d 4
-herbs        S  8 d
-_____________________
-    Wednesday
-_____________________
-wine         S  5 d
-melon        S  2 d
-meal         S  5 d 4
-vegetables   S  8
-
-Notes by unknown persons among the MSS. (1546-1565).
-
-1546.
-
-Miseracione divina sacro sancte Romane ecclesie tituli n cardinalis
-2wulgariter nuncupatus venerabili religioso fratri Johanni Mair
-d'Nustorf 3ordinis praedicatorum provintie teutonie (?) conventus
-Wiennensis capellano 4 nostro commensali salutem in dno sempiternam
-Religione zelus rite ac in [ferite?] 5honestas aliarumque
-laudabilium probitatis et virtutum merita quibus apud nos fide
-6digno commendationis testimonio Magistri videlicet ordinis felicis
-recordacionis Leonardi de 7Mansuetis de Perusio sigillo suo ... us
-dans tibi ad ... opera virtutum comen(salem)? 8 locum et tempus
-success(ores) cujus similiter officium ministratus qui
-praedecessoris sui donum (?) 9confirmavit et de novo dedit
-aliorumque plurima [laudatis] qui opera tua laudant 10nos inducunt
-ut tibi (?) reddamus ad gratiam liberalem hinc est quod nos
-cupientes. [Footnote: The meaning of this document, which is very
-difficult to decipher, and is written in unintelligible Latin, is,
-that Leonardo di Mansuetis recommends the Rev. Mair of Nusdorf,
-chaplain at Vienna, to some third person; and says also that
-something, which had to be proved, has been proved. The rest of the
-passages on the same leaf are undoubtedly in Leonardo's hand. (Nos.
-483, 661, 519, 578, 392, 582, 887 and 894.)]
-
-1547.
-
-Johannes Antonius di Johannes Ambrosius de Bolate. He who lets time
-pass and does not grow in virtue, the more I think of it the more I
-grieve. No man has it in him to be virtuous who will give up honour
-for gain. Good fortune is valueless to him who knows not toil. The
-man becomes happy who follows Christ. There is no perfect gift
-without great suffering. Our glories and our triumphs pass away.
-Foul lust, and dreams, and luxury, and sloth have banished every
-virtue from the world; so that our Nature, wandering and perplexed,
-has almost lost the old and better track. Henceforth it were well to
-rouse thyself from sleep. The master said that lying in down will
-not bring thee to Fame; nor staying beneath the quilts. He who,
-without Fame, burns his life to waste, leaves no more vestige of
-himself on earth than wind-blown smoke, or the foam upon the sea.
-[Footnote: From the last sentence we may infer that this text is by
-the hand of a pupil of Leonardo's.-- On the same sheet are the notes
-Nos.1175 and 715 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
-
-1548.
-
-On the morning of Santo Zanobio the
-29th of May 1504, I had from Lionardo Vinci
-15 gold ducats and began to spend them.
-to Mona Margarita   S  62 d 4
-to remake the ring  S  19 d 8
-clothes             S  13
-good beef           S   4
-eggs                S   6
-debt at the bank    S   7
-velvet              S  12
-wine                S  6 d 4
-meat                S  4
-mulberries          S  2 d 4
-mushrooms           S  3 d 4
-salad               S  1
-fruit               S  1 d 4
-candles             S  3
-...                 S  1
-flour               S  2
-
-    Sunday           198   8
-
-bread               S  6
-wine                S  9 d 4
-meat                S  7
-soup                S  2
-fruit               S  3 d 4
-candles             S  3 d
-
-Monday                31
-
-bread               S  6 d 4
-meat                S 10 d 8
-wine                S  9 d 4
-fruit               S  4
-soup                S  1 d 8
-
-                      32
-
-1549.
-
-Tuesday
-
-bread              S  6
-meat               S 11
-wine               S  7
-fruit              S  9
-soup               S  2
-salad              S  1
-
-[Footnote 1548 and 1549: On the same sheet is the text No. 1015 in Leonardo's own handwriting.]
-
-1550.
-
-To Monna Margarita          S  5
-to Tomaso                   S 14
-to Monna Margarita     d  5 S  2
-on the day of San Zanobi
-left ... after
-payment                d 13 S  2 d 4
-of Monna Margarita
-
-     altogether        d 14 S 5 d 4
-
-1551.
-
-On Monday, the l3th of February, I lent lire S 7 to Lionardo to
-spend, Friday d 7.
-
-[Footnote: This note is followed by an account very like the one
-given as No. 1549.]
-
-1552.
-
-Stephano Chigi, Canonico ..., servant of the honorable Count Grimani
-at S. Apostoli.
-
-[Footnote: Compare No. 674, 21-23.]
-
-1553.
-
-Having become anxious ... Bernardo di Simone, Silvestro di Stefano,
-Bernardo di Jacopo, Francesco di Matteo Bonciani, Antonio di
-Giovanni Ruberti, Antonio da Pistoia.... Antonio; He who has time
-and waits for time, will lose his friends and his money.
-
-1554.
-
-Reverend Maestro, Domino Giovanni, I spoke to Maestro Zacaria as a
-brother about this business, and I made him satisfied with the
-arrangement that I had wished; that is, as regards the commission
-that I had from the parties and I say that between us there is no
-need to pay money down, as regard the pictures of the ...
-
-1555.
-
-Of things seen through a mist that which is nearest its farthest
-limit will be least visible, and all the more so as they are more
-remote.
-
-1556.
-
-Theodoricus Rex Semper Augustus.
-
-1557.
-
-Either you say Hesperia alone, and it will mean Italy, or you add
-ultima, and it will mean Spain. Umbria, part of Tuscany.
-
-[Footnote: The notes in Greek, Nos. 1557, 1558 and 1562 stand in
-close connection with each other, but the meaning of some words is
-very doubtful, and a translation is thus rendered impossible.]
-
-1558.
-
-[Footnote: Greek Characters]
-
-1559.
-
-Canonica of ... on the 5th of July 1507; my dearly beloved mother,
-sisters and cousin I herewith inform you that thanks to God I am ...
-about the sword which I ... bring it to Maso at the piazza ... and I
-will settle the business of Piero so that ...
-
-[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Mem. Stor. XXIV_, quotes the first three lines
-of this letter as by Leonardo. The character of the writing however
-does not favour this hypothesis, and still less the contents. I
-should regard it rather a rough draft of a letter by young Melzi. I
-have not succeeded in deciphering completely the 13 lines of this
-text. Amoretti reads at the beginning _Canonica di Vaprio_, but
-_Vaprio_ seems to me a very doubtful reading.]
-
-1560.
-
-  Ut bene respondet Naturae ars docta! dedisset
-    Vincius, ut tribuit cetera - sic animam -
-  Noluit ut similis magis haec foret: altera sic est:
-    Possidet illius Maurus amans animam.
-
-[Footnote: These three epigrams on the portrait of Lucrezia
-Crivelli, a picture by Leonardo which must have been lost at a very
-early date, seem to have been dedicated to Leonardo by the poet.
-Leonardo used the reverse of the sheet for notes on geometry.]
-
-Hujus quam cernis nomen Lucretia, Divi Omnia cui larga contribuere
-manu. Rara huic forma data est; pinxit Leonardos, amavit Maurus,
-pictorum primus hic, ille ducum.
-
-Naturam, ac superas hac laesit imagine Divas Pictor: tantum hominis
-posse manum haec doluit, Illae longa dari tam magnae tempera formae,
-Quae spatio fuerat deperitura brevi.
-
-1561.
-
-Egidius Romanus on the formation of the human body in the mother's
-womb [Footnote 1: _Liber magistri Egidii de pulsibus matrice
-conipositus (cum commentario Gentilis de Fulgineo)_ published in
-1484 at Padova, in 1494 and in 1514 at Venice, and in 1505 at
-Lyons.].
-
-[Footnote 2:2. This text appears to be in a handwriting different
-from that in the note, l. 1. Here the reading is not so simple as
-AMORETTI gave it, _Mem. Star. XXV: A Monsieur Lyonard Peintre du Roy
-pour Amboyse_. He says too that this address is of the year 1509,
-and Mr. Ravaisson remarks: "_De cette suscription il semble qu'on
-peut inferer que Leonard etait alors en France, a la cour de Louis
-XII ... Pour conclure je crois qu'il n'est pas prouve que Leonard de
-Vinci n'ait pas fait un voyage de quelques mois en France sous Louis
-XII, entre le printemps de 1509 et l'automne de_ 1510."--I must
-confess that I myself have not succeeded in deciphering completely
-this French writing of which two words remain to me doubtful. But so
-much seems to be quite evident that this is not an address of a
-letter at all, but a certificate or note. _Amboise_[l. 6] I believe
-to be the signature of Charles d'Amboise the Governor of Milan. If
-this explanation is the right one, it can be easily explained by the
-contents of Nos. 1350 and 1529. The note, line 1, was perhaps added
-later by another hand; and Leonardo himself wrote afterwards on the
-same sheet some geometrical explanations. I must also point out that
-the statement that this sheet belongs to the year 1509 has
-absolutely no foundation in fact. There is no clue whatever for
-giving a precise date to this note.] To Monsieur le Vinci,--the
-horses of the king's equerry.... Continue the payment to Ms.
-Lyonard, Painter to the King.
-
-[6] Amboise.
-
-1562.
-
-[Footnote: Greek Characters]
-
-1563.
-
-Memorandum to Maestro Lionardo to have ... the state of Florence.
-
-1564.
-
-To remind your Excellency that Ridolfo Manini brought to Florence a
-quantity of crystal besides other stones such as are ...
-
-1565.
-
-XVI C. 6 de Ciuitate Dei, se Antipodes.
-
-[Footnote: A facsimile of this note, which refers to a well known
-book by St. Augustin, is given on page 254.]
-
-1566.
-
-Leonardo's Will.
-
-Be it known to all persons, present and to come that at the court of
-our Lord the King at Amboise before ourselves in person, Messer
-Leonardo da Vinci painter to the King, at present staying at the
-place known as Cloux near Amboise, duly considering the certainty of
-death and the uncertainty of its time, has acknowledged and declared
-in the said court and before us that he has made, according to the
-tenor of these presents, his testament and the declaration of his
-last will, as follows. And first he commends his soul to our Lord,
-Almighty God, and to the Glorious Virgin Mary, and to our lord Saint
-Michael, to all the blessed Angels and Saints male and female in
-Paradise.
-
-Item. The said Testator desires to be buried within the church of
-Saint Florentin at Amboise, and that his body shall be borne thither
-by the chaplains of the church.
-
-Item. That his body may be followed from the said place to the said
-church of Saint Florentin by the _collegium_ of the said church,
-that is to say by the rector and the prior, or by their vicars and
-chaplains of the church of Saint Denis of Amboise, also the lesser
-friars of the place, and before his body shall be carried to the
-said church this Testator desires, that in the said church of Saint
-Florentin three grand masses shall be celebrated by the deacon and
-sub-deacon and that on the day when these three high masses are
-celebrated, thirty low masses shall also be performed at Saint
-Gregoire.
-
-Item. That in the said church of Saint Denis similar services shall
-be performed, as above.
-
-Item. That the same shall be done in the church of the said friars
-and lesser brethren.
-
-Item. The aforesaid Testator gives and bequeaths to Messer Francesco
-da Melzo, nobleman, of Milan, in remuneration for services and
-favours done to him in the past, each
-
-[Footnote: See page 420.]
-
-and all of the books the Testator is at present possessed of, and
-the instruments and portraits appertaining to his art and calling as
-a painter.
-
-Item. The same Testator gives and bequeaths henceforth for ever to
-Battista de Vilanis his servant one half, that is the moity, of his
-garden which is outside the walls of Milan, and the other half of
-the same garden to Salai his servant; in which garden aforesaid
-Salai has built and constructed a house which shall be and remain
-henceforth in all perpetuity the property of the said Salai, his
-heirs and successors; and this is in remuneration for the good and
-kind services which the said de Vilanis and Salai, his servants have
-done him in past times until now.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives to Maturina his waiting woman a cloak
-of good black cloth lined with fur, a ... of cloth and two ducats
-paid once only; and this likewise is in remuneration for good
-service rendered to him in past times by the said Maturina.
-
-Item. He desires that at his funeral sixty tapers shall be carried
-which shall be borne by sixty poor men, to whom shall be given money
-for carrying them; at the discretion of the said Melzo, and these
-tapers shall be distributed among the four above mentioned churches.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives to each of the said churches ten lbs.
-of wax in thick tapers, which shall be placed in the said churches
-to be used on the day when those said services are celebrated.
-
-Item. That alms shall be given to the poor of the Hotel-Dieu, to the
-poor of Saint Lazare d'Amboise and, to that end, there shall be
-given and paid to the treasurers of that same fraternity the sum and
-amount of seventy soldi of Tours.
-
-Item. The said Testator gives and bequeaths to the said Messer
-Francesco Melzo, being present and agreeing, the remainder of his
-pension and the sums of money which are owing to him from the past
-time till the day of his death by the receiver or treasurer-general
-M. Johan Sapin, and each and every sum of money that he has already
-received from the aforesaid Sapin of his said pension, and in case
-he should die before the said Melzo and not otherwise; which moneys
-are at present in the possession of the said Testator in the said
-place called Cloux, as he says. And he likewise gives and bequeaths
-to the said Melzo all and each of his clothes which he at present
-possesses at the said place of Cloux, and all in remuneration for
-the good and kind services done by him in past times till now, as
-well as in payment for the trouble and annoyance he may incur with
-regard to the execution of this present testament, which however,
-shall all be at the expense of the said Testator.
-
-And he orders and desires that the sum of four hundred scudi del
-Sole, which he has deposited in the hands of the treasurer of Santa
-Maria Nuova in the city of Florence, may be given to his brothers
-now living in Florence with all the interest and usufruct that may
-have accrued up to the present time, and be due from the aforesaid
-treasurer to the aforesaid Testator on account of the said four
-hundred crowns, since they were given and consigned by the Testator
-to the said treasurers.
-
-Item. He desires and orders that the said Messer Francesco de Melzo
-shall be and remain the sole and only executor of the said will of
-the said Testator; and that the said testament shall be executed in
-its full and complete meaning and according to that which is here
-narrated and said, to have, hold, keep and observe, the said Messer
-Leonardo da Vinci, constituted Testator, has obliged and obliges by
-these presents the said his heirs and successors with all his goods
-moveable and immoveable present and to come, and has renounced and
-expressly renounces by these presents all and each of the things
-which to that are contrary. Given at the said place of Cloux in the
-presence of Magister Spirito Fieri vicar, of the church of Saint
-Denis at Amboise, of M. Guglielmo Croysant priest and chaplain, of
-Magister Cipriane Fulchin, Brother Francesco de Corion, and of
-Francesco da Milano, a brother of the Convent of the Minorites at
-Amboise, witnesses summoned and required to that end by the
-indictment of the said court in the presence of the aforesaid M.
-Francesco de Melze who accepting and agreeing to the same has
-promised by his faith and his oath which he has administered to us
-personally and has sworn to us never to do nor say nor act in any
-way to the contrary. And it is sealed by his request with the royal
-seal apposed to legal contracts at Amboise, and in token of good
-faith.
-
-Given on the XXIIIrd day of April MDXVIII, before Easter.
-
-And on the XXIIIrd day of this month of April MDXVIII, in the
-presence of M. Guglielmo Borian, Royal notary in the court of the
-bailiwick of Amboise, the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci gave and
-bequeathed, by his last will and testament, as aforesaid, to the
-said M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and agreeing, the right
-of water which the King Louis XII, of pious memory lately deceased
-gave to this same de Vinci, the stream of the canal of Santo
-Cristoforo in the duchy of Milan, to belong to the said Vilanis for
-ever in such wise and manner that the said gentleman made him this
-gift in the presence of M. Francesco da Melzo, gentleman, of Milan
-and in mine.
-
-And on the aforesaid day in the said month of April in the said year
-MDXVIII the same M. Leonardo de Vinci by his last will and testament
-gave to the aforesaid M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and
-agreeing, each and all of the articles of furniture and utensils of
-his house at present at the said place of Cloux, in the event of the
-said de Vilanis surviving the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci, in the
-presence of the said M. Francesco Melzo and of me Notary &c. Borean.
-
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA
-    VINCI, COMPLETE ***
-
-This file should be named 8ldvc10.txt or 8ldvc10.zip
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diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/fetchparse.py b/docs/examples/kernel/fetchparse.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 421bb25..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/fetchparse.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,90 +0,0 @@
-"""
-An exceptionally lousy site spider
-Ken Kinder <ken@kenkinder.com>
-
-This module gives an example of how the TaskClient interface to the 
-IPython controller works.  Before running this script start the IPython controller
-and some engines using something like::
-
-    ipcluster -n 4
-"""
-from twisted.python.failure import Failure
-from IPython.kernel import client
-import time
-
-fetchParse = """
-from twisted.web import microdom
-import urllib2
-import urlparse
-
-def fetchAndParse(url, data=None):
-    links = []
-    try:
-        page = urllib2.urlopen(url, data=data)
-    except Exception:
-        return links
-    else:
-        if page.headers.type == 'text/html':
-            doc = microdom.parseString(page.read(), beExtremelyLenient=True)
-            for node in doc.getElementsByTagName('a'):
-                if node.getAttribute('href'):
-                    links.append(urlparse.urljoin(url, node.getAttribute('href')))
-        return links
-"""
-
-class DistributedSpider(object):
-    
-    # Time to wait between polling for task results.
-    pollingDelay = 0.5
-    
-    def __init__(self, site):
-        self.tc = client.TaskClient()
-        self.rc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-        self.rc.execute(fetchParse)
-        
-        self.allLinks = []
-        self.linksWorking = {}
-        self.linksDone = {}
-        
-        self.site = site
-        
-    def visitLink(self, url):
-        if url not in self.allLinks:
-            self.allLinks.append(url)
-            if url.startswith(self.site):
-                print '    ', url
-                self.linksWorking[url] = self.tc.run(client.StringTask('links = fetchAndParse(url)', pull=['links'], push={'url': url}))
-        
-    def onVisitDone(self, result, url):
-        print url, ':'
-        self.linksDone[url] = None
-        del self.linksWorking[url]
-        if isinstance(result.failure, Failure):
-            txt = result.failure.getTraceback()
-            for line in txt.split('\n'):
-                print '    ', line
-        else:
-            for link in result.ns.links:
-                self.visitLink(link)
-                
-    def run(self):
-        self.visitLink(self.site)
-        while self.linksWorking:
-            print len(self.linksWorking), 'pending...'
-            self.synchronize()
-            time.sleep(self.pollingDelay)
-    
-    def synchronize(self):
-        for url, taskId in self.linksWorking.items():
-            # Calling get_task_result with block=False will return None if the
-            # task is not done yet.  This provides a simple way of polling.
-            result = self.tc.get_task_result(taskId, block=False)
-            if result is not None:
-                self.onVisitDone(result, url)
-
-def main():
-    distributedSpider = DistributedSpider(raw_input('Enter site to crawl: '))
-    distributedSpider.run()
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    main()
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/helloworld.py b/docs/examples/kernel/helloworld.py
deleted file mode 100644
index ce18244..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/helloworld.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,14 +0,0 @@
-"""
-A Distributed Hello world
-Ken Kinder <ken@kenkinder.com>
-"""
-from IPython.kernel import client
-
-tc = client.TaskClient()
-mec = client.MultiEngineClient()
-
-mec.execute('import time')
-hello_taskid = tc.run(client.StringTask('time.sleep(3) ; word = "Hello,"', pull=('word')))
-world_taskid = tc.run(client.StringTask('time.sleep(3) ; word = "World!"', pull=('word')))
-print "Submitted tasks:", hello_taskid, world_taskid
-print tc.get_task_result(hello_taskid,block=True).ns.word, tc.get_task_result(world_taskid,block=True).ns.word
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/mcdriver.py b/docs/examples/kernel/mcdriver.py
deleted file mode 100644
index fe5f6b7..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/mcdriver.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,148 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env python
-"""Run a Monte-Carlo options pricer in parallel."""
-
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Imports
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-import sys
-import time
-from IPython.kernel import client
-import numpy as np
-from mcpricer import price_options
-from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
-
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Setup parameters for the run
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-def ask_question(text, the_type, default):
-    s = '%s [%r]: ' % (text, the_type(default))
-    result = raw_input(s)
-    if result:
-        return the_type(result)
-    else:
-        return the_type(default)
-
-cluster_profile = ask_question("Cluster profile", str, "default")
-price = ask_question("Initial price", float, 100.0)
-rate = ask_question("Interest rate", float, 0.05)
-days = ask_question("Days to expiration", int, 260)
-paths = ask_question("Number of MC paths", int, 10000)
-n_strikes = ask_question("Number of strike values", int, 5)
-min_strike = ask_question("Min strike price", float, 90.0)
-max_strike = ask_question("Max strike price", float, 110.0)
-n_sigmas = ask_question("Number of volatility values", int, 5)
-min_sigma = ask_question("Min volatility", float, 0.1)
-max_sigma = ask_question("Max volatility", float, 0.4)
-
-strike_vals = np.linspace(min_strike, max_strike, n_strikes)
-sigma_vals = np.linspace(min_sigma, max_sigma, n_sigmas)
-
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Setup for parallel calculation
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-# The MultiEngineClient is used to setup the calculation and works with all
-# engine.
-mec = client.MultiEngineClient(profile=cluster_profile)
-
-# The TaskClient is an interface to the engines that provides dynamic load 
-# balancing at the expense of not knowing which engine will execute the code.
-tc = client.TaskClient(profile=cluster_profile)
-
-# Initialize the common code on the engines. This Python module has the
-# price_options function that prices the options.
-mec.run('mcpricer.py')
-
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Perform parallel calculation
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-print "Running parallel calculation over strike prices and volatilities..."
-print "Strike prices: ", strike_vals
-print "Volatilities: ", sigma_vals
-sys.stdout.flush()
-
-# Submit tasks to the TaskClient for each (strike, sigma) pair as a MapTask.
-t1 = time.time()
-taskids = []
-for strike in strike_vals:
-    for sigma in sigma_vals:
-        t = client.MapTask(
-            price_options, 
-            args=(price, strike, sigma, rate, days, paths)
-        )
-        taskids.append(tc.run(t))
-
-print "Submitted tasks: ", len(taskids)
-sys.stdout.flush()
-
-# Block until all tasks are completed.
-tc.barrier(taskids)
-t2 = time.time()
-t = t2-t1
-
-print "Parallel calculation completed, time = %s s" % t
-print "Collecting results..."
-
-# Get the results using TaskClient.get_task_result.
-results = [tc.get_task_result(tid) for tid in taskids]
-
-# Assemble the result into a structured NumPy array.
-prices = np.empty(n_strikes*n_sigmas,
-    dtype=[('ecall',float),('eput',float),('acall',float),('aput',float)]
-)
-
-for i, price_tuple in enumerate(results):
-    prices[i] = price_tuple
-    
-prices.shape = (n_strikes, n_sigmas)
-strike_mesh, sigma_mesh = np.meshgrid(strike_vals, sigma_vals)
-
-print "Results are available: strike_mesh, sigma_mesh, prices"
-print "To plot results type 'plot_options(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices)'"
-
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Utilities
-#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-def plot_options(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices):
-    """
-    Make a contour plot of the option price in (sigma, strike) space.
-    """
-    plt.figure(1)
-    
-    plt.subplot(221)
-    plt.contourf(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices['ecall'])
-    plt.axis('tight')
-    plt.colorbar()
-    plt.title('European Call')
-    plt.ylabel("Strike Price")
-
-    plt.subplot(222)
-    plt.contourf(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices['acall'])
-    plt.axis('tight')
-    plt.colorbar()
-    plt.title("Asian Call")
-
-    plt.subplot(223)
-    plt.contourf(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices['eput'])
-    plt.axis('tight')
-    plt.colorbar()
-    plt.title("European Put")
-    plt.xlabel("Volatility")
-    plt.ylabel("Strike Price")
-
-    plt.subplot(224)
-    plt.contourf(sigma_mesh, strike_mesh, prices['aput'])
-    plt.axis('tight')
-    plt.colorbar()
-    plt.title("Asian Put")
-    plt.xlabel("Volatility")
-
-
-
-    
-
-
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/mcpricer.py b/docs/examples/kernel/mcpricer.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 29772ff..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/mcpricer.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-import numpy as np
-from math import *
-
-
-def price_options(S=100.0, K=100.0, sigma=0.25, r=0.05, days=260, paths=10000):
-    """
-    Price European and Asian options using a Monte Carlo method.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    S : float
-        The initial price of the stock.
-    K : float
-        The strike price of the option.
-    sigma : float
-        The volatility of the stock.
-    r : float
-        The risk free interest rate.
-    days : int
-        The number of days until the option expires.
-    paths : int
-        The number of Monte Carlo paths used to price the option.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    A tuple of (E. call, E. put, A. call, A. put) option prices.
-    """
-    h = 1.0/days
-    const1 = exp((r-0.5*sigma**2)*h)
-    const2 = sigma*sqrt(h)
-    stock_price = S*np.ones(paths, dtype='float64')
-    stock_price_sum = np.zeros(paths, dtype='float64')
-    for j in range(days):
-        growth_factor = const1*np.exp(const2*np.random.standard_normal(paths))
-        stock_price = stock_price*growth_factor
-        stock_price_sum = stock_price_sum + stock_price
-    stock_price_avg = stock_price_sum/days
-    zeros = np.zeros(paths, dtype='float64')
-    r_factor = exp(-r*h*days)
-    euro_put = r_factor*np.mean(np.maximum(zeros, K-stock_price))
-    asian_put = r_factor*np.mean(np.maximum(zeros, K-stock_price_avg))
-    euro_call = r_factor*np.mean(np.maximum(zeros, stock_price-K))
-    asian_call = r_factor*np.mean(np.maximum(zeros, stock_price_avg-K))
-    return (euro_call, euro_put, asian_call, asian_put)
-
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/multienginemap.py b/docs/examples/kernel/multienginemap.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 016e0a8..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/multienginemap.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-from IPython.kernel import client
-
-mec = client.MultiEngineClient()
-
-result = mec.map(lambda x: 2*x, range(10))
-print "Simple, default map: ", result
-
-m = mec.mapper(block=False)
-pr = m.map(lambda x: 2*x, range(10))
-print "Submitted map, got PendingResult: ", pr
-result = pr.r
-print "Using a mapper: ", result
-
-@mec.parallel()
-def f(x): return 2*x
-
-result = f(range(10))
-print "Using a parallel function: ", result
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/nwmerge.py b/docs/examples/kernel/nwmerge.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 4723501..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/nwmerge.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,123 +0,0 @@
-"""Example showing how to merge multiple remote data streams.
-"""
-# Slightly modified version of:
-# http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/511509
-
-import heapq
-from IPython.kernel.error import CompositeError
-
-def mergesort(list_of_lists, key=None):
-    """ Perform an N-way merge operation on sorted lists.
-
-    @param list_of_lists: (really iterable of iterable) of sorted elements
-    (either by naturally or by C{key})
-    @param key: specify sort key function (like C{sort()}, C{sorted()})
-
-    Yields tuples of the form C{(item, iterator)}, where the iterator is the
-    built-in list iterator or something you pass in, if you pre-generate the
-    iterators.
-
-    This is a stable merge; complexity O(N lg N)
-
-    Examples::
-
-    >>> print list(mergesort([[1,2,3,4],
-    ...                      [2,3.25,3.75,4.5,6,7],
-    ...                      [2.625,3.625,6.625,9]]))
-    [1, 2, 2, 2.625, 3, 3.25, 3.625, 3.75, 4, 4.5, 6, 6.625, 7, 9]
-
-    # note stability
-    >>> print list(mergesort([[1,2,3,4],
-    ...                      [2,3.25,3.75,4.5,6,7],
-    ...                      [2.625,3.625,6.625,9]],
-    ...                      key=int))
-    [1, 2, 2, 2.625, 3, 3.25, 3.75, 3.625, 4, 4.5, 6, 6.625, 7, 9]
-
-
-    >>> print list(mergesort([[4, 3, 2, 1],
-    ...                      [7, 6, 4.5, 3.75, 3.25, 2],
-    ...                      [9, 6.625, 3.625, 2.625]],
-    ...                      key=lambda x: -x))
-    [9, 7, 6.625, 6, 4.5, 4, 3.75, 3.625, 3.25, 3, 2.625, 2, 2, 1]
-    """
-
-    heap = []
-    for i, itr in enumerate(iter(pl) for pl in list_of_lists):
-        try:
-            item = itr.next()
-            if key:
-                toadd = (key(item), i, item, itr)
-            else:
-                toadd = (item, i, itr)
-            heap.append(toadd)
-        except StopIteration:
-            pass
-    heapq.heapify(heap)
-
-    if key:
-        while heap:
-            _, idx, item, itr = heap[0]
-            yield item
-            try:
-                item = itr.next()
-                heapq.heapreplace(heap, (key(item), idx, item, itr) )
-            except StopIteration:
-                heapq.heappop(heap)
-
-    else:
-        while heap:
-            item, idx, itr = heap[0]
-            yield item
-            try:
-                heapq.heapreplace(heap, (itr.next(), idx, itr))
-            except StopIteration:
-                heapq.heappop(heap)
-
-
-def remote_iterator(rc,engine,name):
-    """Return an iterator on an object living on a remote engine.
-    """
-    # Check that the object exists on the engine and pin a reference to it
-    iter_name = '_%s_rmt_iter_' % name
-    rc.execute('%s = iter(%s)' % (iter_name,name), targets=engine)
-    tpl = '_tmp = %s.next()' % iter_name
-    while True:
-        try:
-            rc.execute(tpl, targets=engine)
-            result = rc.pull('_tmp', targets=engine)[0]
-        # This causes the StopIteration exception to be raised.
-        except CompositeError, e:
-            e.raise_exception()
-        else:
-            yield result
-
-# Main, interactive testing
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-
-    from IPython.kernel import client
-    ipc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-    print 'Engine IDs:',ipc.get_ids()
-
-    # Make a set of 'sorted datasets'
-    a0 = range(5,20)
-    a1 = range(10)
-    a2 = range(15,25)
-
-    # Now, imagine these had been created in the remote engines by some long
-    # computation.  In this simple example, we just send them over into the
-    # remote engines.  They will all be called 'a' in each engine.
-    ipc.push(dict(a=a0), targets=0)
-    ipc.push(dict(a=a1), targets=1)
-    ipc.push(dict(a=a2), targets=2)
-
-    # And we now make a local object which represents the remote iterator
-    aa0 = remote_iterator(ipc,0,'a')
-    aa1 = remote_iterator(ipc,1,'a')
-    aa2 = remote_iterator(ipc,2,'a')
-
-    # Let's merge them, both locally and remotely:
-    print 'Merge the local datasets:'
-    print list(mergesort([a0,a1,a2]))
-    
-    print 'Locally merge the remote sets:'
-    print list(mergesort([aa0,aa1,aa2]))
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/parallelpi.py b/docs/examples/kernel/parallelpi.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 1254407..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/parallelpi.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,54 +0,0 @@
-"""Calculate statistics on the digits of pi in parallel.
-
-This program uses the functions in :file:`pidigits.py` to calculate
-the frequencies of 2 digit sequences in the digits of pi. The
-results are plotted using matplotlib.
-
-To run, text files from http://www.super-computing.org/
-must be installed in the working directory of the IPython engines.
-The actual filenames to be used can be set with the ``filestring``
-variable below.
-
-The dataset we have been using for this is the 200 million digit one here:
-ftp://pi.super-computing.org/.2/pi200m/
-""" 
-
-from IPython.kernel import client
-from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
-import numpy as np
-from pidigits import *
-from timeit import default_timer as clock
-
-
-# Files with digits of pi (10m digits each)
-filestring = 'pi200m-ascii-%(i)02dof20.txt'
-files = [filestring % {'i':i} for i in range(1,16)]
-
-
-# Connect to the IPython cluster
-mec = client.MultiEngineClient(profile='mycluster')
-mec.run('pidigits.py')
-
-
-# Run 10m digits on 1 engine
-mapper = mec.mapper(targets=0)
-t1 = clock()
-freqs10m = mapper.map(compute_two_digit_freqs, files[:1])[0]
-t2 = clock()
-digits_per_second1 = 10.0e6/(t2-t1)
-print "Digits per second (1 core, 10m digits):   ", digits_per_second1
-
-
-# Run 150m digits on 15 engines (8 cores)
-t1 = clock()
-freqs_all = mec.map(compute_two_digit_freqs, files[:len(mec)])
-freqs150m = reduce_freqs(freqs_all)
-t2 = clock()
-digits_per_second8 = 150.0e6/(t2-t1)
-print "Digits per second (8 cores, 150m digits): ", digits_per_second8
-
-print "Speedup: ", digits_per_second8/digits_per_second1
-
-plot_two_digit_freqs(freqs150m)
-plt.title("2 digit sequences in 150m digits of pi")
-
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/phistogram.py b/docs/examples/kernel/phistogram.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 2401db0..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/phistogram.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,33 +0,0 @@
-"""Parallel histogram function"""
-import numpy
-
-def phistogram(rc, a, bins=10, rng=None, normed=False):
-    """Compute the histogram of a remote array a.
-    
-    :Parameters:
-        rc
-            IPython RemoteController instance
-        a : str
-            String name of the remote array
-        bins : int
-            Number of histogram bins
-        rng : (float, float)
-            Tuple of min, max of the range to histogram
-        normed : boolean
-            Should the histogram counts be normalized to 1
-    """
-    nengines = len(rc)
-    rc.push(dict(bins=bins, rng=rng))
-    rc.execute('import numpy')
-    rc.execute('hist, lower_edges = numpy.histogram(%s, bins, rng)' % a)
-    lower_edges = rc.pull('lower_edges', targets=0)
-    hist_array = rc.gather('hist')
-    hist_array.shape = (nengines,-1)
-    total_hist = numpy.sum(hist_array, 0)
-    if normed:
-        total_hist = total_hist/numpy.sum(total_hist,dtype=float)
-    return total_hist, lower_edges
-
-
-    
-    
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/pidigits.py b/docs/examples/kernel/pidigits.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 7234d50..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/pidigits.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,144 +0,0 @@
-"""Compute statistics on the digits of pi.
-
-This uses precomputed digits of pi from the website
-of Professor Yasumasa Kanada at the University of 
-Tokoyo: http://www.super-computing.org/
-
-Currently, there are only functions to read the
-.txt (non-compressed, non-binary) files, but adding
-support for compression and binary files would be
-straightforward.
-
-This focuses on computing the number of times that
-all 1, 2, n digits sequences occur in the digits of pi.
-If the digits of pi are truly random, these frequencies
-should be equal.
-"""
-
-# Import statements
-
-from __future__ import division, with_statement
-import numpy as np
-from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
-
-# Top-level functions
-
-def compute_one_digit_freqs(filename):
-    """
-    Read digits of pi from a file and compute the 1 digit frequencies.
-    """
-    d = txt_file_to_digits(filename)
-    freqs = one_digit_freqs(d)
-    return freqs
-
-def compute_two_digit_freqs(filename):
-    """
-    Read digits of pi from a file and compute the 2 digit frequencies.
-    """
-    d = txt_file_to_digits(filename)
-    freqs = two_digit_freqs(d)
-    return freqs
-
-def reduce_freqs(freqlist):
-    """
-    Add up a list of freq counts to get the total counts.
-    """
-    allfreqs = np.zeros_like(freqlist[0])
-    for f in freqlist:
-        allfreqs += f
-    return allfreqs
-
-def compute_n_digit_freqs(filename, n):
-    """
-    Read digits of pi from a file and compute the n digit frequencies.
-    """
-    d = txt_file_to_digits(filename)
-    freqs = n_digit_freqs(d, n)
-    return freqs
-
-# Read digits from a txt file
-    
-def txt_file_to_digits(filename, the_type=str):
-    """
-    Yield the digits of pi read from a .txt file.
-    """
-    with open(filename, 'r') as f:
-        for line in f.readlines():
-            for c in line:
-                if c != '\n' and c!= ' ':
-                    yield the_type(c)
-
-# Actual counting functions                    
-
-def one_digit_freqs(digits, normalize=False):
-    """
-    Consume digits of pi and compute 1 digit freq. counts.
-    """
-    freqs = np.zeros(10, dtype='i4')
-    for d in digits:
-        freqs[int(d)] += 1
-    if normalize:
-        freqs = freqs/freqs.sum()
-    return freqs
-    
-def two_digit_freqs(digits, normalize=False):
-    """
-    Consume digits of pi and compute 2 digits freq. counts.
-    """
-    freqs = np.zeros(100, dtype='i4')
-    last = digits.next()
-    this = digits.next()
-    for d in digits:
-        index = int(last + this)
-        freqs[index] += 1
-        last = this
-        this = d
-    if normalize:
-        freqs = freqs/freqs.sum()
-    return freqs
-
-def n_digit_freqs(digits, n, normalize=False):
-    """
-    Consume digits of pi and compute n digits freq. counts.
-
-    This should only be used for 1-6 digits.
-    """
-    freqs = np.zeros(pow(10,n), dtype='i4')
-    current = np.zeros(n, dtype=int)
-    for i in range(n):
-        current[i] = digits.next()
-    for d in digits:
-        index = int(''.join(map(str, current)))
-        freqs[index] += 1
-        current[0:-1] = current[1:]
-        current[-1] = d
-    if normalize:
-        freqs = freqs/freqs.sum()
-    return freqs
-
-# Plotting functions
-
-def plot_two_digit_freqs(f2):
-    """
-    Plot two digits frequency counts using matplotlib.
-    """
-    f2_copy = f2.copy()
-    f2_copy.shape = (10,10)
-    ax = plt.matshow(f2_copy)
-    plt.colorbar()
-    for i in range(10):
-        for j in range(10):
-            plt.text(i-0.2, j+0.2, str(j)+str(i))
-    plt.ylabel('First digit')
-    plt.xlabel('Second digit')
-    return ax
-
-def plot_one_digit_freqs(f1):
-    """
-    Plot one digit frequency counts using matplotlib.
-    """
-    ax = plt.plot(f1,'bo-')
-    plt.title('Single digit counts in pi')
-    plt.xlabel('Digit')
-    plt.ylabel('Count')
-    return ax
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_backend.py b/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_backend.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 22fc3c2..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_backend.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-"""An example of how to use IPython1 for plotting remote parallel data
-
-The two files plotting_frontend.ipy and plotting_backend.py go together.
-
-This file (plotting_backend.py) performs the actual computation.  For this 
-example, the computation just generates a set of random numbers that
-look like a distribution of particles with 2D position (x,y) and 
-momentum (px,py).  In a real situation, this file would do some time
-consuming and complicated calculation, and could possibly make calls
-to MPI.
-
-One important feature is that this script can also be run standalone without
-IPython.  This is nice as it allows it to be run in more traditional 
-settings where IPython isn't being used.
-
-When used with IPython1, this code is run on the engines.  Because this
-code doesn't make any plots, the engines don't have to have any plotting
-packages installed.
-"""
-
-# Imports
-import numpy as N
-import time
-import random
-
-# Functions
-def compute_particles(number):
-    x = N.random.standard_normal(number)
-    y = N.random.standard_normal(number)
-    px = N.random.standard_normal(number)
-    py = N.random.standard_normal(number)
-    return x, y, px, py
-
-def downsample(array, k):
-    """Choose k random elements of array."""
-    length = array.shape[0]
-    indices = random.sample(xrange(length), k)
-    return array[indices]
-
-# Parameters of the run
-number = 100000
-d_number = 1000
-
-# The actual run
-
-time.sleep(0) # Pretend it took a while
-x, y, px, py = compute_particles(number)
-# Now downsample the data
-downx = downsample(x, d_number)
-downy = downsample(x, d_number)
-downpx = downsample(px, d_number)
-downpy = downsample(py, d_number)
-
-print "downx: ", downx[:10]
-print "downy: ", downy[:10]
-print "downpx: ", downpx[:10]
-print "downpy: ", downpy[:10]
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_frontend.py b/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_frontend.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 87a2fa3..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/plotting_frontend.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-"""An example of how to use IPython1 for plotting remote parallel data
-
-The two files plotting_frontend.ipy and plotting_backend.py go together.
-
-To run this example, first start the IPython controller and 4
-engines::
-
-    ipcluster -n 4
-
-Then start ipython in pylab mode::
-
-    ipython -pylab
-    
-Then a simple "run plotting_frontend.ipy" in IPython will run the
-example.  When this is done, all the variables (such as number, downx, etc.)
-are available in IPython, so for example you can make additional plots.
-"""
-
-import numpy as N
-from pylab import *
-from IPython.kernel import client
-
-# Get an IPython1 client
-rc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-rc.get_ids()
-
-# Run the simulation on all the engines
-rc.run('plotting_backend.py')
-
-# Bring back the data
-number = rc.pull('number')
-d_number = rc.pull('d_number')
-downx = rc.gather('downx')
-downy = rc.gather('downy')
-downpx = rc.gather('downpx')
-downpy = rc.gather('downpy')
-
-print "number: ", sum(number)
-print "downsampled number: ", sum(d_number)
-
-# Make a scatter plot of the gathered data
-# These calls to matplotlib could be replaced by calls to pygist or
-# another plotting package.
-figure(1)
-scatter(downx, downy)
-xlabel('x')
-ylabel('y')
-figure(2)
-scatter(downpx, downpy)
-xlabel('px')
-ylabel('py')
-show()
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq.py b/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq.py
deleted file mode 100644
index f96423b..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env python
-"""Parallel word frequency counter."""
-
-
-from itertools import repeat
-from wordfreq import print_wordfreq, wordfreq
-
-def pwordfreq(rc, text):
-    """Parallel word frequency counter.
-    
-    rc - An IPython RemoteController
-    text - The name of a string on the engines to do the freq count on.
-    """
-    
-    rc.execute('freqs = wordfreq(%s)' %text)
-    freqs_list = rc.pull('freqs')
-    word_set = set()
-    for f in freqs_list:
-        word_set.update(f.keys())
-    freqs = dict(zip(word_set, repeat(0)))
-    for f in freqs_list:
-        for word, count in f.iteritems():
-            freqs[word] += count
-    return freqs
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    # Create a MultiEngineClient
-    from IPython.kernel import client
-    ipc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-    
-    # Run the wordfreq script on the engines.
-    ipc.run('wordfreq.py')
-
-    # Run the serial version
-    print "Serial word frequency count:"
-    text = open('davinci.txt').read()
-    freqs = wordfreq(text)
-    print_wordfreq(freqs, 10)
-    
-    # The parallel version
-    print "\nParallel word frequency count:"
-    files = ['davinci%i.txt' % i for i in range(4)]
-    ipc.scatter('textfile', files)
-    ipc.execute('text = open(textfile[0]).read()')
-    pfreqs = pwordfreq(ipc,'text')
-    print_wordfreq(freqs)
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq_skel.py b/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq_skel.py
deleted file mode 100644
index e5a5357..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/pwordfreq_skel.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env python
-"""Parallel word frequency counter."""
-
-
-from itertools import repeat
-from wordfreq import print_wordfreq, wordfreq
-
-def pwordfreq(rc, text):
-    """Parallel word frequency counter.
-    
-    rc - An IPython RemoteController
-    text - The name of a string on the engines to do the freq count on.
-    """
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    # Create a MultiEngineClient
-    from IPython.kernel import client
-    ipc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-    
-    # Run the wordfreq script on the engines.
-    ipc.run('wordfreq.py')
-
-    # Run the serial version
-    print "Serial word frequency count:"
-    text = open('davinci.txt').read()
-    freqs = wordfreq(text)
-    print_wordfreq(freqs, 10)
-    
-    # The parallel version
-    print "\nParallel word frequency count:"
-    files = ['davinci%i.txt' % i for i in range(4)]
-    ipc.scatter('textfile', files)
-    ipc.execute('text = open(textfile[0]).read()')
-    pfreqs = pwordfreq(ipc,'text')
-    print_wordfreq(freqs)
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/rmt.ipy b/docs/examples/kernel/rmt.ipy
deleted file mode 100644
index ab47c5e..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/rmt.ipy
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-#-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Driver code that the client runs.
-#-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# To run this code start a controller and engines using:
-# ipcluster -n 2
-# Then run the scripts by doing irunner rmt.ipy or by starting ipython and
-# doing run rmt.ipy.
-
-from rmtkernel import *
-from IPython.kernel import client
-
-
-def wignerDistribution(s):
-    """Returns (s, rho(s)) for the Wigner GOE distribution."""
-    return (numpy.pi*s/2.0) * numpy.exp(-numpy.pi*s**2/4.)
-
-
-def generateWignerData():
-    s = numpy.linspace(0.0,4.0,400)
-    rhos = wignerDistribution(s)
-    return s, rhos
-    
-
-def serialDiffs(num, N):
-    diffs = ensembleDiffs(num, N)
-    normalizedDiffs = normalizeDiffs(diffs)
-    return normalizedDiffs
-
-
-def parallelDiffs(rc, num, N):
-    nengines = len(rc.get_ids())
-    num_per_engine = num/nengines
-    print "Running with", num_per_engine, "per engine."
-    rc.push(dict(num_per_engine=num_per_engine, N=N))
-    rc.execute('diffs = ensembleDiffs(num_per_engine, N)')
-	# gather blocks always for now
-    pr = rc.gather('diffs')
-    return pr.r
-
-
-# Main code
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    rc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-    print "Distributing code to engines..."
-    r = rc.run('rmtkernel.py')
-    rc.block = False
-
-    # Simulation parameters
-    nmats = 100
-    matsize = 30
-    
-    %timeit -n1 -r1 serialDiffs(nmats,matsize)
-    %timeit -n1 -r1 parallelDiffs(rc, nmats, matsize)
-
-    # Uncomment these to plot the histogram
-    # import pylab
-    # pylab.hist(parallelDiffs(rc,matsize,matsize))
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/rmtkernel.py b/docs/examples/kernel/rmtkernel.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 2c913e2..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/rmtkernel.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,44 +0,0 @@
-#-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-# Core routines for computing properties of symmetric random matrices.
-#-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-import numpy
-ra = numpy.random
-la = numpy.linalg
-
-def GOE(N):
-    """Creates an NxN element of the Gaussian Orthogonal Ensemble"""
-    m = ra.standard_normal((N,N))
-    m += m.T
-    return m
-
-
-def centerEigenvalueDiff(mat):
-    """Compute the eigvals of mat and then find the center eigval difference."""
-    N = len(mat)
-    evals = numpy.sort(la.eigvals(mat))
-    diff = evals[N/2] - evals[N/2-1]
-    return diff.real
-
-
-def ensembleDiffs(num, N):
-    """Return an array of num eigenvalue differences for the NxN GOE
-    ensemble."""
-    diffs = numpy.empty(num)
-    for i in xrange(num):
-        mat = GOE(N)
-        diffs[i] = centerEigenvalueDiff(mat)
-    return diffs
-
-
-def normalizeDiffs(diffs):
-    """Normalize an array of eigenvalue diffs."""
-    return diffs/diffs.mean()
-
-
-def normalizedEnsembleDiffs(num, N):
-    """Return an array of num *normalized eigenvalue differences for the NxN
-    GOE ensemble."""
-    diffs = ensembleDiffs(num, N)
-    return normalizeDiffs(diffs)
-
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/task_profiler.py b/docs/examples/kernel/task_profiler.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 139e8ca..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/task_profiler.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,77 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env python
-"""Test the performance of the task farming system.
-
-This script submits a set of tasks to the TaskClient.  The tasks
-are basically just a time.sleep(t), where t is a random number between
-two limits that can be configured at the command line.  To run 
-the script there must first be an IPython controller and engines running::
-
-    ipcluster -n 16
-
-A good test to run with 16 engines is::
-
-    python task_profiler.py -n 128 -t 0.01 -T 1.0
-
-This should show a speedup of 13-14x.  The limitation here is that the 
-overhead of a single task is about 0.001-0.01 seconds.
-"""
-import random, sys
-from optparse import OptionParser
-
-from IPython.utils.timing import time
-from IPython.kernel import client
-
-def main():
-    parser = OptionParser()
-    parser.set_defaults(n=100)
-    parser.set_defaults(tmin=1)
-    parser.set_defaults(tmax=60)
-    parser.set_defaults(controller='localhost')
-    parser.set_defaults(meport=10105)
-    parser.set_defaults(tport=10113)
-    
-    parser.add_option("-n", type='int', dest='n',
-        help='the number of tasks to run')
-    parser.add_option("-t", type='float', dest='tmin', 
-        help='the minimum task length in seconds')
-    parser.add_option("-T", type='float', dest='tmax',
-        help='the maximum task length in seconds')
-    parser.add_option("-c", type='string', dest='controller',
-        help='the address of the controller')
-    parser.add_option("-p", type='int', dest='meport',
-        help="the port on which the controller listens for the MultiEngine/RemoteController client")
-    parser.add_option("-P", type='int', dest='tport',
-        help="the port on which the controller listens for the TaskClient client")
-    
-    (opts, args) = parser.parse_args()
-    assert opts.tmax >= opts.tmin, "tmax must not be smaller than tmin"
-    
-    rc = client.MultiEngineClient()
-    tc = client.TaskClient()
-    print tc.task_controller
-    rc.block=True
-    nengines = len(rc.get_ids())
-    rc.execute('from IPython.utils.timing import time')
-
-    # the jobs should take a random time within a range
-    times = [random.random()*(opts.tmax-opts.tmin)+opts.tmin for i in range(opts.n)]
-    tasks = [client.StringTask("time.sleep(%f)"%t) for t in times]
-    stime = sum(times)
-    
-    print "executing %i tasks, totalling %.1f secs on %i engines"%(opts.n, stime, nengines)
-    time.sleep(1)
-    start = time.time()
-    taskids = [tc.run(t) for t in tasks]
-    tc.barrier(taskids)
-    stop = time.time()
-
-    ptime = stop-start
-    scale = stime/ptime
-    
-    print "executed %.1f secs in %.1f secs"%(stime, ptime)
-    print "%.3fx parallel performance on %i engines"%(scale, nengines)
-    print "%.1f%% of theoretical max"%(100*scale/nengines)
-
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    main()
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq.py b/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq.py
deleted file mode 100644
index d762f18..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,66 +0,0 @@
-"""Count the frequencies of words in a string"""
-
-from __future__ import division
-
-import cmath as math
-
-
-def wordfreq(text):
-    """Return a dictionary of words and word counts in a string."""
-
-    freqs = {}
-    for word in text.split():
-        lword = word.lower()
-        freqs[lword] = freqs.get(lword, 0) + 1
-    return freqs
-
-
-def print_wordfreq(freqs, n=10):
-    """Print the n most common words and counts in the freqs dict."""
-    
-    words, counts = freqs.keys(), freqs.values()
-    items = zip(counts, words)
-    items.sort(reverse=True)
-    for (count, word) in items[:n]:
-        print word, count
-
-
-def wordfreq_to_weightsize(worddict, minsize=25, maxsize=50, minalpha=0.5, maxalpha=1.0):
-    mincount = min(worddict.itervalues())
-    maxcount = max(worddict.itervalues())
-    weights = {}
-    for k, v in worddict.iteritems():
-        w = (v-mincount)/(maxcount-mincount)
-        alpha = minalpha + (maxalpha-minalpha)*w
-        size = minsize + (maxsize-minsize)*w
-        weights[k] = (alpha, size)
-    return weights
-
-
-def tagcloud(worddict, n=10, minsize=25, maxsize=50, minalpha=0.5, maxalpha=1.0):
-    from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
-    import random
-
-    worddict = wordfreq_to_weightsize(worddict, minsize, maxsize, minalpha, maxalpha)
-
-    fig = plt.figure()
-    ax = fig.add_subplot(111)
-    ax.set_position([0.0,0.0,1.0,1.0])
-    plt.xticks([])
-    plt.yticks([])
-
-    words = worddict.keys()
-    alphas = [v[0] for v in worddict.values()]
-    sizes = [v[1] for v in worddict.values()]
-    items = zip(alphas, sizes, words)
-    items.sort(reverse=True)
-    for alpha, size, word in items[:n]:
-        # xpos = random.normalvariate(0.5, 0.3)
-        # ypos = random.normalvariate(0.5, 0.3)
-        xpos = random.uniform(0.0,1.0)
-        ypos = random.uniform(0.0,1.0)
-        ax.text(xpos, ypos, word.lower(), alpha=alpha, fontsize=size)
-    ax.autoscale_view()
-    return ax
-    
-    
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq_skel.py b/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq_skel.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 691ccdf..0000000
--- a/docs/examples/kernel/wordfreq_skel.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-"""Count the frequencies of words in a string"""
-
-def wordfreq(text):
-    """Return a dictionary of words and word counts in a string."""
-
-
-def print_wordfreq(freqs, n=10):
-    """Print the n most common words and counts in the freqs dict."""
-    words, counts = freqs.keys(), freqs.values()
-    items = zip(counts, words)
-    items.sort(reverse=True)
-    for (count, word) in items[:n]:
-        print word, count
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    import gzip
-    text = gzip.open('HISTORY.gz').read()
-    freqs = wordfreq(text)
\ No newline at end of file