.. _parallel_details: ========================================== Details of Parallel Computing with IPython ========================================== .. note:: There are still many sections to fill out Caveats ======= First, some caveats about the detailed workings of parallel computing with 0MQ and IPython. Non-copying sends and numpy arrays ---------------------------------- When numpy arrays are passed as arguments to apply or via data-movement methods, they are not copied. This means that you must be careful if you are sending an array that you intend to work on. PyZMQ does allow you to track when a message has been sent so you can know when it is safe to edit the buffer, but IPython only allows for this. It is also important to note that the non-copying receive of a message is *read-only*. That means that if you intend to work in-place on an array that you have sent or received, you must copy it. This is true for both numpy arrays sent to engines and numpy arrays retrieved as results. The following will fail: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [3]: A = numpy.zeros(2) In [4]: def setter(a): ...: a[0]=1 ...: return a In [5]: rc[0].apply_sync(setter, A) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- RemoteError Traceback (most recent call last) ... RemoteError: RuntimeError(array is not writeable) Traceback (most recent call last): File "/Users/minrk/dev/ip/mine/IPython/zmq/parallel/streamkernel.py", line 329, in apply_request exec code in working, working File "", line 1, in File "", line 2, in setter RuntimeError: array is not writeable If you do need to edit the array in-place, just remember to copy the array if it's read-only. The :attr:`ndarray.flags.writeable` flag will tell you if you can write to an array. .. sourcecode:: ipython In [3]: A = numpy.zeros(2) In [4]: def setter(a): ...: """only copy read-only arrays""" ...: if not a.flags.writeable: ...: a=a.copy() ...: a[0]=1 ...: return a In [5]: rc[0].apply_sync(setter, A) Out[5]: array([ 1., 0.]) # note that results will also be read-only: In [6]: _.flags.writeable Out[6]: False If you want to safely edit an array in-place after *sending* it, you must use the `track=True` flag. IPython always performs non-copying sends of arrays, which return immediately. You must instruct IPython track those messages *at send time* in order to know for sure that the send has completed. AsyncResults have a :attr:`sent` property, and :meth:`wait_on_send` method for checking and waiting for 0MQ to finish with a buffer. .. sourcecode:: ipython In [5]: A = numpy.random.random((1024,1024)) In [6]: view.track=True In [7]: ar = view.apply_async(lambda x: 2*x, A) In [8]: ar.sent Out[8]: False In [9]: ar.wait_on_send() # blocks until sent is True What is sendable? ----------------- If IPython doesn't know what to do with an object, it will pickle it. There is a short list of objects that are not pickled: ``buffers``, ``str/bytes`` objects, and ``numpy`` arrays. These are handled specially by IPython in order to prevent the copying of data. Sending bytes or numpy arrays will result in exactly zero in-memory copies of your data (unless the data is very small). If you have an object that provides a Python buffer interface, then you can always send that buffer without copying - and reconstruct the object on the other side in your own code. It is possible that the object reconstruction will become extensible, so you can add your own non-copying types, but this does not yet exist. Closures ******** Just about anything in Python is pickleable. The one notable exception is objects (generally functions) with *closures*. Closures can be a complicated topic, but the basic principal is that functions that refer to variables in their parent scope have closures. An example of a function that uses a closure: .. sourcecode:: python def f(a): def inner(): # inner will have a closure return a return echo f1 = f(1) f2 = f(2) f1() # returns 1 f2() # returns 2 f1 and f2 will have closures referring to the scope in which `inner` was defined, because they use the variable 'a'. As a result, you would not be able to send ``f1`` or ``f2`` with IPython. Note that you *would* be able to send `f`. This is only true for interactively defined functions (as are often used in decorators), and only when there are variables used inside the inner function, that are defined in the outer function. If the names are *not* in the outer function, then there will not be a closure, and the generated function will look in ``globals()`` for the name: .. sourcecode:: python def g(b): # note that `b` is not referenced in inner's scope def inner(): # this inner will *not* have a closure return a return echo g1 = g(1) g2 = g(2) g1() # raises NameError on 'a' a=5 g2() # returns 5 `g1` and `g2` *will* be sendable with IPython, and will treat the engine's namespace as globals(). The :meth:`pull` method is implemented based on this principal. If we did not provide pull, you could implement it yourself with `apply`, by simply returning objects out of the global namespace: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [10]: view.apply(lambda : a) # is equivalent to In [11]: view.pull('a') Running Code ============ There are two principal units of execution in Python: strings of Python code (e.g. 'a=5'), and Python functions. IPython is designed around the use of functions via the core Client method, called `apply`. Apply ----- The principal method of remote execution is :meth:`apply`, of View objects. The Client provides the full execution and communication API for engines via its low-level :meth:`send_apply_message` method. f : function The fuction to be called remotely args : tuple/list The positional arguments passed to `f` kwargs : dict The keyword arguments passed to `f` block : bool (default: self.block) Whether to wait for the result, or return immediately. False: returns AsyncResult True: returns actual result(s) of f(*args, **kwargs) if multiple targets: list of results, matching `targets` track : bool whether to track non-copying sends. [default False] targets : int,list of ints, 'all', None Specify the destination of the job. if None: Submit via Task queue for load-balancing. if 'all': Run on all active engines if list: Run on each specified engine if int: Run on single engine Not eht balanced : bool, default None whether to load-balance. This will default to True if targets is unspecified, or False if targets is specified. If `balanced` and `targets` are both specified, the task will be assigne to *one* of the targets by the scheduler. after : Dependency or collection of msg_ids Only for load-balanced execution (targets=None) Specify a list of msg_ids as a time-based dependency. This job will only be run *after* the dependencies have been met. follow : Dependency or collection of msg_ids Only for load-balanced execution (targets=None) Specify a list of msg_ids as a location-based dependency. This job will only be run on an engine where this dependency is met. timeout : float/int or None Only for load-balanced execution (targets=None) Specify an amount of time (in seconds) for the scheduler to wait for dependencies to be met before failing with a DependencyTimeout. execute and run --------------- For executing strings of Python code, :class:`DirectView`s also provide an :meth:`execute` and a :meth:`run` method, which rather than take functions and arguments, take simple strings. `execute` simply takes a string of Python code to execute, and sends it to the Engine(s). `run` is the same as `execute`, but for a *file*, rather than a string. It is simply a wrapper that does something very similar to ``execute(open(f).read())``. .. note:: TODO: Example Views ===== The principal extension of the :class:`~parallel.client.Client` is the :class:`~parallel.view.View` class. The client Two of apply's keyword arguments are set at the construction of the View, and are immutable for a given View: `balanced` and `targets`. `balanced` determines whether the View will be a :class:`.LoadBalancedView` or a :class:`.DirectView`, and `targets` will be the View's `targets` attribute. Attempts to change this will raise errors. Views are cached by targets/class, so requesting a view multiple times will always return the *same object*, not create a new one: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [3]: v1 = rc.load_balanced_view([1,2,3]) In [4]: v2 = rc.load_balanced_view([1,2,3]) In [5]: v2 is v1 Out[5]: True DirectView ---------- The :class:`.DirectView` is the class for the IPython :ref:`Multiplexing Interface `. Creating a DirectView ********************* DirectViews can be created in two ways, by index access to a client, or by a client's :meth:`view` method. Index access to a Client works in a few ways. First, you can create DirectViews to single engines simply by accessing the client by engine id: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [2]: rc[0] Out[2]: You can also create a DirectView with a list of engines: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [2]: rc[0,1,2] Out[2]: Other methods for accessing elements, such as slicing and negative indexing, work by passing the index directly to the client's :attr:`ids` list, so: .. sourcecode:: ipython # negative index In [2]: rc[-1] Out[2]: # or slicing: In [3]: rc[::2] Out[3]: are always the same as: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [2]: rc[rc.ids[-1]] Out[2]: In [3]: rc[rc.ids[::2]] Out[3]: Also note that the slice is evaluated at the time of construction of the DirectView, so the targets will not change over time if engines are added/removed from the cluster. Requesting two views with the same slice at different times will *not* necessarily return the same View if the number of engines has changed. Execution via DirectView ************************ The DirectView is the simplest way to work with one or more engines directly (hence the name). Data movement via DirectView **************************** Since a Python namespace is just a :class:`dict`, :class:`DirectView` objects provide dictionary-style access by key and methods such as :meth:`get` and :meth:`update` for convenience. This make the remote namespaces of the engines appear as a local dictionary. Underneath, these methods call :meth:`apply`: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [51]: dview['a']=['foo','bar'] In [52]: dview['a'] Out[52]: [ ['foo', 'bar'], ['foo', 'bar'], ['foo', 'bar'], ['foo', 'bar'] ] Scatter and gather ------------------ Sometimes it is useful to partition a sequence and push the partitions to different engines. In MPI language, this is know as scatter/gather and we follow that terminology. However, it is important to remember that in IPython's :class:`Client` class, :meth:`scatter` is from the interactive IPython session to the engines and :meth:`gather` is from the engines back to the interactive IPython session. For scatter/gather operations between engines, MPI should be used: .. sourcecode:: ipython In [58]: dview.scatter('a',range(16)) Out[58]: [None,None,None,None] In [59]: dview['a'] Out[59]: [ [0, 1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6, 7], [8, 9, 10, 11], [12, 13, 14, 15] ] In [60]: dview.gather('a') Out[60]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15] LoadBalancedView ---------------- The :class:`.LoadBalancedView` Data Movement ============= push pull Reference Results ======= AsyncResults are the primary class get_result results,metadata Querying the Hub ================ The Hub sees all traffic that may pass through the schedulers between engines and clients. It does this so that it can track state, allowing multiple clients to retrieve results of computations submitted by their peers, as well as persisting the state to a database. queue_status You can check the status of the queues of the engines with this command. result_status purge_results Controlling the Engines ======================= There are a few actions you can do with Engines that do not involve execution. These messages are sent via the Control socket, and bypass any long queues of waiting execution jobs abort Sometimes you may want to prevent a job you have submitted from actually running. The method for this is :meth:`abort`. It takes a container of msg_ids, and instructs the Engines to not run the jobs if they arrive. The jobs will then fail with an AbortedTask error. clear You may want to purge the Engine(s) namespace of any data you have left in it. After running `clear`, there will be no names in the Engine's namespace shutdown You can also instruct engines (and the Controller) to terminate from a Client. This can be useful when a job is finished, since you can shutdown all the processes with a single command. Synchronization =============== Since the Client is a synchronous object, events do not automatically trigger in your interactive session - you must poll the 0MQ sockets for incoming messages. Note that this polling *does not* actually make any network requests. It simply performs a `select` operation, to check if messages are already in local memory, waiting to be handled. The method that handles incoming messages is :meth:`spin`. This method flushes any waiting messages on the various incoming sockets, and updates the state of the Client. If you need to wait for particular results to finish, you can use the :meth:`wait` method, which will call :meth:`spin` until the messages are no longer outstanding. Anything that represents a collection of messages, such as a list of msg_ids or one or more AsyncResult objects, can be passed as argument to wait. A timeout can be specified, which will prevent the call from blocking for more than a specified time, but the default behavior is to wait forever. The client also has an `outstanding` attribute - a ``set`` of msg_ids that are awaiting replies. This is the default if wait is called with no arguments - i.e. wait on *all* outstanding messages. .. note:: TODO wait example Map === Many parallel computing problems can be expressed as a `map`, or running a single program with a variety of different inputs. Python has a built-in :py-func:`map`, which does exactly this, and many parallel execution tools in Python, such as the built-in :py-class:`multiprocessing.Pool` object provide implementations of `map`. All View objects provide a :meth:`map` method as well, but the load-balanced and direct implementations differ. Views' map methods can be called on any number of sequences, but they can also take the `block` and `bound` keyword arguments, just like :meth:`~client.apply`, but *only as keywords*. .. sourcecode:: python dview.map(*sequences, block=None) * iter, map_async, reduce Decorators and RemoteFunctions ============================== @parallel @remote RemoteFunction ParallelFunction Dependencies ============ @depend @require Dependency