Fix broken example in %alias docstring ('all' is now a builtin)

IPython/core/magic.py

@@ -1,3648 +1,3648 b''
 # encoding: utf-8
 """Magic functions for InteractiveShell.
 """
 
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 #  Copyright (C) 2001 Janko Hauser <[e-mail]> and
 #  Copyright (C) 2001-2007 Fernando Perez <[e-mail]>
 #  Copyright (C) 2008-2009  The IPython Development Team
 
 #  Distributed under the terms of the BSD License.  The full license is in
 #  the file COPYING, distributed as part of this software.
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 # Imports
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
 import __builtin__
 import __future__
 import bdb
 import inspect
 import os
 import sys
 import shutil
 import re
 import time
 import textwrap
 import types
 from cStringIO import StringIO
 from getopt import getopt,GetoptError
 from pprint import pformat
 
 # cProfile was added in Python2.5
 try:
     import cProfile as profile
     import pstats
 except ImportError:
     # profile isn't bundled by default in Debian for license reasons
     try:
         import profile,pstats
     except ImportError:
         profile = pstats = None
 
 # print_function was added to __future__ in Python2.6, remove this when we drop
 # 2.5 compatibility
 if not hasattr(__future__,'CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION'):
     __future__.CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION = 65536
 
 import IPython
 from IPython.core import debugger, oinspect
 from IPython.core.error import TryNext
 from IPython.core.error import UsageError
 from IPython.core.fakemodule import FakeModule
 from IPython.core.macro import Macro
 from IPython.core import page
 from IPython.core.prefilter import ESC_MAGIC
 from IPython.lib.pylabtools import mpl_runner
 from IPython.lib.inputhook import enable_gui
 from IPython.external.Itpl import itpl, printpl
 from IPython.testing import decorators as testdec
 from IPython.utils.io import file_read, nlprint
 import IPython.utils.io
 from IPython.utils.path import get_py_filename
 from IPython.utils.process import arg_split, abbrev_cwd
 from IPython.utils.terminal import set_term_title
 from IPython.utils.text import LSString, SList, StringTypes
 from IPython.utils.timing import clock, clock2
 from IPython.utils.warn import warn, error
 from IPython.utils.ipstruct import Struct
 import IPython.utils.generics
 
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 # Utility functions
 #-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
 def on_off(tag):
     """Return an ON/OFF string for a 1/0 input. Simple utility function."""
     return ['OFF','ON'][tag]
 
 class Bunch: pass
 
 def compress_dhist(dh):
     head, tail = dh[:-10], dh[-10:]
 
     newhead = []
     done = set()
     for h in head:
         if h in done:
             continue
         newhead.append(h)
         done.add(h)
 
     return newhead + tail        
 
 
 #***************************************************************************
 # Main class implementing Magic functionality
 
 # XXX - for some odd reason, if Magic is made a new-style class, we get errors
 # on construction of the main InteractiveShell object.  Something odd is going
 # on with super() calls, Configurable and the MRO... For now leave it as-is, but
 # eventually this needs to be clarified.
 # BG: This is because InteractiveShell inherits from this, but is itself a 
 # Configurable. This messes up the MRO in some way. The fix is that we need to
 # make Magic a configurable that InteractiveShell does not subclass.
 
 class Magic:
     """Magic functions for InteractiveShell.
 
     Shell functions which can be reached as %function_name. All magic
     functions should accept a string, which they can parse for their own
     needs. This can make some functions easier to type, eg `%cd ../`
     vs. `%cd("../")`
 
     ALL definitions MUST begin with the prefix magic_. The user won't need it
     at the command line, but it is is needed in the definition. """
 
     # class globals
     auto_status = ['Automagic is OFF, % prefix IS needed for magic functions.',
                    'Automagic is ON, % prefix NOT needed for magic functions.']
 
     #......................................................................
     # some utility functions
 
     def __init__(self,shell):
         
         self.options_table = {}
         if profile is None:
             self.magic_prun = self.profile_missing_notice
         self.shell = shell
 
         # namespace for holding state we may need
         self._magic_state = Bunch()
 
     def profile_missing_notice(self, *args, **kwargs):
         error("""\
 The profile module could not be found. It has been removed from the standard
 python packages because of its non-free license. To use profiling, install the
 python-profiler package from non-free.""")
 
     def default_option(self,fn,optstr):
         """Make an entry in the options_table for fn, with value optstr"""
 
         if fn not in self.lsmagic():
             error("%s is not a magic function" % fn)
         self.options_table[fn] = optstr
 
     def lsmagic(self):
         """Return a list of currently available magic functions.
 
         Gives a list of the bare names after mangling (['ls','cd', ...], not
         ['magic_ls','magic_cd',...]"""
 
         # FIXME. This needs a cleanup, in the way the magics list is built.
         
         # magics in class definition
         class_magic = lambda fn: fn.startswith('magic_') and \
                       callable(Magic.__dict__[fn])
         # in instance namespace (run-time user additions)
         inst_magic =  lambda fn: fn.startswith('magic_') and \
                      callable(self.__dict__[fn])
         # and bound magics by user (so they can access self):
         inst_bound_magic =  lambda fn: fn.startswith('magic_') and \
                            callable(self.__class__.__dict__[fn])
         magics = filter(class_magic,Magic.__dict__.keys()) + \
                  filter(inst_magic,self.__dict__.keys()) + \
                  filter(inst_bound_magic,self.__class__.__dict__.keys())
         out = []
         for fn in set(magics):
             out.append(fn.replace('magic_','',1))
         out.sort()
         return out
     
     def extract_input_slices(self,slices,raw=False):
         """Return as a string a set of input history slices.
 
         Inputs:
 
           - slices: the set of slices is given as a list of strings (like
           ['1','4:8','9'], since this function is for use by magic functions
           which get their arguments as strings.
 
         Optional inputs:
 
           - raw(False): by default, the processed input is used.  If this is
           true, the raw input history is used instead.
 
         Note that slices can be called with two notations:
 
         N:M -> standard python form, means including items N...(M-1).
 
         N-M -> include items N..M (closed endpoint)."""
 
         if raw:
             hist = self.shell.input_hist_raw
         else:
             hist = self.shell.input_hist
 
         cmds = []
         for chunk in slices:
             if ':' in chunk:
                 ini,fin = map(int,chunk.split(':'))
             elif '-' in chunk:
                 ini,fin = map(int,chunk.split('-'))
                 fin += 1
             else:
                 ini = int(chunk)
                 fin = ini+1
             cmds.append(hist[ini:fin])
         return cmds
         
     def _ofind(self, oname, namespaces=None):
         """Find an object in the available namespaces.
 
         self._ofind(oname) -> dict with keys: found,obj,ospace,ismagic
 
         Has special code to detect magic functions.
         """
         oname = oname.strip()
         alias_ns = None
         if namespaces is None:
             # Namespaces to search in:
             # Put them in a list. The order is important so that we
             # find things in the same order that Python finds them.
             namespaces = [ ('Interactive', self.shell.user_ns),
                            ('IPython internal', self.shell.internal_ns),
                            ('Python builtin', __builtin__.__dict__),
                            ('Alias', self.shell.alias_manager.alias_table),
                            ]
             alias_ns = self.shell.alias_manager.alias_table
 
         # initialize results to 'null'
         found = False; obj = None;  ospace = None;  ds = None;
         ismagic = False; isalias = False; parent = None
 
         # We need to special-case 'print', which as of python2.6 registers as a
         # function but should only be treated as one if print_function was
         # loaded with a future import.  In this case, just bail.
         if (oname == 'print' and not (self.shell.compile.compiler.flags &
                                       __future__.CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION)):
             return {'found':found, 'obj':obj, 'namespace':ospace,
                     'ismagic':ismagic, 'isalias':isalias, 'parent':parent}
 
         # Look for the given name by splitting it in parts.  If the head is
         # found, then we look for all the remaining parts as members, and only
         # declare success if we can find them all.
         oname_parts = oname.split('.')
         oname_head, oname_rest = oname_parts[0],oname_parts[1:]
         for nsname,ns in namespaces:
             try:
                 obj = ns[oname_head]
             except KeyError:
                 continue
             else:
                 #print 'oname_rest:', oname_rest  # dbg
                 for part in oname_rest:
                     try:
                         parent = obj
                         obj = getattr(obj,part)
                     except:
                         # Blanket except b/c some badly implemented objects
                         # allow __getattr__ to raise exceptions other than
                         # AttributeError, which then crashes IPython.
                         break
                 else:
                     # If we finish the for loop (no break), we got all members
                     found = True
                     ospace = nsname
                     if ns == alias_ns:
                         isalias = True
                     break  # namespace loop
 
         # Try to see if it's magic
         if not found:
             if oname.startswith(ESC_MAGIC):
                 oname = oname[1:]
             obj = getattr(self,'magic_'+oname,None)
             if obj is not None:
                 found = True
                 ospace = 'IPython internal'
                 ismagic = True
 
         # Last try: special-case some literals like '', [], {}, etc:
         if not found and oname_head in ["''",'""','[]','{}','()']:
             obj = eval(oname_head)
             found = True
             ospace = 'Interactive'
             
         return {'found':found, 'obj':obj, 'namespace':ospace,
                 'ismagic':ismagic, 'isalias':isalias, 'parent':parent}
     
     def arg_err(self,func):
         """Print docstring if incorrect arguments were passed"""
         print 'Error in arguments:'
         print oinspect.getdoc(func)
 
     def format_latex(self,strng):
         """Format a string for latex inclusion."""
 
         # Characters that need to be escaped for latex:
         escape_re = re.compile(r'(%|_|\$|#|&)',re.MULTILINE)
         # Magic command names as headers:
         cmd_name_re = re.compile(r'^(%s.*?):' % ESC_MAGIC,
                                  re.MULTILINE)
         # Magic commands 
         cmd_re = re.compile(r'(?P<cmd>%s.+?\b)(?!\}\}:)' % ESC_MAGIC,
                             re.MULTILINE)
         # Paragraph continue
         par_re = re.compile(r'\\$',re.MULTILINE)
 
         # The "\n" symbol
         newline_re = re.compile(r'\\n')
 
         # Now build the string for output:
         #strng = cmd_name_re.sub(r'\n\\texttt{\\textsl{\\large \1}}:',strng)
         strng = cmd_name_re.sub(r'\n\\bigskip\n\\texttt{\\textbf{ \1}}:',
                                 strng)
         strng = cmd_re.sub(r'\\texttt{\g<cmd>}',strng)
         strng = par_re.sub(r'\\\\',strng)
         strng = escape_re.sub(r'\\\1',strng)
         strng = newline_re.sub(r'\\textbackslash{}n',strng)
         return strng
 
     def format_screen(self,strng):
         """Format a string for screen printing.
 
         This removes some latex-type format codes."""
         # Paragraph continue
         par_re = re.compile(r'\\$',re.MULTILINE)
         strng = par_re.sub('',strng)
         return strng
 
     def parse_options(self,arg_str,opt_str,*long_opts,**kw):
         """Parse options passed to an argument string.
 
         The interface is similar to that of getopt(), but it returns back a
         Struct with the options as keys and the stripped argument string still
         as a string.
 
         arg_str is quoted as a true sys.argv vector by using shlex.split.
         This allows us to easily expand variables, glob files, quote
         arguments, etc.
 
         Options:
           -mode: default 'string'. If given as 'list', the argument string is
           returned as a list (split on whitespace) instead of a string.
 
           -list_all: put all option values in lists. Normally only options
           appearing more than once are put in a list.
 
           -posix (True): whether to split the input line in POSIX mode or not,
           as per the conventions outlined in the shlex module from the
           standard library."""
  
         # inject default options at the beginning of the input line
         caller = sys._getframe(1).f_code.co_name.replace('magic_','')
         arg_str = '%s %s' % (self.options_table.get(caller,''),arg_str)
         
         mode = kw.get('mode','string')
         if mode not in ['string','list']:
             raise ValueError,'incorrect mode given: %s' % mode
         # Get options
         list_all = kw.get('list_all',0)
         posix = kw.get('posix', os.name == 'posix')
 
         # Check if we have more than one argument to warrant extra processing:
         odict = {}  # Dictionary with options
         args = arg_str.split()
         if len(args) >= 1:
             # If the list of inputs only has 0 or 1 thing in it, there's no
             # need to look for options
             argv = arg_split(arg_str,posix)
             # Do regular option processing
             try:
                 opts,args = getopt(argv,opt_str,*long_opts)
             except GetoptError,e:
                 raise UsageError('%s ( allowed: "%s" %s)' % (e.msg,opt_str, 
                                         " ".join(long_opts)))
             for o,a in opts:
                 if o.startswith('--'):
                     o = o[2:]
                 else:
                     o = o[1:]
                 try:
                     odict[o].append(a)
                 except AttributeError:
                     odict[o] = [odict[o],a]
                 except KeyError:
                     if list_all:
                         odict[o] = [a]
                     else:
                         odict[o] = a
 
         # Prepare opts,args for return
         opts = Struct(odict)
         if mode == 'string':
             args = ' '.join(args)
 
         return opts,args
     
     #......................................................................
     # And now the actual magic functions
 
     # Functions for IPython shell work (vars,funcs, config, etc)
     def magic_lsmagic(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """List currently available magic functions."""
         mesc = ESC_MAGIC
         print 'Available magic functions:\n'+mesc+\
               ('  '+mesc).join(self.lsmagic())
         print '\n' + Magic.auto_status[self.shell.automagic]
         return None
         
     def magic_magic(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Print information about the magic function system.
         
         Supported formats: -latex, -brief, -rest        
         """
 
         mode = ''
         try:
             if parameter_s.split()[0] == '-latex':
                 mode = 'latex'
             if parameter_s.split()[0] == '-brief':
                 mode = 'brief'
             if parameter_s.split()[0] == '-rest':
                 mode = 'rest'
                 rest_docs = []
         except:
             pass
 
         magic_docs = []
         for fname in self.lsmagic():
             mname = 'magic_' + fname
             for space in (Magic,self,self.__class__):
                 try:
                     fn = space.__dict__[mname]
                 except KeyError:
                     pass
                 else:
                     break
             if mode == 'brief':
                 # only first line
                 if fn.__doc__:                    
                     fndoc = fn.__doc__.split('\n',1)[0]
                 else:
                     fndoc = 'No documentation'
             else:
                 if fn.__doc__:
                     fndoc = fn.__doc__.rstrip()       
                 else:
                     fndoc = 'No documentation'
                 
                 
             if mode == 'rest':
                 rest_docs.append('**%s%s**::\n\n\t%s\n\n' %(ESC_MAGIC,
                                                     fname,fndoc))
                 
             else:
                 magic_docs.append('%s%s:\n\t%s\n' %(ESC_MAGIC,
                                                     fname,fndoc))
                 
         magic_docs = ''.join(magic_docs)
 
         if mode == 'rest':
             return "".join(rest_docs)
         
         if mode == 'latex':
             print self.format_latex(magic_docs)
             return
         else:
             magic_docs = self.format_screen(magic_docs)
         if mode == 'brief':
             return magic_docs
         
         outmsg = """
 IPython's 'magic' functions
 ===========================
 
 The magic function system provides a series of functions which allow you to
 control the behavior of IPython itself, plus a lot of system-type
 features. All these functions are prefixed with a % character, but parameters
 are given without parentheses or quotes.
 
 NOTE: If you have 'automagic' enabled (via the command line option or with the
 %automagic function), you don't need to type in the % explicitly.  By default,
 IPython ships with automagic on, so you should only rarely need the % escape.
 
 Example: typing '%cd mydir' (without the quotes) changes you working directory
 to 'mydir', if it exists.
 
 You can define your own magic functions to extend the system. See the supplied
 ipythonrc and example-magic.py files for details (in your ipython
 configuration directory, typically $HOME/.ipython/).
 
 You can also define your own aliased names for magic functions. In your
 ipythonrc file, placing a line like:
 
   execute __IPYTHON__.magic_pf = __IPYTHON__.magic_profile
 
 will define %pf as a new name for %profile.
 
 You can also call magics in code using the magic() function, which IPython
 automatically adds to the builtin namespace.  Type 'magic?' for details.
 
 For a list of the available magic functions, use %lsmagic. For a description
 of any of them, type %magic_name?, e.g. '%cd?'.
 
 Currently the magic system has the following functions:\n"""
 
         mesc = ESC_MAGIC
         outmsg = ("%s\n%s\n\nSummary of magic functions (from %slsmagic):"
                   "\n\n%s%s\n\n%s" % (outmsg,
                                      magic_docs,mesc,mesc,
                                      ('  '+mesc).join(self.lsmagic()),
                                      Magic.auto_status[self.shell.automagic] ) )
         page.page(outmsg)
 
     def magic_autoindent(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Toggle autoindent on/off (if available)."""
 
         self.shell.set_autoindent()
         print "Automatic indentation is:",['OFF','ON'][self.shell.autoindent]
 
     def magic_automagic(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Make magic functions callable without having to type the initial %.
 
         Without argumentsl toggles on/off (when off, you must call it as
         %automagic, of course).  With arguments it sets the value, and you can
         use any of (case insensitive):
 
          - on,1,True: to activate
 
          - off,0,False: to deactivate.
 
         Note that magic functions have lowest priority, so if there's a
         variable whose name collides with that of a magic fn, automagic won't
         work for that function (you get the variable instead). However, if you
         delete the variable (del var), the previously shadowed magic function
         becomes visible to automagic again."""
 
         arg = parameter_s.lower()
         if parameter_s in ('on','1','true'):
             self.shell.automagic = True
         elif parameter_s in ('off','0','false'):
             self.shell.automagic = False
         else:
             self.shell.automagic = not self.shell.automagic
         print '\n' + Magic.auto_status[self.shell.automagic]
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_autocall(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Make functions callable without having to type parentheses.
 
         Usage:
 
            %autocall [mode]
 
         The mode can be one of: 0->Off, 1->Smart, 2->Full.  If not given, the
         value is toggled on and off (remembering the previous state).
 
         In more detail, these values mean:
 
         0 -> fully disabled
 
         1 -> active, but do not apply if there are no arguments on the line.
 
         In this mode, you get:
 
         In [1]: callable
         Out[1]: <built-in function callable>
 
         In [2]: callable 'hello'
         ------> callable('hello')
         Out[2]: False
 
         2 -> Active always.  Even if no arguments are present, the callable
         object is called:
 
         In [2]: float
         ------> float()
         Out[2]: 0.0
 
         Note that even with autocall off, you can still use '/' at the start of
         a line to treat the first argument on the command line as a function
         and add parentheses to it:
 
         In [8]: /str 43
         ------> str(43)
         Out[8]: '43'
 
         # all-random (note for auto-testing)
         """
 
         if parameter_s:
             arg = int(parameter_s)
         else:
             arg = 'toggle'
 
         if not arg in (0,1,2,'toggle'):
             error('Valid modes: (0->Off, 1->Smart, 2->Full')
             return
 
         if arg in (0,1,2):
             self.shell.autocall = arg
         else: # toggle
             if self.shell.autocall:
                 self._magic_state.autocall_save = self.shell.autocall
                 self.shell.autocall = 0
             else:
                 try:
                     self.shell.autocall = self._magic_state.autocall_save
                 except AttributeError:
                     self.shell.autocall = self._magic_state.autocall_save = 1
 
         print "Automatic calling is:",['OFF','Smart','Full'][self.shell.autocall]
 
     def magic_system_verbose(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Set verbose printing of system calls.
 
         If called without an argument, act as a toggle"""
 
         if parameter_s:
             val = bool(eval(parameter_s))
         else:
             val = None
 
         if self.shell.system_verbose:
             self.shell.system_verbose = False
         else:
             self.shell.system_verbose = True
         print "System verbose printing is:",\
               ['OFF','ON'][self.shell.system_verbose]
 
 
     def magic_page(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Pretty print the object and display it through a pager.
         
         %page [options] OBJECT
 
         If no object is given, use _ (last output).
         
         Options:
 
           -r: page str(object), don't pretty-print it."""
 
         # After a function contributed by Olivier Aubert, slightly modified.
 
         # Process options/args
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'r')
         raw = 'r' in opts
 
         oname = args and args or '_'
         info = self._ofind(oname)
         if info['found']:
             txt = (raw and str or pformat)( info['obj'] )
             page.page(txt)
         else:
             print 'Object `%s` not found' % oname
 
     def magic_profile(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Print your currently active IPython profile."""
         if self.shell.profile:
             printpl('Current IPython profile: $self.shell.profile.')
         else:
             print 'No profile active.'
 
     def magic_pinfo(self, parameter_s='', namespaces=None):
         """Provide detailed information about an object.
     
         '%pinfo object' is just a synonym for object? or ?object."""
     
         #print 'pinfo par: <%s>' % parameter_s  # dbg
     
         
         # detail_level: 0 -> obj? , 1 -> obj??
         detail_level = 0
         # We need to detect if we got called as 'pinfo pinfo foo', which can
         # happen if the user types 'pinfo foo?' at the cmd line.
         pinfo,qmark1,oname,qmark2 = \
                re.match('(pinfo )?(\?*)(.*?)(\??$)',parameter_s).groups()
         if pinfo or qmark1 or qmark2:
             detail_level = 1
         if "*" in oname:
             self.magic_psearch(oname)
         else:
             self._inspect('pinfo', oname, detail_level=detail_level,
                           namespaces=namespaces)
 
     def magic_pdef(self, parameter_s='', namespaces=None):
         """Print the definition header for any callable object.
 
         If the object is a class, print the constructor information."""
         self._inspect('pdef',parameter_s, namespaces)
 
     def magic_pdoc(self, parameter_s='', namespaces=None):
         """Print the docstring for an object.
 
         If the given object is a class, it will print both the class and the
         constructor docstrings."""
         self._inspect('pdoc',parameter_s, namespaces)
 
     def magic_psource(self, parameter_s='', namespaces=None):
         """Print (or run through pager) the source code for an object."""
         self._inspect('psource',parameter_s, namespaces)
 
     def magic_pfile(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Print (or run through pager) the file where an object is defined.
 
         The file opens at the line where the object definition begins. IPython
         will honor the environment variable PAGER if set, and otherwise will
         do its best to print the file in a convenient form.
 
         If the given argument is not an object currently defined, IPython will
         try to interpret it as a filename (automatically adding a .py extension
         if needed). You can thus use %pfile as a syntax highlighting code
         viewer."""
 
         # first interpret argument as an object name
         out = self._inspect('pfile',parameter_s)
         # if not, try the input as a filename
         if out == 'not found':
             try:
                 filename = get_py_filename(parameter_s)
             except IOError,msg:
                 print msg
                 return
             page.page(self.shell.inspector.format(file(filename).read()))
 
     def _inspect(self,meth,oname,namespaces=None,**kw):
         """Generic interface to the inspector system.
 
         This function is meant to be called by pdef, pdoc & friends."""
 
         #oname = oname.strip()
         #print '1- oname: <%r>' % oname  # dbg
         try:
             oname = oname.strip().encode('ascii')
             #print '2- oname: <%r>' % oname  # dbg
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             print 'Python identifiers can only contain ascii characters.'
             return 'not found'
             
         info = Struct(self._ofind(oname, namespaces))
         
         if info.found:
             try:
                 IPython.utils.generics.inspect_object(info.obj)
                 return
             except TryNext:
                 pass
             # Get the docstring of the class property if it exists.
             path = oname.split('.')
             root = '.'.join(path[:-1])
             if info.parent is not None:
                 try:
                     target = getattr(info.parent, '__class__') 
                     # The object belongs to a class instance. 
                     try: 
                         target = getattr(target, path[-1])
                         # The class defines the object. 
                         if isinstance(target, property):
                             oname = root + '.__class__.' + path[-1]
                             info = Struct(self._ofind(oname))
                     except AttributeError: pass
                 except AttributeError: pass
                         
             pmethod = getattr(self.shell.inspector,meth)
             formatter = info.ismagic and self.format_screen or None
             if meth == 'pdoc':
                 pmethod(info.obj,oname,formatter)
             elif meth == 'pinfo':
                 pmethod(info.obj,oname,formatter,info,**kw)
             else:
                 pmethod(info.obj,oname)
         else:
             print 'Object `%s` not found.' % oname
             return 'not found'  # so callers can take other action
         
     def magic_psearch(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Search for object in namespaces by wildcard.
 
         %psearch [options] PATTERN [OBJECT TYPE]
 
         Note: ? can be used as a synonym for %psearch, at the beginning or at
         the end: both a*? and ?a* are equivalent to '%psearch a*'.  Still, the
         rest of the command line must be unchanged (options come first), so
         for example the following forms are equivalent
 
         %psearch -i a* function
         -i a* function?
         ?-i a* function
 
         Arguments:
         
           PATTERN
 
           where PATTERN is a string containing * as a wildcard similar to its
           use in a shell.  The pattern is matched in all namespaces on the
           search path. By default objects starting with a single _ are not
           matched, many IPython generated objects have a single
           underscore. The default is case insensitive matching. Matching is
           also done on the attributes of objects and not only on the objects
           in a module.
 
           [OBJECT TYPE]
 
           Is the name of a python type from the types module. The name is
           given in lowercase without the ending type, ex. StringType is
           written string. By adding a type here only objects matching the
           given type are matched. Using all here makes the pattern match all
           types (this is the default).
 
         Options:
 
           -a: makes the pattern match even objects whose names start with a
           single underscore.  These names are normally ommitted from the
           search.
 
           -i/-c: make the pattern case insensitive/sensitive.  If neither of
           these options is given, the default is read from your ipythonrc
           file.  The option name which sets this value is
           'wildcards_case_sensitive'.  If this option is not specified in your
           ipythonrc file, IPython's internal default is to do a case sensitive
           search.
 
           -e/-s NAMESPACE: exclude/search a given namespace.  The pattern you
           specifiy can be searched in any of the following namespaces:
           'builtin', 'user', 'user_global','internal', 'alias', where
           'builtin' and 'user' are the search defaults.  Note that you should
           not use quotes when specifying namespaces.
 
           'Builtin' contains the python module builtin, 'user' contains all
           user data, 'alias' only contain the shell aliases and no python
           objects, 'internal' contains objects used by IPython.  The
           'user_global' namespace is only used by embedded IPython instances,
           and it contains module-level globals.  You can add namespaces to the
           search with -s or exclude them with -e (these options can be given
           more than once).
     
         Examples:
        
         %psearch a*            -> objects beginning with an a
         %psearch -e builtin a* -> objects NOT in the builtin space starting in a
         %psearch a* function   -> all functions beginning with an a
         %psearch re.e*         -> objects beginning with an e in module re
         %psearch r*.e*         -> objects that start with e in modules starting in r
         %psearch r*.* string   -> all strings in modules beginning with r
 
         Case sensitve search:
        
         %psearch -c a*         list all object beginning with lower case a
 
         Show objects beginning with a single _:
        
         %psearch -a _*         list objects beginning with a single underscore"""
         try:
             parameter_s = parameter_s.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             print 'Python identifiers can only contain ascii characters.'
             return
 
         # default namespaces to be searched
         def_search = ['user','builtin']
 
         # Process options/args
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'cias:e:',list_all=True)
         opt = opts.get
         shell = self.shell
         psearch = shell.inspector.psearch
 
         # select case options
         if opts.has_key('i'):
             ignore_case = True
         elif opts.has_key('c'):
             ignore_case = False
         else:
             ignore_case = not shell.wildcards_case_sensitive
 
         # Build list of namespaces to search from user options
         def_search.extend(opt('s',[]))
         ns_exclude = ns_exclude=opt('e',[])
         ns_search = [nm for nm in def_search if nm not in ns_exclude]
         
         # Call the actual search
         try:
             psearch(args,shell.ns_table,ns_search,
                     show_all=opt('a'),ignore_case=ignore_case)
         except:
             shell.showtraceback()
         
     def magic_who_ls(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Return a sorted list of all interactive variables.
 
         If arguments are given, only variables of types matching these
         arguments are returned."""
 
         user_ns = self.shell.user_ns
         internal_ns = self.shell.internal_ns
         user_ns_hidden = self.shell.user_ns_hidden
         out = [ i for i in user_ns
                 if not i.startswith('_') \
                 and not (i in internal_ns or i in user_ns_hidden) ]
 
         typelist = parameter_s.split()
         if typelist:
             typeset = set(typelist)
             out = [i for i in out if type(i).__name__ in typeset]
 
         out.sort()
         return out
         
     def magic_who(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Print all interactive variables, with some minimal formatting.
 
         If any arguments are given, only variables whose type matches one of
         these are printed.  For example:
 
           %who function str
 
         will only list functions and strings, excluding all other types of
         variables.  To find the proper type names, simply use type(var) at a
         command line to see how python prints type names.  For example:
 
           In [1]: type('hello')\\
           Out[1]: <type 'str'>
 
         indicates that the type name for strings is 'str'.
 
         %who always excludes executed names loaded through your configuration
         file and things which are internal to IPython.
 
         This is deliberate, as typically you may load many modules and the
         purpose of %who is to show you only what you've manually defined."""
 
         varlist = self.magic_who_ls(parameter_s)
         if not varlist:
             if parameter_s:
                 print 'No variables match your requested type.'
             else:
                 print 'Interactive namespace is empty.'
             return
 
         # if we have variables, move on...
         count = 0
         for i in varlist:
             print i+'\t',
             count += 1
             if count > 8:
                 count = 0
                 print
         print
 
     def magic_whos(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Like %who, but gives some extra information about each variable.
 
         The same type filtering of %who can be applied here.
 
         For all variables, the type is printed. Additionally it prints:
         
           - For {},[],(): their length.
 
           - For numpy and Numeric arrays, a summary with shape, number of
           elements, typecode and size in memory.
 
           - Everything else: a string representation, snipping their middle if
           too long."""
         
         varnames = self.magic_who_ls(parameter_s)
         if not varnames:
             if parameter_s:
                 print 'No variables match your requested type.'
             else:
                 print 'Interactive namespace is empty.'
             return
 
         # if we have variables, move on...
 
         # for these types, show len() instead of data:
         seq_types = [types.DictType,types.ListType,types.TupleType]
 
         # for numpy/Numeric arrays, display summary info
         try:
             import numpy
         except ImportError:
             ndarray_type = None
         else:
             ndarray_type = numpy.ndarray.__name__
         try:
             import Numeric
         except ImportError:
             array_type = None
         else:
             array_type = Numeric.ArrayType.__name__
 
         # Find all variable names and types so we can figure out column sizes
         def get_vars(i):
             return self.shell.user_ns[i]
         
         # some types are well known and can be shorter
         abbrevs = {'IPython.core.macro.Macro' : 'Macro'}
         def type_name(v):
             tn = type(v).__name__
             return abbrevs.get(tn,tn)
             
         varlist = map(get_vars,varnames)
 
         typelist = []
         for vv in varlist:
             tt = type_name(vv)
 
             if tt=='instance':
                 typelist.append( abbrevs.get(str(vv.__class__),
                                              str(vv.__class__)))
             else:
                 typelist.append(tt)
 
         # column labels and # of spaces as separator
         varlabel = 'Variable'
         typelabel = 'Type'
         datalabel = 'Data/Info'
         colsep = 3
         # variable format strings
         vformat    = "$vname.ljust(varwidth)$vtype.ljust(typewidth)"
         vfmt_short = '$vstr[:25]<...>$vstr[-25:]'
         aformat    = "%s: %s elems, type `%s`, %s bytes"
         # find the size of the columns to format the output nicely
         varwidth = max(max(map(len,varnames)), len(varlabel)) + colsep
         typewidth = max(max(map(len,typelist)), len(typelabel)) + colsep
         # table header
         print varlabel.ljust(varwidth) + typelabel.ljust(typewidth) + \
               ' '+datalabel+'\n' + '-'*(varwidth+typewidth+len(datalabel)+1)
         # and the table itself
         kb = 1024
         Mb = 1048576  # kb**2
         for vname,var,vtype in zip(varnames,varlist,typelist):
             print itpl(vformat),
             if vtype in seq_types:
                 print len(var)
             elif vtype in [array_type,ndarray_type]:
                 vshape = str(var.shape).replace(',','').replace(' ','x')[1:-1]
                 if vtype==ndarray_type:
                     # numpy
                     vsize  = var.size
                     vbytes = vsize*var.itemsize
                     vdtype = var.dtype
                 else:
                     # Numeric
                     vsize  = Numeric.size(var)
                     vbytes = vsize*var.itemsize()
                     vdtype = var.typecode()
                     
                 if vbytes < 100000:
                     print aformat % (vshape,vsize,vdtype,vbytes)
                 else:
                     print aformat % (vshape,vsize,vdtype,vbytes),
                     if vbytes < Mb:
                         print '(%s kb)' % (vbytes/kb,)
                     else:
                         print '(%s Mb)' % (vbytes/Mb,)
             else:
                 try:
                     vstr = str(var)
                 except UnicodeEncodeError:
                     vstr = unicode(var).encode(sys.getdefaultencoding(),
                                                'backslashreplace')
                 vstr = vstr.replace('\n','\\n')
                 if len(vstr) < 50:
                     print vstr
                 else:
                     printpl(vfmt_short)
                 
     def magic_reset(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Resets the namespace by removing all names defined by the user.
 
         Input/Output history are left around in case you need them.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
           -y : force reset without asking for confirmation.
 
         Examples
         --------
         In [6]: a = 1
 
         In [7]: a
         Out[7]: 1
 
         In [8]: 'a' in _ip.user_ns
         Out[8]: True
 
         In [9]: %reset -f
 
         In [10]: 'a' in _ip.user_ns
         Out[10]: False
         """
 
         if parameter_s == '-f':
             ans = True
         else:
             ans = self.shell.ask_yes_no(
                 "Once deleted, variables cannot be recovered. Proceed (y/[n])? ")
         if not ans:
             print 'Nothing done.'
             return
         user_ns = self.shell.user_ns
         for i in self.magic_who_ls():
             del(user_ns[i])
             
         # Also flush the private list of module references kept for script
         # execution protection
         self.shell.clear_main_mod_cache()
 
     def magic_reset_selective(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Resets the namespace by removing names defined by the user.
 
         Input/Output history are left around in case you need them.
 
         %reset_selective [-f] regex
 
         No action is taken if regex is not included
         
         Options
           -f : force reset without asking for confirmation.
 
         Examples
         --------
 
         We first fully reset the namespace so your output looks identical to
         this example for pedagogical reasons; in practice you do not need a
         full reset.
         
         In [1]: %reset -f
 
         Now, with a clean namespace we can make a few variables and use
         %reset_selective to only delete names that match our regexp:
 
         In [2]: a=1; b=2; c=3; b1m=4; b2m=5; b3m=6; b4m=7; b2s=8
 
         In [3]: who_ls
         Out[3]: ['a', 'b', 'b1m', 'b2m', 'b2s', 'b3m', 'b4m', 'c']
 
         In [4]: %reset_selective -f b[2-3]m
 
         In [5]: who_ls
         Out[5]: ['a', 'b', 'b1m', 'b2s', 'b4m', 'c']
 
         In [6]: %reset_selective -f d
 
         In [7]: who_ls
         Out[7]: ['a', 'b', 'b1m', 'b2s', 'b4m', 'c']
 
         In [8]: %reset_selective -f c
 
         In [9]: who_ls
         Out[9]: ['a', 'b', 'b1m', 'b2s', 'b4m']
 
         In [10]: %reset_selective -f b
 
         In [11]: who_ls
         Out[11]: ['a']
         """
         
         opts, regex = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'f')
         
         if opts.has_key('f'):
             ans = True
         else:
             ans = self.shell.ask_yes_no(
                 "Once deleted, variables cannot be recovered. Proceed (y/[n])? ")
         if not ans:
             print 'Nothing done.'
             return
         user_ns = self.shell.user_ns
         if not regex:
             print 'No regex pattern specified. Nothing done.'
             return
         else:
             try:
                 m = re.compile(regex)
             except TypeError:
                 raise TypeError('regex must be a string or compiled pattern')
             for i in self.magic_who_ls():
                 if m.search(i): 
                     del(user_ns[i])        
         
     def magic_logstart(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Start logging anywhere in a session.
 
         %logstart [-o|-r|-t] [log_name [log_mode]]
 
         If no name is given, it defaults to a file named 'ipython_log.py' in your
         current directory, in 'rotate' mode (see below).
 
         '%logstart name' saves to file 'name' in 'backup' mode.  It saves your
         history up to that point and then continues logging.
 
         %logstart takes a second optional parameter: logging mode. This can be one
         of (note that the modes are given unquoted):\\
           append: well, that says it.\\
           backup: rename (if exists) to name~ and start name.\\
           global: single logfile in your home dir, appended to.\\
           over  : overwrite existing log.\\
           rotate: create rotating logs name.1~, name.2~, etc.
 
         Options:
 
           -o: log also IPython's output.  In this mode, all commands which
           generate an Out[NN] prompt are recorded to the logfile, right after
           their corresponding input line.  The output lines are always
           prepended with a '#[Out]# ' marker, so that the log remains valid
           Python code.
 
           Since this marker is always the same, filtering only the output from
           a log is very easy, using for example a simple awk call:
 
             awk -F'#\\[Out\\]# ' '{if($2) {print $2}}' ipython_log.py
 
           -r: log 'raw' input.  Normally, IPython's logs contain the processed
           input, so that user lines are logged in their final form, converted
           into valid Python.  For example, %Exit is logged as
           '_ip.magic("Exit").  If the -r flag is given, all input is logged
           exactly as typed, with no transformations applied.
 
           -t: put timestamps before each input line logged (these are put in
           comments)."""
         
         opts,par = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'ort')
         log_output = 'o' in opts
         log_raw_input = 'r' in opts
         timestamp = 't' in opts
 
         logger = self.shell.logger
 
         # if no args are given, the defaults set in the logger constructor by
         # ipytohn remain valid
         if par:
             try:
                 logfname,logmode = par.split()
             except:
                 logfname = par
                 logmode = 'backup'
         else:
             logfname = logger.logfname
             logmode = logger.logmode
         # put logfname into rc struct as if it had been called on the command
         # line, so it ends up saved in the log header Save it in case we need
         # to restore it...
         old_logfile = self.shell.logfile
         if logfname:
             logfname = os.path.expanduser(logfname)
         self.shell.logfile = logfname
 
         loghead = '# IPython log file\n\n'
         try:
             started  = logger.logstart(logfname,loghead,logmode,
                                        log_output,timestamp,log_raw_input)
         except:
             self.shell.logfile = old_logfile
             warn("Couldn't start log: %s" % sys.exc_info()[1])
         else:
             # log input history up to this point, optionally interleaving
             # output if requested
 
             if timestamp:
                 # disable timestamping for the previous history, since we've
                 # lost those already (no time machine here).
                 logger.timestamp = False
 
             if log_raw_input:
                 input_hist = self.shell.input_hist_raw
             else:
                 input_hist = self.shell.input_hist
                 
             if log_output:
                 log_write = logger.log_write
                 output_hist = self.shell.output_hist
                 for n in range(1,len(input_hist)-1):
                     log_write(input_hist[n].rstrip())
                     if n in output_hist:
                         log_write(repr(output_hist[n]),'output')
             else:
                 logger.log_write(input_hist[1:])
             if timestamp:
                 # re-enable timestamping
                 logger.timestamp = True
                 
             print ('Activating auto-logging. '
                    'Current session state plus future input saved.')
             logger.logstate()
 
     def magic_logstop(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Fully stop logging and close log file.
 
         In order to start logging again, a new %logstart call needs to be made,
         possibly (though not necessarily) with a new filename, mode and other
         options."""
         self.logger.logstop()
 
     def magic_logoff(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Temporarily stop logging.
 
         You must have previously started logging."""
         self.shell.logger.switch_log(0)
         
     def magic_logon(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Restart logging.
 
         This function is for restarting logging which you've temporarily
         stopped with %logoff. For starting logging for the first time, you
         must use the %logstart function, which allows you to specify an
         optional log filename."""
         
         self.shell.logger.switch_log(1)
     
     def magic_logstate(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Print the status of the logging system."""
 
         self.shell.logger.logstate()
         
     def magic_pdb(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Control the automatic calling of the pdb interactive debugger.
 
         Call as '%pdb on', '%pdb 1', '%pdb off' or '%pdb 0'. If called without
         argument it works as a toggle.
 
         When an exception is triggered, IPython can optionally call the
         interactive pdb debugger after the traceback printout. %pdb toggles
         this feature on and off.
 
         The initial state of this feature is set in your ipythonrc
         configuration file (the variable is called 'pdb').
 
         If you want to just activate the debugger AFTER an exception has fired,
         without having to type '%pdb on' and rerunning your code, you can use
         the %debug magic."""
 
         par = parameter_s.strip().lower()
 
         if par:
             try:
                 new_pdb = {'off':0,'0':0,'on':1,'1':1}[par]
             except KeyError:
                 print ('Incorrect argument. Use on/1, off/0, '
                        'or nothing for a toggle.')
                 return
         else:
             # toggle
             new_pdb = not self.shell.call_pdb
 
         # set on the shell
         self.shell.call_pdb = new_pdb
         print 'Automatic pdb calling has been turned',on_off(new_pdb)
 
     def magic_debug(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Activate the interactive debugger in post-mortem mode.
 
         If an exception has just occurred, this lets you inspect its stack
         frames interactively.  Note that this will always work only on the last
         traceback that occurred, so you must call this quickly after an
         exception that you wish to inspect has fired, because if another one
         occurs, it clobbers the previous one.
 
         If you want IPython to automatically do this on every exception, see
         the %pdb magic for more details.
         """
         self.shell.debugger(force=True)
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_prun(self, parameter_s ='',user_mode=1,
                    opts=None,arg_lst=None,prog_ns=None):
 
         """Run a statement through the python code profiler.
 
         Usage:
           %prun [options] statement
 
         The given statement (which doesn't require quote marks) is run via the
         python profiler in a manner similar to the profile.run() function.
         Namespaces are internally managed to work correctly; profile.run
         cannot be used in IPython because it makes certain assumptions about
         namespaces which do not hold under IPython.
 
         Options:
 
         -l <limit>: you can place restrictions on what or how much of the
         profile gets printed. The limit value can be:
 
           * A string: only information for function names containing this string
           is printed.
 
           * An integer: only these many lines are printed.
 
           * A float (between 0 and 1): this fraction of the report is printed
           (for example, use a limit of 0.4 to see the topmost 40% only).
 
         You can combine several limits with repeated use of the option. For
         example, '-l __init__ -l 5' will print only the topmost 5 lines of
         information about class constructors.
 
         -r: return the pstats.Stats object generated by the profiling. This
         object has all the information about the profile in it, and you can
         later use it for further analysis or in other functions.
 
        -s <key>: sort profile by given key. You can provide more than one key
         by using the option several times: '-s key1 -s key2 -s key3...'. The
         default sorting key is 'time'.
 
         The following is copied verbatim from the profile documentation
         referenced below:
 
         When more than one key is provided, additional keys are used as
         secondary criteria when the there is equality in all keys selected
         before them.
         
         Abbreviations can be used for any key names, as long as the
         abbreviation is unambiguous.  The following are the keys currently
         defined:
 
                 Valid Arg       Meaning
                   "calls"      call count
                   "cumulative" cumulative time
                   "file"       file name
                   "module"     file name
                   "pcalls"     primitive call count
                   "line"       line number
                   "name"       function name
                   "nfl"        name/file/line
                   "stdname"    standard name
                   "time"       internal time
 
         Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order (placing
         most time consuming items first), where as name, file, and line number
         searches are in ascending order (i.e., alphabetical). The subtle
         distinction between "nfl" and "stdname" is that the standard name is a
         sort of the name as printed, which means that the embedded line
         numbers get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20, and 40
         would (if the file names were the same) appear in the string order
         "20" "3" and "40".  In contrast, "nfl" does a numeric compare of the
         line numbers.  In fact, sort_stats("nfl") is the same as
         sort_stats("name", "file", "line").
 
         -T <filename>: save profile results as shown on screen to a text
         file. The profile is still shown on screen.
 
         -D <filename>: save (via dump_stats) profile statistics to given
         filename. This data is in a format understod by the pstats module, and
         is generated by a call to the dump_stats() method of profile
         objects. The profile is still shown on screen.
 
         If you want to run complete programs under the profiler's control, use
         '%run -p [prof_opts] filename.py [args to program]' where prof_opts
         contains profiler specific options as described here.
         
         You can read the complete documentation for the profile module with::
         
           In [1]: import profile; profile.help()
         """
 
         opts_def = Struct(D=[''],l=[],s=['time'],T=[''])
         # protect user quote marks
         parameter_s = parameter_s.replace('"',r'\"').replace("'",r"\'")
         
         if user_mode:  # regular user call
             opts,arg_str = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'D:l:rs:T:',
                                               list_all=1)
             namespace = self.shell.user_ns
         else:  # called to run a program by %run -p
             try:
                 filename = get_py_filename(arg_lst[0])
             except IOError,msg:
                 error(msg)
                 return
 
             arg_str = 'execfile(filename,prog_ns)'
             namespace = locals()
 
         opts.merge(opts_def)
         
         prof = profile.Profile()
         try:
             prof = prof.runctx(arg_str,namespace,namespace)
             sys_exit = ''
         except SystemExit:
             sys_exit = """*** SystemExit exception caught in code being profiled."""
 
         stats = pstats.Stats(prof).strip_dirs().sort_stats(*opts.s)
 
         lims = opts.l
         if lims:
             lims = []  # rebuild lims with ints/floats/strings
             for lim in opts.l:
                 try:
                     lims.append(int(lim))
                 except ValueError:
                     try:
                         lims.append(float(lim))
                     except ValueError:
                         lims.append(lim)
                     
         # Trap output.
         stdout_trap = StringIO()
 
         if hasattr(stats,'stream'):
             # In newer versions of python, the stats object has a 'stream'
             # attribute to write into.
             stats.stream = stdout_trap
             stats.print_stats(*lims)
         else:
             # For older versions, we manually redirect stdout during printing
             sys_stdout = sys.stdout
             try:
                 sys.stdout = stdout_trap
                 stats.print_stats(*lims)
             finally:
                 sys.stdout = sys_stdout
                 
         output = stdout_trap.getvalue()
         output = output.rstrip()
 
         page.page(output)
         print sys_exit,
 
         dump_file = opts.D[0]
         text_file = opts.T[0]
         if dump_file:
             prof.dump_stats(dump_file)
             print '\n*** Profile stats marshalled to file',\
                   `dump_file`+'.',sys_exit
         if text_file:
             pfile = file(text_file,'w')
             pfile.write(output)
             pfile.close()
             print '\n*** Profile printout saved to text file',\
                   `text_file`+'.',sys_exit
 
         if opts.has_key('r'):
             return stats
         else:
             return None
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_run(self, parameter_s ='',runner=None,
                   file_finder=get_py_filename):
         """Run the named file inside IPython as a program.
 
         Usage:\\
           %run [-n -i -t [-N<N>] -d [-b<N>] -p [profile options]] file [args]
         
         Parameters after the filename are passed as command-line arguments to
         the program (put in sys.argv). Then, control returns to IPython's
         prompt.
 
         This is similar to running at a system prompt:\\
           $ python file args\\
         but with the advantage of giving you IPython's tracebacks, and of
         loading all variables into your interactive namespace for further use
         (unless -p is used, see below).
 
         The file is executed in a namespace initially consisting only of
         __name__=='__main__' and sys.argv constructed as indicated. It thus
         sees its environment as if it were being run as a stand-alone program
         (except for sharing global objects such as previously imported
         modules). But after execution, the IPython interactive namespace gets
         updated with all variables defined in the program (except for __name__
         and sys.argv). This allows for very convenient loading of code for
         interactive work, while giving each program a 'clean sheet' to run in.
 
         Options:
         
         -n: __name__ is NOT set to '__main__', but to the running file's name
         without extension (as python does under import).  This allows running
         scripts and reloading the definitions in them without calling code
         protected by an ' if __name__ == "__main__" ' clause.
 
         -i: run the file in IPython's namespace instead of an empty one. This
         is useful if you are experimenting with code written in a text editor
         which depends on variables defined interactively.
 
         -e: ignore sys.exit() calls or SystemExit exceptions in the script
         being run.  This is particularly useful if IPython is being used to
         run unittests, which always exit with a sys.exit() call.  In such
         cases you are interested in the output of the test results, not in
         seeing a traceback of the unittest module.
 
         -t: print timing information at the end of the run.  IPython will give
         you an estimated CPU time consumption for your script, which under
         Unix uses the resource module to avoid the wraparound problems of
         time.clock().  Under Unix, an estimate of time spent on system tasks
         is also given (for Windows platforms this is reported as 0.0).
 
         If -t is given, an additional -N<N> option can be given, where <N>
         must be an integer indicating how many times you want the script to
         run.  The final timing report will include total and per run results.
 
         For example (testing the script uniq_stable.py):
 
             In [1]: run -t uniq_stable
 
             IPython CPU timings (estimated):\\
               User  :    0.19597 s.\\
               System:        0.0 s.\\
 
             In [2]: run -t -N5 uniq_stable
 
             IPython CPU timings (estimated):\\
             Total runs performed: 5\\
               Times :      Total       Per run\\
               User  :   0.910862 s,  0.1821724 s.\\
               System:        0.0 s,        0.0 s.
 
         -d: run your program under the control of pdb, the Python debugger.
         This allows you to execute your program step by step, watch variables,
         etc.  Internally, what IPython does is similar to calling:
         
           pdb.run('execfile("YOURFILENAME")')
 
         with a breakpoint set on line 1 of your file.  You can change the line
         number for this automatic breakpoint to be <N> by using the -bN option
         (where N must be an integer).  For example:
 
           %run -d -b40 myscript
 
         will set the first breakpoint at line 40 in myscript.py.  Note that
         the first breakpoint must be set on a line which actually does
         something (not a comment or docstring) for it to stop execution.
 
         When the pdb debugger starts, you will see a (Pdb) prompt.  You must
         first enter 'c' (without qoutes) to start execution up to the first
         breakpoint.
 
         Entering 'help' gives information about the use of the debugger.  You
         can easily see pdb's full documentation with "import pdb;pdb.help()"
         at a prompt.
 
         -p: run program under the control of the Python profiler module (which
         prints a detailed report of execution times, function calls, etc).
 
         You can pass other options after -p which affect the behavior of the
         profiler itself. See the docs for %prun for details.
 
         In this mode, the program's variables do NOT propagate back to the
         IPython interactive namespace (because they remain in the namespace
         where the profiler executes them).
 
         Internally this triggers a call to %prun, see its documentation for
         details on the options available specifically for profiling.
 
         There is one special usage for which the text above doesn't apply:
         if the filename ends with .ipy, the file is run as ipython script,
         just as if the commands were written on IPython prompt.
         """
 
         # get arguments and set sys.argv for program to be run.
         opts,arg_lst = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'nidtN:b:pD:l:rs:T:e',
                                           mode='list',list_all=1)
 
         try:
             filename = file_finder(arg_lst[0])
         except IndexError:
             warn('you must provide at least a filename.')
             print '\n%run:\n',oinspect.getdoc(self.magic_run)
             return
         except IOError,msg:
             error(msg)
             return
 
         if filename.lower().endswith('.ipy'):
             self.shell.safe_execfile_ipy(filename)
             return
         
         # Control the response to exit() calls made by the script being run
         exit_ignore = opts.has_key('e')
         
         # Make sure that the running script gets a proper sys.argv as if it
         # were run from a system shell.
         save_argv = sys.argv # save it for later restoring
         sys.argv = [filename]+ arg_lst[1:]  # put in the proper filename
 
         if opts.has_key('i'):
             # Run in user's interactive namespace
             prog_ns = self.shell.user_ns
             __name__save = self.shell.user_ns['__name__']
             prog_ns['__name__'] = '__main__'
             main_mod = self.shell.new_main_mod(prog_ns)
         else:
             # Run in a fresh, empty namespace
             if opts.has_key('n'):
                 name = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(filename))[0]
             else:
                 name = '__main__'
 
             main_mod = self.shell.new_main_mod()
             prog_ns = main_mod.__dict__
             prog_ns['__name__'] = name
 
         # Since '%run foo' emulates 'python foo.py' at the cmd line, we must
         # set the __file__ global in the script's namespace
         prog_ns['__file__'] = filename
 
         # pickle fix.  See interactiveshell for an explanation.  But we need to make sure
         # that, if we overwrite __main__, we replace it at the end
         main_mod_name = prog_ns['__name__']
 
         if main_mod_name == '__main__':
             restore_main = sys.modules['__main__']
         else:
             restore_main = False
 
         # This needs to be undone at the end to prevent holding references to
         # every single object ever created.
         sys.modules[main_mod_name] = main_mod
         
         stats = None
         try:
             self.shell.savehist()
 
             if opts.has_key('p'):
                 stats = self.magic_prun('',0,opts,arg_lst,prog_ns)
             else:
                 if opts.has_key('d'):
                     deb = debugger.Pdb(self.shell.colors)
                     # reset Breakpoint state, which is moronically kept
                     # in a class
                     bdb.Breakpoint.next = 1
                     bdb.Breakpoint.bplist = {}
                     bdb.Breakpoint.bpbynumber = [None]
                     # Set an initial breakpoint to stop execution
                     maxtries = 10
                     bp = int(opts.get('b',[1])[0])
                     checkline = deb.checkline(filename,bp)
                     if not checkline:
                         for bp in range(bp+1,bp+maxtries+1):
                             if deb.checkline(filename,bp):
                                 break
                         else:
                             msg = ("\nI failed to find a valid line to set "
                                    "a breakpoint\n"
                                    "after trying up to line: %s.\n"
                                    "Please set a valid breakpoint manually "
                                    "with the -b option." % bp)
                             error(msg)
                             return
                     # if we find a good linenumber, set the breakpoint
                     deb.do_break('%s:%s' % (filename,bp))
                     # Start file run
                     print "NOTE: Enter 'c' at the",
                     print "%s prompt to start your script." % deb.prompt
                     try:
                         deb.run('execfile("%s")' % filename,prog_ns)
                         
                     except:
                         etype, value, tb = sys.exc_info()
                         # Skip three frames in the traceback: the %run one,
                         # one inside bdb.py, and the command-line typed by the
                         # user (run by exec in pdb itself).
                         self.shell.InteractiveTB(etype,value,tb,tb_offset=3)
                 else:
                     if runner is None:
                         runner = self.shell.safe_execfile
                     if opts.has_key('t'):
                         # timed execution
                         try:
                             nruns = int(opts['N'][0])
                             if nruns < 1:
                                 error('Number of runs must be >=1')
                                 return
                         except (KeyError):
                             nruns = 1
                         if nruns == 1:
                             t0 = clock2()
                             runner(filename,prog_ns,prog_ns,
                                    exit_ignore=exit_ignore)
                             t1 = clock2()
                             t_usr = t1[0]-t0[0]
                             t_sys = t1[1]-t0[1]
                             print "\nIPython CPU timings (estimated):"
                             print "  User  : %10s s." % t_usr
                             print "  System: %10s s." % t_sys
                         else:
                             runs = range(nruns)
                             t0 = clock2()
                             for nr in runs:
                                 runner(filename,prog_ns,prog_ns,
                                        exit_ignore=exit_ignore)
                             t1 = clock2()
                             t_usr = t1[0]-t0[0]
                             t_sys = t1[1]-t0[1]
                             print "\nIPython CPU timings (estimated):"
                             print "Total runs performed:",nruns
                             print "  Times : %10s    %10s" % ('Total','Per run')
                             print "  User  : %10s s, %10s s." % (t_usr,t_usr/nruns)
                             print "  System: %10s s, %10s s." % (t_sys,t_sys/nruns)
                             
                     else:
                         # regular execution
                         runner(filename,prog_ns,prog_ns,exit_ignore=exit_ignore)
 
                 if opts.has_key('i'):
                     self.shell.user_ns['__name__'] = __name__save
                 else:
                     # The shell MUST hold a reference to prog_ns so after %run
                     # exits, the python deletion mechanism doesn't zero it out
                     # (leaving dangling references).
                     self.shell.cache_main_mod(prog_ns,filename)
                     # update IPython interactive namespace
 
                     # Some forms of read errors on the file may mean the
                     # __name__ key was never set; using pop we don't have to
                     # worry about a possible KeyError.
                     prog_ns.pop('__name__', None)
 
                     self.shell.user_ns.update(prog_ns)
         finally:
             # It's a bit of a mystery why, but __builtins__ can change from
             # being a module to becoming a dict missing some key data after
             # %run.  As best I can see, this is NOT something IPython is doing
             # at all, and similar problems have been reported before:
             # http://coding.derkeiler.com/Archive/Python/comp.lang.python/2004-10/0188.html
             # Since this seems to be done by the interpreter itself, the best
             # we can do is to at least restore __builtins__ for the user on
             # exit.
             self.shell.user_ns['__builtins__'] = __builtin__
             
             # Ensure key global structures are restored
             sys.argv = save_argv
             if restore_main:
                 sys.modules['__main__'] = restore_main
             else:
                 # Remove from sys.modules the reference to main_mod we'd
                 # added.  Otherwise it will trap references to objects
                 # contained therein.
                 del sys.modules[main_mod_name]
 
             self.shell.reloadhist()
                 
         return stats
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_timeit(self, parameter_s =''):
         """Time execution of a Python statement or expression
 
         Usage:\\
           %timeit [-n<N> -r<R> [-t|-c]] statement
 
         Time execution of a Python statement or expression using the timeit
         module.
 
         Options:
         -n<N>: execute the given statement <N> times in a loop. If this value
         is not given, a fitting value is chosen. 
         
         -r<R>: repeat the loop iteration <R> times and take the best result.
         Default: 3
         
         -t: use time.time to measure the time, which is the default on Unix.
         This function measures wall time.
         
         -c: use time.clock to measure the time, which is the default on
         Windows and measures wall time. On Unix, resource.getrusage is used
         instead and returns the CPU user time.
 
         -p<P>: use a precision of <P> digits to display the timing result.
         Default: 3
 
         
         Examples:
 
           In [1]: %timeit pass
           10000000 loops, best of 3: 53.3 ns per loop
 
           In [2]: u = None
 
           In [3]: %timeit u is None
           10000000 loops, best of 3: 184 ns per loop
 
           In [4]: %timeit -r 4 u == None
           1000000 loops, best of 4: 242 ns per loop
 
           In [5]: import time
 
           In [6]: %timeit -n1 time.sleep(2)
           1 loops, best of 3: 2 s per loop
           
 
         The times reported by %timeit will be slightly higher than those
         reported by the timeit.py script when variables are accessed. This is
         due to the fact that %timeit executes the statement in the namespace
         of the shell, compared with timeit.py, which uses a single setup
         statement to import function or create variables. Generally, the bias
         does not matter as long as results from timeit.py are not mixed with
         those from %timeit."""
 
         import timeit
         import math
 
         # XXX: Unfortunately the unicode 'micro' symbol can cause problems in
         # certain terminals.  Until we figure out a robust way of
         # auto-detecting if the terminal can deal with it, use plain 'us' for
         # microseconds.  I am really NOT happy about disabling the proper
         # 'micro' prefix, but crashing is worse... If anyone knows what the
         # right solution for this is, I'm all ears...
         #
         # Note: using
         #
         # s = u'\xb5'
         # s.encode(sys.getdefaultencoding())
         #
         # is not sufficient, as I've seen terminals where that fails but
         # print s
         #
         # succeeds
         #
         # See bug: https://bugs.launchpad.net/ipython/+bug/348466
         
         #units = [u"s", u"ms",u'\xb5',"ns"]
         units = [u"s", u"ms",u'us',"ns"]
         
         scaling = [1, 1e3, 1e6, 1e9]
 
         opts, stmt = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'n:r:tcp:',
                                         posix=False)
         if stmt == "":
             return
         timefunc = timeit.default_timer
         number = int(getattr(opts, "n", 0))
         repeat = int(getattr(opts, "r", timeit.default_repeat))
         precision = int(getattr(opts, "p", 3))
         if hasattr(opts, "t"):
             timefunc = time.time
         if hasattr(opts, "c"):
             timefunc = clock
 
         timer = timeit.Timer(timer=timefunc)
         # this code has tight coupling to the inner workings of timeit.Timer,
         # but is there a better way to achieve that the code stmt has access
         # to the shell namespace?
 
         src = timeit.template % {'stmt': timeit.reindent(stmt, 8),
                                  'setup': "pass"}
         # Track compilation time so it can be reported if too long
         # Minimum time above which compilation time will be reported
         tc_min = 0.1
         
         t0 = clock()
         code = compile(src, "<magic-timeit>", "exec")
         tc = clock()-t0
         
         ns = {}
         exec code in self.shell.user_ns, ns
         timer.inner = ns["inner"]
         
         if number == 0:
             # determine number so that 0.2 <= total time < 2.0
             number = 1
             for i in range(1, 10):
                 if timer.timeit(number) >= 0.2:
                     break
                 number *= 10
         
         best = min(timer.repeat(repeat, number)) / number
 
         if best > 0.0 and best < 1000.0:
             order = min(-int(math.floor(math.log10(best)) // 3), 3)
         elif best >= 1000.0:
             order = 0
         else:
             order = 3
         print u"%d loops, best of %d: %.*g %s per loop" % (number, repeat,
                                                           precision,
                                                           best * scaling[order],
                                                           units[order])
         if tc > tc_min:
             print "Compiler time: %.2f s" % tc
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_time(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Time execution of a Python statement or expression.
 
         The CPU and wall clock times are printed, and the value of the
         expression (if any) is returned.  Note that under Win32, system time
         is always reported as 0, since it can not be measured.
 
         This function provides very basic timing functionality.  In Python
         2.3, the timeit module offers more control and sophistication, so this
         could be rewritten to use it (patches welcome).
         
         Some examples:
 
           In [1]: time 2**128
           CPU times: user 0.00 s, sys: 0.00 s, total: 0.00 s
           Wall time: 0.00
           Out[1]: 340282366920938463463374607431768211456L
 
           In [2]: n = 1000000
 
           In [3]: time sum(range(n))
           CPU times: user 1.20 s, sys: 0.05 s, total: 1.25 s
           Wall time: 1.37
           Out[3]: 499999500000L
 
           In [4]: time print 'hello world'
           hello world
           CPU times: user 0.00 s, sys: 0.00 s, total: 0.00 s
           Wall time: 0.00
 
           Note that the time needed by Python to compile the given expression
           will be reported if it is more than 0.1s.  In this example, the
           actual exponentiation is done by Python at compilation time, so while
           the expression can take a noticeable amount of time to compute, that
           time is purely due to the compilation:
 
           In [5]: time 3**9999;
           CPU times: user 0.00 s, sys: 0.00 s, total: 0.00 s
           Wall time: 0.00 s
 
           In [6]: time 3**999999;
           CPU times: user 0.00 s, sys: 0.00 s, total: 0.00 s
           Wall time: 0.00 s
           Compiler : 0.78 s
           """
         
         # fail immediately if the given expression can't be compiled
         
         expr = self.shell.prefilter(parameter_s,False)
 
         # Minimum time above which compilation time will be reported
         tc_min = 0.1
         
         try:
             mode = 'eval'
             t0 = clock()
             code = compile(expr,'<timed eval>',mode)
             tc = clock()-t0
         except SyntaxError:
             mode = 'exec'
             t0 = clock()
             code = compile(expr,'<timed exec>',mode)
             tc = clock()-t0
         # skew measurement as little as possible
         glob = self.shell.user_ns
         clk = clock2
         wtime = time.time
         # time execution
         wall_st = wtime()
         if mode=='eval':
             st = clk()
             out = eval(code,glob)
             end = clk()
         else:
             st = clk()
             exec code in glob
             end = clk()
             out = None
         wall_end = wtime()
         # Compute actual times and report
         wall_time = wall_end-wall_st
         cpu_user = end[0]-st[0]
         cpu_sys = end[1]-st[1]
         cpu_tot = cpu_user+cpu_sys
         print "CPU times: user %.2f s, sys: %.2f s, total: %.2f s" % \
               (cpu_user,cpu_sys,cpu_tot)
         print "Wall time: %.2f s" % wall_time
         if tc > tc_min:
             print "Compiler : %.2f s" % tc
         return out
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_macro(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Define a set of input lines as a macro for future re-execution.
 
         Usage:\\
           %macro [options] name n1-n2 n3-n4 ... n5 .. n6 ...
 
         Options:
         
           -r: use 'raw' input.  By default, the 'processed' history is used,
           so that magics are loaded in their transformed version to valid
           Python.  If this option is given, the raw input as typed as the
           command line is used instead.
 
         This will define a global variable called `name` which is a string
         made of joining the slices and lines you specify (n1,n2,... numbers
         above) from your input history into a single string. This variable
         acts like an automatic function which re-executes those lines as if
         you had typed them. You just type 'name' at the prompt and the code
         executes.
 
         The notation for indicating number ranges is: n1-n2 means 'use line
         numbers n1,...n2' (the endpoint is included).  That is, '5-7' means
         using the lines numbered 5,6 and 7.
 
         Note: as a 'hidden' feature, you can also use traditional python slice
         notation, where N:M means numbers N through M-1.
 
         For example, if your history contains (%hist prints it):
         
           44: x=1
           45: y=3
           46: z=x+y
           47: print x
           48: a=5
           49: print 'x',x,'y',y
 
         you can create a macro with lines 44 through 47 (included) and line 49
         called my_macro with:
 
           In [55]: %macro my_macro 44-47 49
 
         Now, typing `my_macro` (without quotes) will re-execute all this code
         in one pass.
 
         You don't need to give the line-numbers in order, and any given line
         number can appear multiple times. You can assemble macros with any
         lines from your input history in any order.
 
         The macro is a simple object which holds its value in an attribute,
         but IPython's display system checks for macros and executes them as
         code instead of printing them when you type their name.
 
         You can view a macro's contents by explicitly printing it with:
         
           'print macro_name'.
 
         For one-off cases which DON'T contain magic function calls in them you
         can obtain similar results by explicitly executing slices from your
         input history with:
 
           In [60]: exec In[44:48]+In[49]"""
 
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'r',mode='list')
         if not args:
             macs = [k for k,v in self.shell.user_ns.items() if isinstance(v, Macro)]
             macs.sort()
             return macs
         if len(args) == 1:
             raise UsageError(
                 "%macro insufficient args; usage '%macro name n1-n2 n3-4...")
         name,ranges = args[0], args[1:]
         
         #print 'rng',ranges  # dbg
         lines = self.extract_input_slices(ranges,opts.has_key('r'))
         macro = Macro(lines)
         self.shell.define_macro(name, macro)
         print 'Macro `%s` created. To execute, type its name (without quotes).' % name
         print 'Macro contents:'
         print macro,
 
     def magic_save(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Save a set of lines to a given filename.
 
         Usage:\\
           %save [options] filename n1-n2 n3-n4 ... n5 .. n6 ...
 
         Options:
         
           -r: use 'raw' input.  By default, the 'processed' history is used,
           so that magics are loaded in their transformed version to valid
           Python.  If this option is given, the raw input as typed as the
           command line is used instead.
 
         This function uses the same syntax as %macro for line extraction, but
         instead of creating a macro it saves the resulting string to the
         filename you specify.
 
         It adds a '.py' extension to the file if you don't do so yourself, and
         it asks for confirmation before overwriting existing files."""
 
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'r',mode='list')
         fname,ranges = args[0], args[1:]
         if not fname.endswith('.py'):
             fname += '.py'
         if os.path.isfile(fname):
             ans = raw_input('File `%s` exists. Overwrite (y/[N])? ' % fname)
             if ans.lower() not in ['y','yes']:
                 print 'Operation cancelled.'
                 return
         cmds = ''.join(self.extract_input_slices(ranges,opts.has_key('r')))
         f = file(fname,'w')
         f.write(cmds)
         f.close()
         print 'The following commands were written to file `%s`:' % fname
         print cmds
 
     def _edit_macro(self,mname,macro):
         """open an editor with the macro data in a file"""
         filename = self.shell.mktempfile(macro.value)
         self.shell.hooks.editor(filename)
 
         # and make a new macro object, to replace the old one
         mfile = open(filename)
         mvalue = mfile.read()
         mfile.close()
         self.shell.user_ns[mname] = Macro(mvalue)
 
     def magic_ed(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Alias to %edit."""
         return self.magic_edit(parameter_s)
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_edit(self,parameter_s='',last_call=['','']):
         """Bring up an editor and execute the resulting code.
 
         Usage:
           %edit [options] [args]
 
         %edit runs IPython's editor hook.  The default version of this hook is
         set to call the __IPYTHON__.rc.editor command.  This is read from your
         environment variable $EDITOR.  If this isn't found, it will default to
         vi under Linux/Unix and to notepad under Windows.  See the end of this
         docstring for how to change the editor hook.
 
         You can also set the value of this editor via the command line option
         '-editor' or in your ipythonrc file. This is useful if you wish to use
         specifically for IPython an editor different from your typical default
         (and for Windows users who typically don't set environment variables).
 
         This command allows you to conveniently edit multi-line code right in
         your IPython session.
         
         If called without arguments, %edit opens up an empty editor with a
         temporary file and will execute the contents of this file when you
         close it (don't forget to save it!).
 
 
         Options:
 
         -n <number>: open the editor at a specified line number.  By default,
         the IPython editor hook uses the unix syntax 'editor +N filename', but
         you can configure this by providing your own modified hook if your
         favorite editor supports line-number specifications with a different
         syntax.
         
         -p: this will call the editor with the same data as the previous time
         it was used, regardless of how long ago (in your current session) it
         was.
 
         -r: use 'raw' input.  This option only applies to input taken from the
         user's history.  By default, the 'processed' history is used, so that
         magics are loaded in their transformed version to valid Python.  If
         this option is given, the raw input as typed as the command line is
         used instead.  When you exit the editor, it will be executed by
         IPython's own processor.
         
         -x: do not execute the edited code immediately upon exit. This is
         mainly useful if you are editing programs which need to be called with
         command line arguments, which you can then do using %run.
 
 
         Arguments:
 
         If arguments are given, the following possibilites exist:
 
         - The arguments are numbers or pairs of colon-separated numbers (like
         1 4:8 9). These are interpreted as lines of previous input to be
         loaded into the editor. The syntax is the same of the %macro command.
 
         - If the argument doesn't start with a number, it is evaluated as a
         variable and its contents loaded into the editor. You can thus edit
         any string which contains python code (including the result of
         previous edits).
 
         - If the argument is the name of an object (other than a string),
         IPython will try to locate the file where it was defined and open the
         editor at the point where it is defined. You can use `%edit function`
         to load an editor exactly at the point where 'function' is defined,
         edit it and have the file be executed automatically.
 
         If the object is a macro (see %macro for details), this opens up your
         specified editor with a temporary file containing the macro's data.
         Upon exit, the macro is reloaded with the contents of the file.
 
         Note: opening at an exact line is only supported under Unix, and some
         editors (like kedit and gedit up to Gnome 2.8) do not understand the
         '+NUMBER' parameter necessary for this feature. Good editors like
         (X)Emacs, vi, jed, pico and joe all do.
 
         - If the argument is not found as a variable, IPython will look for a
         file with that name (adding .py if necessary) and load it into the
         editor. It will execute its contents with execfile() when you exit,
         loading any code in the file into your interactive namespace.
 
         After executing your code, %edit will return as output the code you
         typed in the editor (except when it was an existing file). This way
         you can reload the code in further invocations of %edit as a variable,
         via _<NUMBER> or Out[<NUMBER>], where <NUMBER> is the prompt number of
         the output.
 
         Note that %edit is also available through the alias %ed.
 
         This is an example of creating a simple function inside the editor and
         then modifying it. First, start up the editor:
 
         In [1]: ed
         Editing... done. Executing edited code...
         Out[1]: 'def foo():n    print "foo() was defined in an editing session"n'
 
         We can then call the function foo():
         
         In [2]: foo()
         foo() was defined in an editing session
 
         Now we edit foo.  IPython automatically loads the editor with the
         (temporary) file where foo() was previously defined:
         
         In [3]: ed foo
         Editing... done. Executing edited code...
 
         And if we call foo() again we get the modified version:
         
         In [4]: foo()
         foo() has now been changed!
 
         Here is an example of how to edit a code snippet successive
         times. First we call the editor:
 
         In [5]: ed
         Editing... done. Executing edited code...
         hello
         Out[5]: "print 'hello'n"
 
         Now we call it again with the previous output (stored in _):
 
         In [6]: ed _
         Editing... done. Executing edited code...
         hello world
         Out[6]: "print 'hello world'n"
 
         Now we call it with the output #8 (stored in _8, also as Out[8]):
 
         In [7]: ed _8
         Editing... done. Executing edited code...
         hello again
         Out[7]: "print 'hello again'n"
 
 
         Changing the default editor hook:
 
         If you wish to write your own editor hook, you can put it in a
         configuration file which you load at startup time.  The default hook
         is defined in the IPython.core.hooks module, and you can use that as a
         starting example for further modifications.  That file also has
         general instructions on how to set a new hook for use once you've
         defined it."""
         
         # FIXME: This function has become a convoluted mess.  It needs a
         # ground-up rewrite with clean, simple logic.
 
         def make_filename(arg):
             "Make a filename from the given args"
             try:
                 filename = get_py_filename(arg)
             except IOError:
                 if args.endswith('.py'):
                     filename = arg
                 else:
                     filename = None
             return filename
 
         # custom exceptions
         class DataIsObject(Exception): pass
 
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'prxn:')
         # Set a few locals from the options for convenience:
         opts_p = opts.has_key('p')
         opts_r = opts.has_key('r')
         
         # Default line number value
         lineno = opts.get('n',None)
 
         if opts_p:
             args = '_%s' % last_call[0]
             if not self.shell.user_ns.has_key(args):
                 args = last_call[1]
             
         # use last_call to remember the state of the previous call, but don't
         # let it be clobbered by successive '-p' calls.
         try:
             last_call[0] = self.shell.displayhook.prompt_count
             if not opts_p:
                 last_call[1] = parameter_s
         except:
             pass
 
         # by default this is done with temp files, except when the given
         # arg is a filename
         use_temp = 1
 
         if re.match(r'\d',args):
             # Mode where user specifies ranges of lines, like in %macro.
             # This means that you can't edit files whose names begin with
             # numbers this way. Tough.
             ranges = args.split()
             data = ''.join(self.extract_input_slices(ranges,opts_r))
         elif args.endswith('.py'):
             filename = make_filename(args)
             data = ''
             use_temp = 0
         elif args:
             try:
                 # Load the parameter given as a variable. If not a string,
                 # process it as an object instead (below)
 
                 #print '*** args',args,'type',type(args)  # dbg
                 data = eval(args,self.shell.user_ns)
                 if not type(data) in StringTypes:
                     raise DataIsObject
 
             except (NameError,SyntaxError):
                 # given argument is not a variable, try as a filename
                 filename = make_filename(args)
                 if filename is None:
                     warn("Argument given (%s) can't be found as a variable "
                          "or as a filename." % args)
                     return
 
                 data = ''
                 use_temp = 0
             except DataIsObject:
 
                 # macros have a special edit function
                 if isinstance(data,Macro):
                     self._edit_macro(args,data)
                     return
                                 
                 # For objects, try to edit the file where they are defined
                 try:
                     filename = inspect.getabsfile(data)
                     if 'fakemodule' in filename.lower() and inspect.isclass(data):                     
                         # class created by %edit? Try to find source
                         # by looking for method definitions instead, the
                         # __module__ in those classes is FakeModule.
                         attrs = [getattr(data, aname) for aname in dir(data)]
                         for attr in attrs:
                             if not inspect.ismethod(attr):
                                 continue
                             filename = inspect.getabsfile(attr)
                             if filename and 'fakemodule' not in filename.lower():
                                 # change the attribute to be the edit target instead
                                 data = attr 
                                 break
                     
                     datafile = 1
                 except TypeError:
                     filename = make_filename(args)
                     datafile = 1
                     warn('Could not find file where `%s` is defined.\n'
                          'Opening a file named `%s`' % (args,filename))
                 # Now, make sure we can actually read the source (if it was in
                 # a temp file it's gone by now).
                 if datafile:
                     try:
                         if lineno is None:
                             lineno = inspect.getsourcelines(data)[1]
                     except IOError:
                         filename = make_filename(args)
                         if filename is None:
                             warn('The file `%s` where `%s` was defined cannot '
                                  'be read.' % (filename,data))
                             return
                 use_temp = 0
         else:
             data = ''
 
         if use_temp:
             filename = self.shell.mktempfile(data)
             print 'IPython will make a temporary file named:',filename
 
         # do actual editing here
         print 'Editing...',
         sys.stdout.flush()
         try:
             # Quote filenames that may have spaces in them
             if ' ' in filename:
                 filename = "%s" % filename
             self.shell.hooks.editor(filename,lineno)
         except TryNext:
             warn('Could not open editor')
             return
         
         # XXX TODO: should this be generalized for all string vars?
         # For now, this is special-cased to blocks created by cpaste
         if args.strip() == 'pasted_block':
             self.shell.user_ns['pasted_block'] = file_read(filename)
         
         if opts.has_key('x'):  # -x prevents actual execution
             print
         else:
             print 'done. Executing edited code...'
             if opts_r:
                 self.shell.runlines(file_read(filename))
             else:
                 self.shell.safe_execfile(filename,self.shell.user_ns,
                                          self.shell.user_ns)
         
                                                      
         if use_temp:
             try:
                 return open(filename).read()
             except IOError,msg:
                 if msg.filename == filename:
                     warn('File not found. Did you forget to save?')
                     return
                 else:
                     self.shell.showtraceback()
 
     def magic_xmode(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Switch modes for the exception handlers.
 
         Valid modes: Plain, Context and Verbose.
 
         If called without arguments, acts as a toggle."""
 
         def xmode_switch_err(name):
             warn('Error changing %s exception modes.\n%s' %
                  (name,sys.exc_info()[1]))
 
         shell = self.shell
         new_mode = parameter_s.strip().capitalize()
         try:
             shell.InteractiveTB.set_mode(mode=new_mode)
             print 'Exception reporting mode:',shell.InteractiveTB.mode
         except:
             xmode_switch_err('user')
 
     def magic_colors(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Switch color scheme for prompts, info system and exception handlers.
 
         Currently implemented schemes: NoColor, Linux, LightBG.
 
         Color scheme names are not case-sensitive."""
 
         def color_switch_err(name):
             warn('Error changing %s color schemes.\n%s' %
                  (name,sys.exc_info()[1]))
             
         
         new_scheme = parameter_s.strip()
         if not new_scheme:
             raise UsageError(
                 "%colors: you must specify a color scheme. See '%colors?'")
             return
         # local shortcut
         shell = self.shell
 
         import IPython.utils.rlineimpl as readline
 
         if not readline.have_readline and sys.platform == "win32":
             msg = """\
 Proper color support under MS Windows requires the pyreadline library.
 You can find it at:
 http://ipython.scipy.org/moin/PyReadline/Intro
 Gary's readline needs the ctypes module, from:
 http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes
 (Note that ctypes is already part of Python versions 2.5 and newer).
 
 Defaulting color scheme to 'NoColor'"""
             new_scheme = 'NoColor'
             warn(msg)
         
         # readline option is 0
         if not shell.has_readline:
             new_scheme = 'NoColor'
             
         # Set prompt colors
         try:
             shell.displayhook.set_colors(new_scheme)
         except:
             color_switch_err('prompt')
         else:
             shell.colors = \
                        shell.displayhook.color_table.active_scheme_name
         # Set exception colors
         try:
             shell.InteractiveTB.set_colors(scheme = new_scheme)
             shell.SyntaxTB.set_colors(scheme = new_scheme)
         except:
             color_switch_err('exception')
 
         # Set info (for 'object?') colors
         if shell.color_info:
             try:
                 shell.inspector.set_active_scheme(new_scheme)
             except:
                 color_switch_err('object inspector')
         else:
             shell.inspector.set_active_scheme('NoColor')
                 
     def magic_color_info(self,parameter_s = ''):
         """Toggle color_info.
 
         The color_info configuration parameter controls whether colors are
         used for displaying object details (by things like %psource, %pfile or
         the '?' system). This function toggles this value with each call.
 
         Note that unless you have a fairly recent pager (less works better
         than more) in your system, using colored object information displays
         will not work properly. Test it and see."""
         
         self.shell.color_info = not self.shell.color_info
         self.magic_colors(self.shell.colors)
         print 'Object introspection functions have now coloring:',
         print ['OFF','ON'][int(self.shell.color_info)]
 
     def magic_Pprint(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Toggle pretty printing on/off."""
         
         self.shell.pprint = 1 - self.shell.pprint
         print 'Pretty printing has been turned', \
               ['OFF','ON'][self.shell.pprint]
                 
     def magic_Exit(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Exit IPython without confirmation."""
 
         self.shell.ask_exit()
 
     # Add aliases as magics so all common forms work: exit, quit, Exit, Quit.
     magic_exit = magic_quit = magic_Quit = magic_Exit
 
     #......................................................................
     # Functions to implement unix shell-type things
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_alias(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Define an alias for a system command.
 
         '%alias alias_name cmd' defines 'alias_name' as an alias for 'cmd'
 
         Then, typing 'alias_name params' will execute the system command 'cmd
         params' (from your underlying operating system).
 
         Aliases have lower precedence than magic functions and Python normal
         variables, so if 'foo' is both a Python variable and an alias, the
         alias can not be executed until 'del foo' removes the Python variable.
 
         You can use the %l specifier in an alias definition to represent the
         whole line when the alias is called.  For example:
 
-          In [2]: alias all echo "Input in brackets: <%l>"
-          In [3]: all hello world
+          In [2]: alias bracket echo "Input in brackets: <%l>"
+          In [3]: bracket hello world
           Input in brackets: <hello world>
 
         You can also define aliases with parameters using %s specifiers (one
         per parameter):
         
           In [1]: alias parts echo first %s second %s
           In [2]: %parts A B
           first A second B
           In [3]: %parts A
           Incorrect number of arguments: 2 expected.
           parts is an alias to: 'echo first %s second %s'
 
         Note that %l and %s are mutually exclusive.  You can only use one or
         the other in your aliases.
 
         Aliases expand Python variables just like system calls using ! or !! 
         do: all expressions prefixed with '$' get expanded.  For details of
         the semantic rules, see PEP-215:
         http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0215.html.  This is the library used by
         IPython for variable expansion.  If you want to access a true shell
         variable, an extra $ is necessary to prevent its expansion by IPython:
 
         In [6]: alias show echo
         In [7]: PATH='A Python string'
         In [8]: show $PATH
         A Python string
         In [9]: show $$PATH
         /usr/local/lf9560/bin:/usr/local/intel/compiler70/ia32/bin:...
 
         You can use the alias facility to acess all of $PATH.  See the %rehash
         and %rehashx functions, which automatically create aliases for the
         contents of your $PATH.
 
         If called with no parameters, %alias prints the current alias table."""
 
         par = parameter_s.strip()
         if not par:
             stored = self.db.get('stored_aliases', {} )
             aliases = sorted(self.shell.alias_manager.aliases)
             # for k, v in stored:
             #     atab.append(k, v[0])
 
             print "Total number of aliases:", len(aliases)
             return aliases
         
         # Now try to define a new one
         try:
             alias,cmd = par.split(None, 1)
         except:
             print oinspect.getdoc(self.magic_alias)
         else:
             self.shell.alias_manager.soft_define_alias(alias, cmd)
     # end magic_alias
 
     def magic_unalias(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Remove an alias"""
 
         aname = parameter_s.strip()
         self.shell.alias_manager.undefine_alias(aname)
         stored = self.db.get('stored_aliases', {} )
         if aname in stored:
             print "Removing %stored alias",aname
             del stored[aname]
             self.db['stored_aliases'] = stored
             
 
     def magic_rehashx(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Update the alias table with all executable files in $PATH.
 
         This version explicitly checks that every entry in $PATH is a file
         with execute access (os.X_OK), so it is much slower than %rehash.
 
         Under Windows, it checks executability as a match agains a
         '|'-separated string of extensions, stored in the IPython config
         variable win_exec_ext.  This defaults to 'exe|com|bat'.
         
         This function also resets the root module cache of module completer,
         used on slow filesystems.
         """
         from IPython.core.alias import InvalidAliasError
 
         # for the benefit of module completer in ipy_completers.py
         del self.db['rootmodules']
         
         path = [os.path.abspath(os.path.expanduser(p)) for p in 
             os.environ.get('PATH','').split(os.pathsep)]
         path = filter(os.path.isdir,path)
 
         syscmdlist = []
         # Now define isexec in a cross platform manner.
         if os.name == 'posix':
             isexec = lambda fname:os.path.isfile(fname) and \
                      os.access(fname,os.X_OK)
         else:
             try:
                 winext = os.environ['pathext'].replace(';','|').replace('.','')
             except KeyError:
                 winext = 'exe|com|bat|py'
             if 'py' not in winext:
                 winext += '|py'
             execre = re.compile(r'(.*)\.(%s)$' % winext,re.IGNORECASE)
             isexec = lambda fname:os.path.isfile(fname) and execre.match(fname)
         savedir = os.getcwd()
 
         # Now walk the paths looking for executables to alias.
         try:
             # write the whole loop for posix/Windows so we don't have an if in
             # the innermost part
             if os.name == 'posix':
                 for pdir in path:
                     os.chdir(pdir)
                     for ff in os.listdir(pdir):
                         if isexec(ff):
                             try:
                                 # Removes dots from the name since ipython
                                 # will assume names with dots to be python.
                                 self.shell.alias_manager.define_alias(
                                     ff.replace('.',''), ff)
                             except InvalidAliasError:
                                 pass
                             else:
                                 syscmdlist.append(ff)
             else:
                 no_alias = self.shell.alias_manager.no_alias
                 for pdir in path:
                     os.chdir(pdir)
                     for ff in os.listdir(pdir):
                         base, ext = os.path.splitext(ff)
                         if isexec(ff) and base.lower() not in no_alias:
                             if ext.lower() == '.exe':
                                 ff = base
                                 try:
                                     # Removes dots from the name since ipython
                                     # will assume names with dots to be python.
                                     self.shell.alias_manager.define_alias(
                                         base.lower().replace('.',''), ff)
                                 except InvalidAliasError:
                                     pass
                                 syscmdlist.append(ff)
             db = self.db
             db['syscmdlist'] = syscmdlist
         finally:
             os.chdir(savedir)
         
     def magic_pwd(self, parameter_s = ''):
         """Return the current working directory path."""
         return os.getcwd()
 
     def magic_cd(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Change the current working directory.
 
         This command automatically maintains an internal list of directories
         you visit during your IPython session, in the variable _dh. The
         command %dhist shows this history nicely formatted. You can also
         do 'cd -<tab>' to see directory history conveniently.
 
         Usage:
 
           cd 'dir': changes to directory 'dir'.
 
           cd -: changes to the last visited directory.
 
           cd -<n>: changes to the n-th directory in the directory history.
 
           cd --foo: change to directory that matches 'foo' in history
             
           cd -b <bookmark_name>: jump to a bookmark set by %bookmark
              (note: cd <bookmark_name> is enough if there is no
               directory <bookmark_name>, but a bookmark with the name exists.)
               'cd -b <tab>' allows you to tab-complete bookmark names. 
 
         Options:
 
         -q: quiet.  Do not print the working directory after the cd command is
         executed.  By default IPython's cd command does print this directory,
         since the default prompts do not display path information.
         
         Note that !cd doesn't work for this purpose because the shell where
         !command runs is immediately discarded after executing 'command'."""
 
         parameter_s = parameter_s.strip()
         #bkms = self.shell.persist.get("bookmarks",{})
 
         oldcwd = os.getcwd()
         numcd = re.match(r'(-)(\d+)$',parameter_s)
         # jump in directory history by number
         if numcd:
             nn = int(numcd.group(2))
             try:
                 ps = self.shell.user_ns['_dh'][nn]
             except IndexError:
                 print 'The requested directory does not exist in history.'
                 return
             else:
                 opts = {}
         elif parameter_s.startswith('--'):
             ps = None
             fallback = None
             pat = parameter_s[2:]
             dh = self.shell.user_ns['_dh']
             # first search only by basename (last component)
             for ent in reversed(dh):
                 if pat in os.path.basename(ent) and os.path.isdir(ent):
                     ps = ent
                     break
             
                 if fallback is None and pat in ent and os.path.isdir(ent):
                     fallback = ent
                 
             # if we have no last part match, pick the first full path match
             if ps is None:
                 ps = fallback
             
             if ps is None:
                 print "No matching entry in directory history"
                 return
             else:
                 opts = {}
                 
             
         else:
             #turn all non-space-escaping backslashes to slashes, 
             # for c:\windows\directory\names\
             parameter_s = re.sub(r'\\(?! )','/', parameter_s)            
             opts,ps = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'qb',mode='string')
         # jump to previous
         if ps == '-':
             try:
                 ps = self.shell.user_ns['_dh'][-2]
             except IndexError:
                 raise UsageError('%cd -: No previous directory to change to.')
         # jump to bookmark if needed
         else:
             if not os.path.isdir(ps) or opts.has_key('b'):
                 bkms = self.db.get('bookmarks', {})
             
                 if bkms.has_key(ps):
                     target = bkms[ps]
                     print '(bookmark:%s) -> %s' % (ps,target)
                     ps = target
                 else:
                     if opts.has_key('b'):
                         raise UsageError("Bookmark '%s' not found.  "
                               "Use '%%bookmark -l' to see your bookmarks." % ps)
             
         # at this point ps should point to the target dir
         if ps:
             try:                
                 os.chdir(os.path.expanduser(ps))
                 if hasattr(self.shell, 'term_title') and self.shell.term_title:
                     set_term_title('IPython: ' + abbrev_cwd())
             except OSError:
                 print sys.exc_info()[1]
             else:
                 cwd = os.getcwd()
                 dhist = self.shell.user_ns['_dh']
                 if oldcwd != cwd:
                     dhist.append(cwd)
                     self.db['dhist'] = compress_dhist(dhist)[-100:]
                 
         else:
             os.chdir(self.shell.home_dir)
             if hasattr(self.shell, 'term_title') and self.shell.term_title:
                 set_term_title('IPython: ' + '~')
             cwd = os.getcwd()
             dhist = self.shell.user_ns['_dh']
             
             if oldcwd != cwd:
                 dhist.append(cwd)
                 self.db['dhist'] = compress_dhist(dhist)[-100:]
         if not 'q' in opts and self.shell.user_ns['_dh']:
             print self.shell.user_ns['_dh'][-1]
 
 
     def magic_env(self, parameter_s=''):
         """List environment variables."""
         
         return os.environ.data
 
     def magic_pushd(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Place the current dir on stack and change directory.
         
         Usage:\\
           %pushd ['dirname']
         """
         
         dir_s = self.shell.dir_stack
         tgt = os.path.expanduser(parameter_s)
         cwd = os.getcwd().replace(self.home_dir,'~')
         if tgt:
             self.magic_cd(parameter_s)
         dir_s.insert(0,cwd)
         return self.magic_dirs()
 
     def magic_popd(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Change to directory popped off the top of the stack.
         """
         if not self.shell.dir_stack:
             raise UsageError("%popd on empty stack")
         top = self.shell.dir_stack.pop(0)
         self.magic_cd(top)
         print "popd ->",top
 
     def magic_dirs(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Return the current directory stack."""
 
         return self.shell.dir_stack
 
     def magic_dhist(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Print your history of visited directories.
 
         %dhist       -> print full history\\
         %dhist n     -> print last n entries only\\
         %dhist n1 n2 -> print entries between n1 and n2 (n1 not included)\\
 
         This history is automatically maintained by the %cd command, and
         always available as the global list variable _dh. You can use %cd -<n>
         to go to directory number <n>.
         
         Note that most of time, you should view directory history by entering
         cd -<TAB>.
         
         """
 
         dh = self.shell.user_ns['_dh']
         if parameter_s:
             try:
                 args = map(int,parameter_s.split())
             except:
                 self.arg_err(Magic.magic_dhist)
                 return
             if len(args) == 1:
                 ini,fin = max(len(dh)-(args[0]),0),len(dh)
             elif len(args) == 2:
                 ini,fin = args
             else:
                 self.arg_err(Magic.magic_dhist)
                 return
         else:
             ini,fin = 0,len(dh)
         nlprint(dh,
                 header = 'Directory history (kept in _dh)',
                 start=ini,stop=fin)
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_sc(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Shell capture - execute a shell command and capture its output.
 
         DEPRECATED. Suboptimal, retained for backwards compatibility.
         
         You should use the form 'var = !command' instead. Example:
          
          "%sc -l myfiles = ls ~" should now be written as
             
          "myfiles = !ls ~"
          
         myfiles.s, myfiles.l and myfiles.n still apply as documented
         below.
 
         --
         %sc [options] varname=command
 
         IPython will run the given command using commands.getoutput(), and
         will then update the user's interactive namespace with a variable
         called varname, containing the value of the call.  Your command can
         contain shell wildcards, pipes, etc.
 
         The '=' sign in the syntax is mandatory, and the variable name you
         supply must follow Python's standard conventions for valid names.
         
         (A special format without variable name exists for internal use)
 
         Options:
 
           -l: list output.  Split the output on newlines into a list before
           assigning it to the given variable.  By default the output is stored
           as a single string.
 
           -v: verbose.  Print the contents of the variable.
 
         In most cases you should not need to split as a list, because the
         returned value is a special type of string which can automatically
         provide its contents either as a list (split on newlines) or as a
         space-separated string.  These are convenient, respectively, either
         for sequential processing or to be passed to a shell command.
 
         For example:
 
         # all-random
         
             # Capture into variable a
             In [1]: sc a=ls *py
 
             # a is a string with embedded newlines
             In [2]: a
             Out[2]: 'setup.py\\nwin32_manual_post_install.py'
 
             # which can be seen as a list:
             In [3]: a.l
             Out[3]: ['setup.py', 'win32_manual_post_install.py']
 
             # or as a whitespace-separated string:
             In [4]: a.s
             Out[4]: 'setup.py win32_manual_post_install.py'
 
             # a.s is useful to pass as a single command line:
             In [5]: !wc -l $a.s
               146 setup.py
               130 win32_manual_post_install.py
               276 total
 
             # while the list form is useful to loop over:
             In [6]: for f in a.l:
               ...:      !wc -l $f
               ...:
             146 setup.py
             130 win32_manual_post_install.py
 
         Similiarly, the lists returned by the -l option are also special, in
         the sense that you can equally invoke the .s attribute on them to
         automatically get a whitespace-separated string from their contents:
 
             In [7]: sc -l b=ls *py
 
             In [8]: b
             Out[8]: ['setup.py', 'win32_manual_post_install.py']
 
             In [9]: b.s
             Out[9]: 'setup.py win32_manual_post_install.py'
 
         In summary, both the lists and strings used for ouptut capture have
         the following special attributes:
 
             .l (or .list) : value as list.
             .n (or .nlstr): value as newline-separated string.
             .s (or .spstr): value as space-separated string.
         """
 
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'lv')
         # Try to get a variable name and command to run
         try:
             # the variable name must be obtained from the parse_options
             # output, which uses shlex.split to strip options out.
             var,_ = args.split('=',1)
             var = var.strip()
             # But the the command has to be extracted from the original input
             # parameter_s, not on what parse_options returns, to avoid the
             # quote stripping which shlex.split performs on it.
             _,cmd = parameter_s.split('=',1)
         except ValueError:
             var,cmd = '',''
         # If all looks ok, proceed
         out,err = self.shell.getoutputerror(cmd)
         if err:
             print >> IPython.utils.io.Term.cerr, err
         if opts.has_key('l'):
             out = SList(out.split('\n'))
         else:
             out = LSString(out)
         if opts.has_key('v'):
             print '%s ==\n%s' % (var,pformat(out))
         if var:
             self.shell.user_ns.update({var:out})
         else:
             return out
 
     def magic_sx(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Shell execute - run a shell command and capture its output.
 
         %sx command
 
         IPython will run the given command using commands.getoutput(), and
         return the result formatted as a list (split on '\\n').  Since the
         output is _returned_, it will be stored in ipython's regular output
         cache Out[N] and in the '_N' automatic variables.
 
         Notes:
 
         1) If an input line begins with '!!', then %sx is automatically
         invoked.  That is, while:
           !ls
         causes ipython to simply issue system('ls'), typing
           !!ls
         is a shorthand equivalent to:
           %sx ls
         
         2) %sx differs from %sc in that %sx automatically splits into a list,
         like '%sc -l'.  The reason for this is to make it as easy as possible
         to process line-oriented shell output via further python commands.
         %sc is meant to provide much finer control, but requires more
         typing.
 
         3) Just like %sc -l, this is a list with special attributes:
 
           .l (or .list) : value as list.
           .n (or .nlstr): value as newline-separated string.
           .s (or .spstr): value as whitespace-separated string.
 
         This is very useful when trying to use such lists as arguments to
         system commands."""
 
         if parameter_s:
             out,err = self.shell.getoutputerror(parameter_s)
             if err:
                 print >> IPython.utils.io.Term.cerr, err
             return SList(out.split('\n'))
 
     def magic_r(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Repeat previous input.
 
         Note: Consider using the more powerfull %rep instead!
         
         If given an argument, repeats the previous command which starts with
         the same string, otherwise it just repeats the previous input.
 
         Shell escaped commands (with ! as first character) are not recognized
         by this system, only pure python code and magic commands.
         """
 
         start = parameter_s.strip()
         esc_magic = ESC_MAGIC
         # Identify magic commands even if automagic is on (which means
         # the in-memory version is different from that typed by the user).
         if self.shell.automagic:
             start_magic = esc_magic+start
         else:
             start_magic = start
         # Look through the input history in reverse
         for n in range(len(self.shell.input_hist)-2,0,-1):
             input = self.shell.input_hist[n]
             # skip plain 'r' lines so we don't recurse to infinity
             if input != '_ip.magic("r")\n' and \
                    (input.startswith(start) or input.startswith(start_magic)):
                 #print 'match',`input`  # dbg
                 print 'Executing:',input,
                 self.shell.runlines(input)
                 return
         print 'No previous input matching `%s` found.' % start
 
     
     def magic_bookmark(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Manage IPython's bookmark system.
 
         %bookmark <name>       - set bookmark to current dir
         %bookmark <name> <dir> - set bookmark to <dir>
         %bookmark -l           - list all bookmarks
         %bookmark -d <name>    - remove bookmark
         %bookmark -r           - remove all bookmarks
 
         You can later on access a bookmarked folder with:
           %cd -b <name>
         or simply '%cd <name>' if there is no directory called <name> AND
         there is such a bookmark defined.
 
         Your bookmarks persist through IPython sessions, but they are
         associated with each profile."""
 
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'drl',mode='list')
         if len(args) > 2:
             raise UsageError("%bookmark: too many arguments")
 
         bkms = self.db.get('bookmarks',{})
             
         if opts.has_key('d'):
             try:
                 todel = args[0]
             except IndexError:
                 raise UsageError(
                     "%bookmark -d: must provide a bookmark to delete")
             else:
                 try:
                     del bkms[todel]
                 except KeyError:
                     raise UsageError(
                         "%%bookmark -d: Can't delete bookmark '%s'" % todel)
 
         elif opts.has_key('r'):
             bkms = {}
         elif opts.has_key('l'):
             bks = bkms.keys()
             bks.sort()
             if bks:
                 size = max(map(len,bks))
             else:
                 size = 0
             fmt = '%-'+str(size)+'s -> %s'
             print 'Current bookmarks:'
             for bk in bks:
                 print fmt % (bk,bkms[bk])
         else:
             if not args:
                 raise UsageError("%bookmark: You must specify the bookmark name")
             elif len(args)==1:
                 bkms[args[0]] = os.getcwd()
             elif len(args)==2:
                 bkms[args[0]] = args[1]
         self.db['bookmarks'] = bkms
 
     def magic_pycat(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Show a syntax-highlighted file through a pager.
 
         This magic is similar to the cat utility, but it will assume the file
         to be Python source and will show it with syntax highlighting. """
         
         try:
             filename = get_py_filename(parameter_s)
             cont = file_read(filename)
         except IOError:
             try:
                 cont = eval(parameter_s,self.user_ns)
             except NameError:
                 cont = None
         if cont is None:
             print "Error: no such file or variable"
             return
 
         page.page(self.shell.pycolorize(cont))
 
     def _rerun_pasted(self):
         """ Rerun a previously pasted command.
         """
         b = self.user_ns.get('pasted_block', None)
         if b is None:
             raise UsageError('No previous pasted block available')
         print "Re-executing '%s...' (%d chars)"% (b.split('\n',1)[0], len(b))
         exec b in self.user_ns
 
     def _get_pasted_lines(self, sentinel):
         """ Yield pasted lines until the user enters the given sentinel value.
         """
         from IPython.core import interactiveshell
         print "Pasting code; enter '%s' alone on the line to stop." % sentinel
         while True:
             l = interactiveshell.raw_input_original(':')
             if l == sentinel:
                 return
             else:
                 yield l
 
     def _strip_pasted_lines_for_code(self, raw_lines):
         """ Strip non-code parts of a sequence of lines to return a block of
         code.
         """
         # Regular expressions that declare text we strip from the input:
         strip_re =  [r'^\s*In \[\d+\]:', # IPython input prompt
                      r'^\s*(\s?>)+', # Python input prompt
                      r'^\s*\.{3,}', # Continuation prompts
                      r'^\++',
                      ]
 
         strip_from_start = map(re.compile,strip_re)
         
         lines = []
         for l in raw_lines:
             for pat in strip_from_start: 
                 l = pat.sub('',l)
             lines.append(l)
                          
         block = "\n".join(lines) + '\n'
         #print "block:\n",block
         return block
 
     def _execute_block(self, block, par):
         """ Execute a block, or store it in a variable, per the user's request.
         """
         if not par:
             b = textwrap.dedent(block)
             self.user_ns['pasted_block'] = b
             exec b in self.user_ns
         else:
             self.user_ns[par] = SList(block.splitlines())
             print "Block assigned to '%s'" % par
 
     def magic_cpaste(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Allows you to paste & execute a pre-formatted code block from clipboard.
         
         You must terminate the block with '--' (two minus-signs) alone on the
         line. You can also provide your own sentinel with '%paste -s %%' ('%%' 
         is the new sentinel for this operation)
         
         The block is dedented prior to execution to enable execution of method
         definitions. '>' and '+' characters at the beginning of a line are
         ignored, to allow pasting directly from e-mails, diff files and
         doctests (the '...' continuation prompt is also stripped).  The
         executed block is also assigned to variable named 'pasted_block' for
         later editing with '%edit pasted_block'.
         
         You can also pass a variable name as an argument, e.g. '%cpaste foo'.
         This assigns the pasted block to variable 'foo' as string, without 
         dedenting or executing it (preceding >>> and + is still stripped)
         
         '%cpaste -r' re-executes the block previously entered by cpaste.
         
         Do not be alarmed by garbled output on Windows (it's a readline bug). 
         Just press enter and type -- (and press enter again) and the block 
         will be what was just pasted.
         
         IPython statements (magics, shell escapes) are not supported (yet).
 
         See also
         --------
         paste: automatically pull code from clipboard.
         """
         
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'rs:',mode='string')
         par = args.strip()
         if opts.has_key('r'):
             self._rerun_pasted()
             return
         
         sentinel = opts.get('s','--')
 
         block = self._strip_pasted_lines_for_code(
             self._get_pasted_lines(sentinel))
 
         self._execute_block(block, par)
 
     def magic_paste(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Allows you to paste & execute a pre-formatted code block from clipboard.
         
         The text is pulled directly from the clipboard without user
         intervention and printed back on the screen before execution (unless
         the -q flag is given to force quiet mode).
 
         The block is dedented prior to execution to enable execution of method
         definitions. '>' and '+' characters at the beginning of a line are
         ignored, to allow pasting directly from e-mails, diff files and
         doctests (the '...' continuation prompt is also stripped).  The
         executed block is also assigned to variable named 'pasted_block' for
         later editing with '%edit pasted_block'.
         
         You can also pass a variable name as an argument, e.g. '%paste foo'.
         This assigns the pasted block to variable 'foo' as string, without 
         dedenting or executing it (preceding >>> and + is still stripped)
 
         Options
         -------
         
           -r: re-executes the block previously entered by cpaste.
 
           -q: quiet mode: do not echo the pasted text back to the terminal.
         
         IPython statements (magics, shell escapes) are not supported (yet).
 
         See also
         --------
         cpaste: manually paste code into terminal until you mark its end.
         """
         opts,args = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'rq',mode='string')
         par = args.strip()
         if opts.has_key('r'):
             self._rerun_pasted()
             return
 
         text = self.shell.hooks.clipboard_get()
         block = self._strip_pasted_lines_for_code(text.splitlines())
 
         # By default, echo back to terminal unless quiet mode is requested
         if not opts.has_key('q'):
             write = self.shell.write
             write(self.shell.pycolorize(block))
             if not block.endswith('\n'):
                 write('\n')
             write("## -- End pasted text --\n")
             
         self._execute_block(block, par)
 
     def magic_quickref(self,arg):
         """ Show a quick reference sheet """
         import IPython.core.usage
         qr = IPython.core.usage.quick_reference + self.magic_magic('-brief')
         
         page.page(qr)
 
     def magic_doctest_mode(self,parameter_s=''):
         """Toggle doctest mode on and off.
 
         This mode allows you to toggle the prompt behavior between normal
         IPython prompts and ones that are as similar to the default IPython
         interpreter as possible.
 
         It also supports the pasting of code snippets that have leading '>>>'
         and '...' prompts in them.  This means that you can paste doctests from
         files or docstrings (even if they have leading whitespace), and the
         code will execute correctly.  You can then use '%history -tn' to see
         the translated history without line numbers; this will give you the
         input after removal of all the leading prompts and whitespace, which
         can be pasted back into an editor.
 
         With these features, you can switch into this mode easily whenever you
         need to do testing and changes to doctests, without having to leave
         your existing IPython session.
         """
 
         from IPython.utils.ipstruct import Struct
 
         # Shorthands
         shell = self.shell
         oc = shell.displayhook
         meta = shell.meta
         # dstore is a data store kept in the instance metadata bag to track any
         # changes we make, so we can undo them later.
         dstore = meta.setdefault('doctest_mode',Struct())
         save_dstore = dstore.setdefault
 
         # save a few values we'll need to recover later
         mode = save_dstore('mode',False)
         save_dstore('rc_pprint',shell.pprint)
         save_dstore('xmode',shell.InteractiveTB.mode)
         save_dstore('rc_separate_out',shell.separate_out)
         save_dstore('rc_separate_out2',shell.separate_out2)
         save_dstore('rc_prompts_pad_left',shell.prompts_pad_left)
         save_dstore('rc_separate_in',shell.separate_in)
 
         if mode == False:
             # turn on
             oc.prompt1.p_template = '>>> '
             oc.prompt2.p_template = '... '
             oc.prompt_out.p_template = ''
 
             # Prompt separators like plain python
             oc.input_sep = oc.prompt1.sep = ''
             oc.output_sep = ''
             oc.output_sep2 = ''
 
             oc.prompt1.pad_left = oc.prompt2.pad_left = \
                                   oc.prompt_out.pad_left = False
 
             shell.pprint = False
             
             shell.magic_xmode('Plain')
 
         else:
             # turn off
             oc.prompt1.p_template = shell.prompt_in1
             oc.prompt2.p_template = shell.prompt_in2
             oc.prompt_out.p_template = shell.prompt_out
 
             oc.input_sep = oc.prompt1.sep = dstore.rc_separate_in
 
             oc.output_sep = dstore.rc_separate_out
             oc.output_sep2 = dstore.rc_separate_out2
 
             oc.prompt1.pad_left = oc.prompt2.pad_left = \
                          oc.prompt_out.pad_left = dstore.rc_prompts_pad_left
 
             shell.pprint = dstore.rc_pprint
 
             shell.magic_xmode(dstore.xmode)
 
         # Store new mode and inform
         dstore.mode = bool(1-int(mode))
         print 'Doctest mode is:',
         print ['OFF','ON'][dstore.mode]
 
     def magic_gui(self, parameter_s=''):
         """Enable or disable IPython GUI event loop integration.
 
         %gui [-a] [GUINAME]
 
         This magic replaces IPython's threaded shells that were activated
         using the (pylab/wthread/etc.) command line flags.  GUI toolkits
         can now be enabled, disabled and swtiched at runtime and keyboard
         interrupts should work without any problems.  The following toolkits
         are supported:  wxPython, PyQt4, PyGTK, and Tk::
 
             %gui wx      # enable wxPython event loop integration
             %gui qt4|qt  # enable PyQt4 event loop integration
             %gui gtk     # enable PyGTK event loop integration
             %gui tk      # enable Tk event loop integration
             %gui         # disable all event loop integration
 
         WARNING:  after any of these has been called you can simply create
         an application object, but DO NOT start the event loop yourself, as
         we have already handled that.
 
         If you want us to create an appropriate application object add the
         "-a" flag to your command::
 
             %gui -a wx
 
         This is highly recommended for most users.
         """
         opts, arg = self.parse_options(parameter_s,'a')
         if arg=='': arg = None
         return enable_gui(arg, 'a' in opts)
 
     def magic_load_ext(self, module_str):
         """Load an IPython extension by its module name."""
         return self.extension_manager.load_extension(module_str)
 
     def magic_unload_ext(self, module_str):
         """Unload an IPython extension by its module name."""
         self.extension_manager.unload_extension(module_str)
 
     def magic_reload_ext(self, module_str):
         """Reload an IPython extension by its module name."""
         self.extension_manager.reload_extension(module_str)
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_install_profiles(self, s):
         """Install the default IPython profiles into the .ipython dir.
 
         If the default profiles have already been installed, they will not
         be overwritten. You can force overwriting them by using the ``-o``
         option::
 
             In [1]: %install_profiles -o
         """
         if '-o' in s:
             overwrite = True
         else:
             overwrite = False
         from IPython.config import profile
         profile_dir = os.path.split(profile.__file__)[0]
         ipython_dir = self.ipython_dir
         files = os.listdir(profile_dir)
 
         to_install = []
         for f in files:
             if f.startswith('ipython_config'):
                 src = os.path.join(profile_dir, f)
                 dst = os.path.join(ipython_dir, f)
                 if (not os.path.isfile(dst)) or overwrite:
                     to_install.append((f, src, dst))
         if len(to_install)>0:
             print "Installing profiles to: ", ipython_dir
             for (f, src, dst) in to_install:
                 shutil.copy(src, dst)
                 print "    %s" % f
 
     def magic_install_default_config(self, s):
         """Install IPython's default config file into the .ipython dir.
 
         If the default config file (:file:`ipython_config.py`) is already
         installed, it will not be overwritten. You can force overwriting
         by using the ``-o`` option::
 
             In [1]: %install_default_config
         """
         if '-o' in s:
             overwrite = True
         else:
             overwrite = False
         from IPython.config import default
         config_dir = os.path.split(default.__file__)[0]
         ipython_dir = self.ipython_dir
         default_config_file_name = 'ipython_config.py'
         src = os.path.join(config_dir, default_config_file_name)
         dst = os.path.join(ipython_dir, default_config_file_name)
         if (not os.path.isfile(dst)) or overwrite:
             shutil.copy(src, dst)
             print "Installing default config file: %s" % dst
 
     # Pylab support: simple wrappers that activate pylab, load gui input
     # handling and modify slightly %run
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def _pylab_magic_run(self, parameter_s=''):
         Magic.magic_run(self, parameter_s,
                         runner=mpl_runner(self.shell.safe_execfile))
 
     _pylab_magic_run.__doc__ = magic_run.__doc__
 
     @testdec.skip_doctest
     def magic_pylab(self, s):
         """Load numpy and matplotlib to work interactively.
 
         %pylab [GUINAME]
 
         This function lets you activate pylab (matplotlib, numpy and
         interactive support) at any point during an IPython session.
 
         It will import at the top level numpy as np, pyplot as plt, matplotlib,
         pylab and mlab, as well as all names from numpy and pylab.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
         guiname : optional
           One of the valid arguments to the %gui magic ('qt', 'wx', 'gtk' or
           'tk').  If given, the corresponding Matplotlib backend is used,
           otherwise matplotlib's default (which you can override in your
           matplotlib config file) is used.
 
         Examples
         --------
         In this case, where the MPL default is TkAgg:
         In [2]: %pylab
 
         Welcome to pylab, a matplotlib-based Python environment.
         Backend in use: TkAgg
         For more information, type 'help(pylab)'.
 
         But you can explicitly request a different backend:
         In [3]: %pylab qt
 
         Welcome to pylab, a matplotlib-based Python environment.
         Backend in use: Qt4Agg
         For more information, type 'help(pylab)'.
         """
         self.shell.enable_pylab(s)
 
     def magic_tb(self, s):
         """Print the last traceback with the currently active exception mode.
 
         See %xmode for changing exception reporting modes."""
         self.shell.showtraceback()
 
 # end Magic